Chapter 21: Economic Advance and Social

Unrest (1830�1850)

1 Jan 2007

By 1830, Britain had already industrialized but the Continent soon was too.The protests and creeds that supported and criticized the movement emerged.These were years of uncertainty; even the most con�dent businessmen knewthe trade cycle could quickly bankrupt them. For the proletariats and artisans,unemployment was a persistent reality. Peasants were uncertain about foodsupply. This period culminated with continental revolution in 1848. Peopleknew one mode of life was passing, but did not know what would replace it.

Contents

1 Toward an Industrial Society 2

1.1 Population and Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 Railways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 The Labor Force 4

2.1 The Emergence of a Wage-Labor Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.2 Working-Class Political Action: The Example of British Chartism 5

3 Family Structures and the Industrial Revolution 6

3.1 The Family in the Early Factory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.1.1 Concern for Child Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.1.2 Changing Economic Role for the Family . . . . . . . . . . 7

4 Women in the Early Industrial Revolution 7

4.1 Opportunities and Exploitation in Employment . . . . . . . . . . 74.1.1 Women in Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74.1.2 Work on the Land and in the Home . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4.2 Changing Expectations in the Working-Class Marriage . . . . . . 8

5 Problems of Crime and Order 9

5.1 New Police Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95.2 Prison Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

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6 Classical Economics 10

6.1 Malthus on Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106.2 Ricardo on Wages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116.3 Government Policies Based on Classical Economics . . . . . . . . 11

7 Early Socialism 12

7.1 Utopian Socialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127.1.1 Saint-Simonianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127.1.2 Owenism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137.1.3 Fourierism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

7.2 Anarchism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147.3 Marxism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

7.3.1 Partnership with Engels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157.3.2 Sources of Marx's Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157.3.3 Revolution Through Class Con�ict . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

8 1848: Year of Revolutions 17

8.1 Franec: The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon . . . . . . . . 178.1.1 The National Assemble and Paris Workers . . . . . . . . . 178.1.2 Emergence of Louis Napoleon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188.1.3 Frenchwomen in 1848 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

8.2 The Habsburg Empire: Nationalism Resisted. . . . . . . . . . . . 208.2.1 The Vienna Uprising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208.2.2 The Magyar Revolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208.2.3 Czech Nationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218.2.4 Rebellion in Northern Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

8.3 Italy: Republicanism Defeated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228.4 Germany: Liberalism Frustrated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

8.4.1 Revolution in Prussia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238.4.2 The Frankfurt Parliament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

9 In Perspective 24

1 Toward an Industrial Society

1. British industry produced greater quantity and quality of consumer goodsthan before known.

2. French Revolution/Napoleonic Wars destroyed French Atlantic Trade →disrupt continental economy.

3. Latin American independence → open markets to British.

4. North America demand British goods.

5. British textiles worldwide network.

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(a) American slaves for raw cotton (even though Britain try to end slavetrade since 1807).

(b) Textiles shipped by British-protected sea lines.

(c) Wealth invested everywhere, esp. US.

(d) Economic foundation for British supremacy.

6. 1830s�Belgium, France, Germany have steam engines. Coke replace char-coal.

7. Continent industry less concentrated.

(a) Urban pockets: Lyons, Rouen, Lille; Liege.

(b) Most manufacturing in countryside.

(c) Slow pace→ 1850, peasants/artisans more important politically thanproletariats.

1.1 Population and Migration

1. Continued 18th C population explosion. 1850, 12 British live in city; 1

4France, Germany town. E. Europe still agrarian.

2. Pressure on city resources. Infrastructure, food insu�cient.

(a) Slums, �lth, disease (esp. cholera).

(b) Crime increase�no other way to live.

3. Countryside just as bad. Enclosures, redistribution, serf emancipationcommercialized land. Peasants were conservative, not enough land to in-novate and often not enough to support.

(a) Germany, E. Europe, Russia: couldn't move freely to cities beforeemancipation.

(b) Austria 1848; Russia 1861.

(c) Even so, not simple. E. of Germany, very slow industrialization be-cause slow �ow of labor into city.

4. Bad harvests. Irish famine of 1845�7.

(a) 12 M Irish peasants no/little land starved.

(b) 100,000s migrated.

5. Revolution in landholding → greater productivity, uprooting of countrypeople into cities and Europe → rest of world.

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1.2 Railways

1. 1830s�40s railways England (1825, 30), Belgium (1835), France (1832,40s), Germany (1835).

2. More easily leave birthplace.

3. Cheaper, faster transport of raw materials and �nished goods.

4. Railways represent investment in capital goods at expense of consumer

goods. Shortage of cheap consumer goods.

5. Railways themselves increase demand for iron, steel, skilled labor.

(a) Metal capacity → ironclad ships, iron machinery.

(b) → Vast fortunes; investment into new industry. Industrialism grow

on itself.

2 The Labor Force

1. Varied composition/experience.

(a) Some paid well, steady employment.

(b) �Laboring poor� had jobs but subsistence wage.

i. Women & children in Wales mines, nearly naked, shocking con-ditions in 1840 Parliamentary report.

(c) Vary decade to decade, industry to industry.

2. Only textile industry fully mechanized, move to factory.

(a) Artisans far greater workforce. Maintain value of their skills andcontrol of trade.

3. Destruction of many traditional community social ties.

2.1 The Emergence of a Wage-Labor Force

1. Artisans and factory workers; proletarianization. Lose control of meansof productions and trade.

2. Factory or machinery (mechanical printing press) displace skilled labor.

3. Submit to discipline: honor machines' needs.

(a) Close gates and �nes to late workers;

(b) Dismissal for drunkeness;

(c) Public scolding of faulty laborers.

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4. Better than those who resisted factory. Hand-loomers screwed over.

5. Artisans enter factories slowly; machines no big part. Even prosper fromfactory: demand for metalworkers, carpenters, builders. Reduced rawmaterial costs of clothing makers. Threaten: guild system.

(a) 18th C: labor for master. Apprentice, journeyman.

(b) Master own workship and large equipment; others own their tools.

(c) Workers exercise lots of control of recruitment, training, pace, quality,price.

(d) Liberal thinkers hate guilds. Destroyed in French Revolution.

(e) Masters faced increased pressure from capitalized ventures/introductionof machine production.

(f) Confection: goods produce in standard sizes/styles, not special order.

i. Division of labor: each artisan produced a small part→ less skill.

ii. Masters lower wages. Pick up unskilled workers willing to workfor lower.

iii. Journeymen can't hope to be master. Became lifetime wage la-borers.

2.2 Working-Class Political Action: The Example of British

Chartism

1. Proud and frustrated artisans most radical. Chartism.

2. 1836 � William Lovett + radical artisans form London Working Men'sAssociation. 1838 Charter with 6:

(a) Universal male su�rage;

(b) Annual election of HoC;

(c) Secret ballot;

(d) Equal electoral districts;

(e) Abolish property quali�cation;

(f) Salary HoC members.

3. Loosely organized; little progress. Presented to Parliament, petitioned. . .

4. Northern Star�Chartist newspaper.

5. Feargus O'Connor�more important leader, orator.

6. Split between violence and nonviolence.

7. Locally, successful; controlled cities Leeds & She�eld.

8. Late 1840s, economy returned. People left.

9. Speci�c goals, large working-class leadership. Model for Continent. SomePoints became law.

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3 Family Structures and the Industrial Revolu-

tion

1. Di�cult to generalize�heterogenous everything, esp. Continent.

2. Many peasant families changed little in 19th. Little direct impact.

3. Know more about British; Britain foreshadow others.

3.1 The Family in the Early Factory System

1. Factories did not destroy working class family.

2. Machines brought into home: spinning jenny.

3. Mechanization of weaving took father out to factory. Separate home fromeconomic life.

4. Early factory, permit father to bring family as assistant�transfer tradi-tional family roles (parental training and discipline) into factory.

(a) Domestic system: wife earn as much or even more than husband.

(b) Factory, wife less skilled work → pay less.

5. Major shift: England 1820s�30: spinning and weaving under one roof, newmachines with unskilled workers.

(a) Unmarried women and children�lower wage, less likely to unionize.

(b) Skilled adult males high enough to sent children to school and getwife out.

(c) Factory children often children of poor hand loomer.

(d) Traditional family links in textiles broken.

3.1.1 Concern for Child Labor

1. English Factory Act of 1833 forbid child below 9.

(a) Limit workday of 9�13 to 9hrs/day.

(b) Require factory owner to pay 2hrs education/day.

(c) Thouroughly break parental link: education at school, not home.

2. 12hrs for adults and older teenagers.

3. British workers demand shorter workdays to spend time with children.

(a) 1847 10-hr workday. Allow together time: relationship as productionunit ceased.

4. Mid 1840s: establish men role as breadwinner.

5. New view that women in home, not even agrarian work.

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3.1.2 Changing Economic Role for the Family

1. Family unit from unit of production and consumption to only consump-

tion.

2. Depend of sharing wages from di�erent sources.

3. Less closely bound: children go away and remit. Move further away, breakeconomic link.

4. Family settle in industrial city → encourage children to stay home. Wageemployment, accumulate enough money to marry and start household.

4 Women in the Early Industrial Revolution

1. Took most productive work out of house; allow families to live o� father'swages.

2. Launched sharp gender roles. Children raised to conform.

(a) Women domestic duties, unskilled cottage industries.

(b) Men exclusively support family.

3. Previously spherical division only gentry and small upper middle class.19th C, working class.

4.1 Opportunities and Exploitation in Employment

1. Factory spinning: men displace women.

2. First generation of machines: high male cotton-factory wages allow manymarried women not to work/work in supplement.

4.1.1 Women in Factories

1. 1820s�second generation of machines, umarried women majority of work-ers.

2. Less skill than men or home in previous era.

3. Marry → male enough money to get woman out of factory or owner kickthem out (married women pregnant, in�uenced by husbands, home du-ties).

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4.1.2 Work on the Land and in the Home

1. At 1850, majority of women still work on land.

2. England: domestic servants.

3. Cottage industry: lace making, glove making, garment making, needle-work. Low wages, low skills, no protection from exploitation.

4. Charwoman�hired on daily basis to clean or wash�plight of workingwomen.

5. Prostitution/exploitation not new, but economic transformation exacer-bate and made women especially vulnerable.

4.2 Changing Expectations in theWorking-Class Marriage

1. City: wider marriage opportunity, more premarital cohabitation, less parentalrole.

2. Mean: women stop working, live o� husband. May improve situation, butif husband ill or died, must reenter unskilled labor at old age.

3. Early occupation: domestic service, like before.

4. Factory: supervised dormitory. Convinced parents daughters safe.

5. City life more precarious. Fewer family/community ties.

6. Men more mobile (no longer apprenticeship). Fleeting relationships; ille-gitimate births; less likelihood of marriage after birth.

7. Marriage not economic partnership.

(a) Wage economy di�cult to combine economic and family work.

(b) Usually only work in nonindustrial sector.

(c) Children, not wife sent to work. Births economic asset.

(d) Work outside home only when needed.

8. Domestic duties essential to family wage economy.

(a) Homemaking: home life organized separately from work life.

(b) Wife in charge of �nances.

(c) Longer period of home life for working children strengthen familialbonds.

(d) Working class imitate upper class separate spheres of Rosseau andpopular culture.

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5 Problems of Crime and Order

1. Elite concerned about order. Early revolutions make them paranoid ofthreat to life and property.

2. Industrialization increase crime. City associated with crime, esp. againstproperty.

3. Crime rate increased steadily from 1800�60, but plateaued. Nobody knowswhy; question di�cult to research.

5.1 New Police Forces

1. Elites want better police and prison reform.

2. Paid, professional law-enforcement protect, investigate, apprehend.

3. Deterrence: visibility of police reduce crime.

4. In theory, no political role but practice often ignored.

5. One or largest groups of municipal employees.

6. Did not exist until early 19th C.

7. 1828�Paris.

8. 1829�Britain, bill sponsored by Sir Robert Peel. Known as bobbies, Peel-ers.

9. 1848�Berlin, after revolution.

10. Guns on continent, not Britain.

11. Early, suspicious, esp. Britain: threaten traditional liberties. But at endof century, most people regard as protector.

12. Upper/middle class feel property secure. Working class feel lives and prop-erty secure and went to police for aid in emergency.

5.2 Prison Reform

1. Before 19th, local jail, state prison, prison ship (hulks).

2. Wretched conditions; men, women, children housed together. Minor of-fenses housed with serious.

3. British: most serious transportation New South Wales in Austrailia.Alternative to execution. Until mid-19th, when colonies began objecting.

4. Long-term prisoners in public works prisons.

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5. John Howard, Elizabeth Fry in England; Charles Lucas in France exposehorrendous conditions. Demand change. Reform slow, because expenseand lack of sympathy.

6. 1840s�bold reforms. See crime as character �aw → rehabilitate. Repres-sive systems according to cutting edge science. Followed US models.

(a) Aubrun system after Auburn prison in New York. Separate duringnight; associate while working during day.

(b) Philadephia system separate always.

(c) Individual cell, long periods of separation and silence. Esp. Pen-tonville Prison near London: never allowed to see or speak to anotherprisoner.

i. Serious self-re�ection and repudiation.

ii. Relaxed later�intense isolation → mental collapse.

(d) France repressive; follow Pentonville and policy of isolation. Sup-posed to be trained in a trade in prison.

i. Recedivism → French transportation sharply increase in 1885:Devil's Island o� South America. Purge nation.

7. On balance, successful. Orderly society.

6 Classical Economics

1. Smith's domination; laissez-faire; mechanism of marketplace.

2. Most government action mischievous and corrupt. Government maintainsound currency, enforce contracts, protect property, low taxes and tari�s,leave economy to private. Assume enough army/navy to protect economicstructure.

3. Appeal to middle class: thrift, competition, personal industriousness.

6.1 Malthus on Population

1. Complicated, pessimistic ideas about working class.

2. Nothing can improve working class.

3. 1798 Essay on the Principle of Population haunted world ever since.

4. Population grow geometrically; food arithmetic.

5. Avert: late marriage, chastity, contraception (regarded as vice; took 75years to be socially acceptable).

6. More money → more children → vicious cycle.

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7. Later in life, suggested if working class be persuaded to adopt higherstandard of living, spend money on goods, not children.

6.2 Ricardo on Wages

1. 1817 Principles of Political Economy Malthus → �iron law of wages.�

2. Raise wage → more children → expand labor market → lower wage →fewer children → raise wages.

3. Wages tend to minimum.

4. Press spread ideas to public in 1830s.

6.3 Government Policies Based on Classical Economics

1. Working class resented economists; government embraced them.

2. Louis Philippe and François Guizot told French to get themselves rich.Work → won't be poor. Middle class did that.

(a) July Monarchy (1830�48): many capital-intensive projects: raods,canals, railways.

(b) Little done about poverty.

3. Germany, less classical economics in�uence because of enlightened abso-lutists' tradition.

(a) Zollverein�free trade union of major German states excluding Rus-sia in 1834.

(b) Friedrich List argue for state direction of economic growth.

4. Britain home to and widely accepted economists.

(a) Bentham popularize utilitarianism. Sought to create scienti�c lawbased on utility.

i. 1776 Fragment on Government

ii. 1789 The Principles of Morals and Legislation�apply utility toovercome irrational special interests of privileged groups. Exist-ing legal system burdened with tradition that harm people lawshould serve. Apply utility to clear up clutter.

(b) Increased in�uence of classical economics. Many in�uential followers.

i. 1834 reformed HoC pass Poor Law his followers prepared.

ii. Stigmatized poverty; made it the worst thing. Poor relief only inworkhouses. Life in workhouse consciously worse than outside:bad food, demeaning work, separate husband and wife.

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iii. Presuppose people no work because they lazy.

iv. Working class called workhouses new bastilles.

(c) 1846 repeal of Corn Laws. Anti-Corn Law League organized by man-ufacturers seek for 6 years.

i. Abolish tari� → cheaper food → allow lower wages.

ii. Also, manufactuered good prices increase to strengthen compet-itiveness.

iii. Actual reason of repeal was Irish famine. Had to open ports tofeed Irish and realized Corn Laws could not be reimposed.

iv. Accompanied with measure to modernize and increase e�ciencyof British agriculture.

7 Early Socialism

1. 19th C, socialism advocates lacked meaningful following and doctrinesconfusing to contemporaries.

2. Early ideas appear on European margins; came to assume great impor-tance.

3. Applaud productivity of industrialism but deny capitalism's ability to dis-tribute goods.

4. Capitalism: mismanagement, low wage, misdistribution, su�ering.

5. Society as community, not conglomerate of sel�sh individuals.

7.1 Utopian Socialism

1. Utopian: visionary ideas, advocate creation of ideal communities.

2. Socialist: question values of capitalism.

3. Discussion/practice of radical ideas of sexuality and family. People sym-pathetic to economy ideas were not sympathetic to free love and openfamily.

7.1.1 Saint-Simonianism

1. Count Claude Henri de Saint-Simon�earliest socialist pioneer; young lib-eral French aristocrat.

(a) Fought in American Revolution; welcomed French Revolution�madeand lost a fortune.

(b) Napoleonic time: career of writing, social criticism.

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2. Rational management�private wealth and enterprise administered by some-one other than owner. Ideological factor of technocracy.

3. Management of wealth by experts, not redistribution.

4. Persuaded few, but Saint-Simon centers lively places of discourse.

(a) Earliest debates of feminism.

(b) Advocate extramarital sex.

(c) Many disciples became French railway industry leaders.

7.1.2 Owenism

1. Robert Own, self-made cotton manufacturer.

2. Believed Lockean environment psychology: change environment→ changecharacter.

3. No incompatability between humane workplace and pro�t.

4. New Lanark�ideas to practice. Good quarters for workers, recreationalfacilities, education for children, churches. Rewards for good work. Prof-itable. Visitors from all over Europe wanted to see his enlightened man-agement.

5. Pleaded for reorganization based on his model.

6. Sold New Lanark; went to States to establish New Harmony, Indiana.Failed due to arguments between members.

7. Return to Britain; promote Grand National Union�federalize all Britishtrade unions. Collapsed with all other labor organizatiosn in 1830s.

7.1.3 Fourierism

1. Charles Fourier, French intellectual counterpart to Owens. Never at-tracted same kind of attention.

2. Wrote books and articles; waited for a patron but none came.

3. Industrial order ignore passions of humans; social discipline crush normal

pleasures.

4. Phalanxes�communities, liberated living replace dull industry.

(a) Agrarian, not industrial.

(b) Free sex, late marriage.

(c) Rotate tasks. Happier and more productive.

5. Boremdom�isolated a key di�culty of modern economic life.

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6. Saint-Simon, Owen, Fourier expected existing government to execute trans-formation. Didn't see political problems.

7. Others pay more attention to politics: 1837 The Organization of Labor byLouis Blanc.

(a) End competition, not new society�push political reform that giveworking class vote.

(b) Empowered to turn politics to their advantage.

(c) In time, workshops replace private enterprise, industry organize toensure jobs.

(d) Recognized power of state of improve lives of poor.

7.2 Anarchism

1. Reject industry and government dominance. Do not exactly �t in social-ists. . .

2. Both violence and non-violence advocated.

3. Auguste Blanqui (1805�81) favor terror; spent most of adult life in jail.

(a) Professional revolutionary vanguard to attack capitalist society.

(b) Foreshadow Lenin.

4. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809�65) favor peace.

(a) 1840 What is Property attack banking system�rarely extend creditto small-property owners or poor.

(b) Expand credit to allow these people to engage in legitimate enter-prise.

(c) Mutualism: small businesses, cooperative enterprises with peacefulcooperation. Exchange goods based on mutual recognition of re-quired labor.

(d) State as protector of labor unnecessary.

(e) Favor community of individual, essential fairness in exchange.

(f) In�uenced French labor movement.

7.3 Marxism

1. Permeate to major continental socialist parties.

2. Dominate SU after 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, E. Europe, revolutionarymovements in (post-)colonial world.

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3. Not linear path with triump of Marxism. Had to compete with othersocialist ideas.

4. Marxism di�ered:

(a) Claim to scienti�c accuracy;

(b) Reject reform;

(c) Call to revolution, though character of revolution not well de�ned.

(d) Put proletariats in context of world historical development.

5. Karl Marx (1818�83) born in Prussian Rhineland. Jewish but father con-vert to Lutheranism. Judaism no impact.

6. University of Berlin�involved in Hegelian philosophy, raidical politics.

(a) 1842, 3 edited radical Rhineland Gazatte.

(b) Prussian authorities kicked him out.

(c) Exile in Paris, Brussels, London.

7.3.1 Partnership with Engels

1. Friedrich Engels�young middle class German; father own textile factoryin Manchester.

2. 1845�Engels publish The Condition of the Working Class in England�devastating picture of industrial life.

3. 1847�asked to write pamphlet for new and short-lived secret CommunistLeague.

4. 1848�The Communist Manifesto. Communist more self-consciously radi-cal than socialist: abolition of private property, not rearrangement. Merelya political tract at time of publication.

5. Marx had no impact on 1848 revolutions.

7.3.2 Sources of Marx's Ideas

1. German Hegelianism, French utopian socialism, British classical economics.

2. Apply Hege's clash of thesis/antithesis to concrete historical, social, eco-nomic developments.

3. Con�ict between dominant and subordinate groups lead to emergence ofnew dominant group. Repeat.

4. French utopian socialists raise issue to redistribution and problems of cap-italist society.

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5. Economics produce analytical tools of scienti�c examination of capitalistsociety.

6. Put new industrial work force as single most important force of contem-porary history:

(a) Existence of classes attributed to phase in development of production;

(b) Class struggle necessarily leads to dictatorship of proletariat;

(c) Dictatorship transitory; lead to classless society.

7. Equate fate of proletariats with fate of humanity.

(a) Proletariat liberation from capitalist bondage amount to human eman-cipation.

(b) This drew him support despite failure of his predictions materializing.

7.3.3 Revolution Through Class Con�ict

1. History is record of mankind's struggle to produce goods necessary forsurvival.

2. Basic productive process determines structure and values of society.

3. Historically, always con�ict between owners of means of production andsubordinates.

4. Necessary con�ict is engine for development�not accidental byproduct.Piecemeal reforms cannot eliminate inherent evils.

5. Capitalism makes radical transformation inevitable.

6. Class struggle simpli�ed to bourgeoisie and proletariat.

7. Character of capitalism sharpen struggle: steadily increase in proletariatranks. Competition squeeze out smaller bourgeoisie. Competition amongremaining giants lead to intense oppression. Finally, revolution.

8. Workers organize means of production on proletariat dictatorship, even-tually giving way to propertyless and classless communist society.

9. Di�er from past: culmination of proletariat and bourgeoisie is new society.Victorious proletariat by its nature could be not an oppressor.

10. 1840s condition Marx's analysis�much unemployment and deprivation.

11. Later, capitalism did not collapse�middle class not proletarianized. In-dustry bene�ted more and more.

12. Nevertheless, Marxism capture imaginations of socialists and workers. Ap-peared to be based empirically. Scienti�c claim garnered appeal. At core,attraction was utopian vision of human liberation.

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8 1848: Year of Revolutions

1. Series of liberal and nationalist revolutions across Continent. No singlefactor; similar conditions everywhere.

2. Not working class; bourgeoisie liberals.

3. Repeal of Corn Laws, peaceful Anti-Corn Law League encourage.

4. Appeal to working class, but ideals contradicted�working class didn'twant liberal government. Shook order, then allies �ght.

5. Nationalism powerful factor outside France. Austria most endangered.

6. Stunning: never before so many uprising in one year.

7. False: failed to establish genuinely liberal or national states. Conservativeorder stronger than anyone expected.

8. Liberal activists discover no longer could push reform w/o social reform.Isolate selves from working class → easy prey for reactionary armies.

8.1 Franec: The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon

Opponents of corrupt Louis Philippe and Guizot organize banquets.

1. Criticze government; demand admission for them and bourgeoisie sup-porters in political process.

2. Poor harvests of 1846, 7 bring proletariat support.

3. 21 Feb�government prohibit banquet; large one scheduled for 22.

4. 22 Feb�workers parade through streets demand reform and kick outGuizot.

5. 23 Feb�more crowds; Guizot resign afternoon. Barricade, clash withguard.

6. 24 Feb 1848�Louis Philippe abdicate and �ee to England.

8.1.1 The National Assemble and Paris Workers

1. Alphonse de Lamartine (1790�1869) leader, liberal opposition poet . Pro-visional government.

2. Intend for election for assembly fo rrepublican constitution.

3. Louis Blanc demand social revolution, representation in cabinet.

4. Provisional government organize national workshops to provide work andrelief for 1000s.

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5. 23 April�Election universal male su�rage new National Assembly.

(a) Dominated by conservatives, moderates.

(b) In provinces, many resent radicals.

(c) Church, local nobles considerable in�uence.

(d) Peasants fear socialists con�scate their farms.

(e) Little sympathy for expensive National Workshops�incorrectly per-

ceived socialist.

6. May, troops and workers �ght → deny new admission into workshops andkick out many already in.

7. 24 June�General Louis Cavaignac with conservative countryside troopsdestroy barricades and quell revots. Over 3.400 killed.

8.1.2 Emergence of Louis Napoleon

1. June days con�rm dominance of conservative. Want state safe for smallproperty.

2. Late 1848 elect Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1808�73), nephew of emperor.

3. Adventurer living outside France. Attempted to lead coup against JulyMonarchy twice.

4. �Little Napoleon� doom second Republic; care more about ego than re-public.

(a) First dictator to play with unstable politics.

(b) Claim he represent will of people, not National Assembly.

(c) 1851�NA refused to amend constitution to allow incumbent presi-dent to run.

(d) 2 Dec�Anniversary at Austerlitz, Louis Napoleon seize power. Troopsdisperse assembly, new elections.

i. 200 killed.

ii. 26,000 arrested throughout country.

iii. 10,000 transported to Algeria.

5. 21 Dec Plebiscite�7.5 M support him; 600,000 resist.

6. Dec 1852�Empire, Emperor Napoleon 3

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8.1.3 Frenchwomen in 1848

1. Major feminist activity. Seize collapse of July Monarchy to demand re-form.

2. Joined many clubs�some emphasized women's rights.

3. Some tried unsuccessfully to vote 1848.

4. Both bourgeoisie and proletariat women.

5. Most radical called Vesuvians. Demands of women erupt like lava.

(a) Full domestic equality;

(b) Right for women to serve military;

(c) Similar dress.

(d) Conducted street demonstrations. Radical→ lose support of moder-ates.

6. Use new liberal freedoms for their cause: Voix des femmes newspaper.

(a) Improvements for men not necessarily improve women.

(b) Society with same name.

(c) Many women participated in Saint-Simonian or Fourier groups.

(d) Relatively conservative feminists.

i. Cooperate with male political groups.

ii. Urge family and �delity.

iii. Embrace maternal role → use to hilight need: motherhood, chil-

drearing so important; thus women receive better education, eco-

nomic security, equal rights.

iv. No legislation even though some assembly members support group.

v. Emphasis on family defense to prevent conservatives from accus-ing advocates from destroying marriage.

7. Fate similar to proletariats: defeated.

(a) Close workshops block an outlet.

(b) Conservative crackdown on political clubs devastate.

(c) Voix de femmes attempt to organize workers' groups.

i. Jeanne Deroin, Pauline Roland arrested.

ii. Deroin left france; Roland transported to Algeria.

8. 1852�feminist movement eradicated.

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8.2 The Habsburg Empire: Nationalism Resisted.

1. Vulnerable to every kind of revolution: reject liberal institution, serfdom,across national lines.

2. In 1840s, even Metternich urge reform, but none coming.

3. 1848�confront rebellion in Vienna, Prague, Hungary, Italy.

8.2.1 The Vienna Uprising

1. Louis Kossuth, Magyar nationalist, member of Hungarian diet call forHungarian independence and demand responsible ministry under Habs-burg dynasty.

2. Inspired students led disturbances. Army failed; Metternich resigned and�ed.

3. Feeble Emperor Ferdinand promise moderate liberal constitution.

4. Radical students form democratic clubs, unsatis�ed.

5. 17 May�Emperor and court �ee to Innsbruck. Vienna government incommittee of 200 proletariat symapthizers.

6. Fear serf uprising most. Already, some invade manors and burn propertyrecords.

7. Mar 1848�emancipated serfs almost immediately after Vienna. Smother;serfs little reason to support urban revolutions.

8.2.2 The Magyar Revolt

1. Embolden Hungarians; Magyar leaders liberal, supported by nobles whowanted privileges guaranteed against Vienna government.

2. March Laws, passed by Diet, demand:

(a) Equality of religion;

(b) Jury trials;

(c) Election of lower chamber of diet;

(d) Relatively free press;

(e) Nobility pay taxes.

3. Ferdinand approve because he couldn't stop it.

4. Separate Hungarian state: local autonomy but Ferdinand still emperor.

(a) Attempt to annex Transylvania, Croatia, eastern territories.

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(b) National groups resist imposition. Believe Habsburg rule better fortheir interest.

(c) Late March: Vienna send Count Joseph Jellachich to aid nationalgroups resisting Magyarization. Exemplify clash between liberalism

and nationalism.

8.2.3 Czech Nationalism

1. Bohemia, Moravia autonomous Slavic state similar to Hungary.

2. Con�ict immediately between Czechs and Germans in region.

3. 1st Pan Slavic Congress (led by Francis Palacky, Poles, Ruthenians, Czechs,Slovaks, Croats, Slovenes, Serbs) meet in Prague in June.

(a) National equality of Slavs.

(b) Protest repression of Slavs under Habsburg, Hungarian, Germany,Ottoman.

(c) Slavic nation or federation from Poland to Ukraine. Russian interestsdominate.

(d) Concept became important. Russia use Pan-Slavism to gain supportand pressure Habsburg Empire and Germany.

(e) 12 Jun�Congress close. Radical insurrection; General Price AlredWindischgraetz's wife killed by stray bullet; moved troops. Germansapproved smothering nationalism; Prague bourgeoisie happy to seeradicals suppressed.

8.2.4 Rebellion in Northern Italy

1. 18 March�revolt in Milan.

2. Austrian General Count Radetezky retreated.

3. Rebels aided by King Charles Albert of Piedmont�wanted to annex Lom-bardy (province of Milan).

4. Austrians lose until July, with reinforcements; Radetezky suppress revolt.Held Austrian position.

5. Vienna, Hungary recaptured in summer.

(a) New assembly write constitution; radicals stil press for concessions.

(b) October�new insurrection → bombard Vienna crush revolt.

6. 2 Dec.�Ferdinand, too feeble to govern, abdicate in favor of nephew Fran-cis Joseph.

(a) Prince Felix Schwarzenberg�real power. Intend to fully use army.

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(b) 5 Jan 1849�troops occupy Budapest.

(c) March�military rule over Hungary, repeal constitution.

(d) August�Magyar nobles one last revolt. Austrians aided by 200,000soldiers under Tsar Nicholas 1 crush Hungarians.

i. Welcomed by Magyarization resistants.

ii. Habsburg survive because of divisions among enemies and will-ingness to use force.

8.3 Italy: Republicanism Defeated

1. Italians hoped King Charles Albert of Piedmont drive Austrians and unifyItaly. Defeat disappointed.

2. Liberal, nationalist hopes shift to Pope Pius 9.

(a) Liberal reputation, reformed Papal States.

(b) In Rome, radicalism rise.

(c) Democratic radical assassinated Count Pellingrino Rossi, liberal min-ister of Papal States. Popular demonstrations force Pope to nameradical ministry.

(d) Pius 9 �ee to Naples.

(e) Feb. 1849�radicals proclaim Roman Republic. Republican na-tionalists go to Rome, hope to unify Italy from there. GiuseppeMazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi two most prominent.

3. Mar. 1849�Piedmont radicals force Charles Albert to continue patrioticwar against Austria.

(a) Battle of Novara�almost immediate defeat. King abdicate to sonVictor Emmanuel 2 (r. 1849�78).

(b) Defeat → Roman Republic defend itself.

(c) French troops restore pope to Rome. French prevent rise of stronguni�ed state on their southern border. Protect pope good domesticpolicy for Louis Napoleon.

(d) June 1849 end, Roman Republic dissolved. Garibaldi attempt to leadarmy north against Austria, defeated.

(e) 3 July�Rome fall to French forces; stayed until 1870 to protect pope.

4. Pius 9 renounce liberalism. Became an arch conservative.

8.4 Germany: Liberalism Frustrated

1. Insurrections for German unity inWurtemburg, Saxony, Hanover, Bavaria�King Ludwig 1 abdicate in favor of his son.

2. Major revolution in Prussia.

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8.4.1 Revolution in Prussia

1. 15 Mar.�disturbances in Berlin. Frederick William 4 believe foreign con-spiracy; refused to use troops against Berliners, announce limited reforms.But several citizens killed 18 Mar at square near palace.

2. Still hesitant to use force; government divided and confused.

3. King called Prussian assembly to write constitution.

4. Made further concessions, imply Prussia help unify Germany. In practice,

Prussian monarchy fallen.

5. Appointed cabinet led by David Hansemann (1790�1864) � widely re-spected moderate liberal.

6. Prussian constituent assembly radical and democratic. King, conservativesupporters ignore it. Liberal ministry resigned; conservative one replacedit.

7. April 1849�Assembly dissolved; monarchy proclaim own constitution.Three-class voting: all adult males vote, but based on ability to pay taxes.

(a) Largest taxpayers 5% of population but 13 of assembly. Prevail until

1918.

(b) Ministry answer to king alone.

(c) Army and o�cers swear loyalty to monarch.

8.4.2 The Frankfurt Parliament

18 May 1848�representatives from every German state gather in St. Paul'sChurch in Frankfurt to revise German Confederation.

1. Intend to write moderately liberal constitution for united Germany.

2. Anlienate conservatives and proletariats. Beginning of profound split be-tween liberals and proletariats. Conservatives play on this division.

(a) Sept. 1848�Frankfurt Parliament call troops to suppress radicalinsurrection. Want nothing to do with radicals threatening property.

3. Split on uni�cation: grossdeutsch favor Austrian inclusion; kleindeutschexclusion. Prevail because Austria reject German uni�cation�too manyother nationality problems. Looked to Prussia for leadership.

4. 27 March 1849�constitution. O�ered crown of united Germany to Fred-erick William 4, but rejected: rule by grace of God, not permission ofman.

(a) Frankfurt Parliament began to dissolve.

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(b) Troops drove o� remaining members.

5. Liberals prove hisitant, awkward, unrealistic, dependent on army of monar-chy.

6. Revolutions tended franchise in some German states and established con-servative constitutions. Far cry from March 1848 hopes.

9 In Perspective

The industrial revolution brough profound social change to Europe. Familypatterns and the roles of women dramatically changed. New concern aboutcrime brough police forces, social order, and prison reform. The proletriat classbecame a salient factor of urban social and political life. The new business cycleincreased anxiety for everyone.

From 1848�1850, liberal revolutions beginning in 1789 ended. Both liberalsand nationalists discovered argument and small insurrections would not engen-der change. The conservative order reasserted change; henceforth, nationalistswere less romantic. Commerce, force, and devious diplomacy would be the newmeans of uni�cation. The proletariats wold turn to unions and political parties.

Most importantly, the bourgeosie class ceased to be revolutionary and moreconcerned with protecting its property against radicals.

The 1848 revolutions changed conservatism. Metternich's policies failed toprevent 1848. Conservatives would �nd new ways to adapt the new forcesof politics to their ends, embracing their own nationalism and even forms ofdemocracy to ensure their dominance.

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