Chapter 2Theoretical Perspectives and Methods of Social Research

Key Terms

theoryA framework that can be used to comprehend and explain events.

sociological theoryA set of principles and definitions that tell how societies operate and how people relate to one another and respond to the environment.

researchA fact-gathering and fact-explaining enterprise governed by strict rules.

research methodA technique used to formulate meaningful research questions and collect, analyze and interpret facts in ways that allow other researchers to check the results.

functionThe contribution of a part of the order and stability with the larger system.

manifest functionsA part's intended or anticipated effects on order and stability.

latent functionsUnintended or unanticipated effects on order and stability.

dysfunctionsDisruptive consequences to society or to some segment in society.

manifest dysfunctionsA part’s anticipated disruptions to order and stability.

latent dysfunctionsUnintended, unanticipated disruptions to order and stability.

means of productionThe land, machinery, buildings, tools and other technologies needed to produce and distribute goods and services.

bourgeoisieThe owners of the means of production.

proletariatA less powerful class composed of workers who own nothing of the production process and who sell their labor to the bourgeoisie.

facade of legitimacyAn explanation that members in dominant groups give to justify their actions.

social interactionEveryday events in which two people communicate interpret and respond to each other’s words and actions.

symbolAny kind of physical phenomenon to which people assign a name, meaning or value.

scientific methodAn approach to data collection in which knowledge is gained through observation and its truth confirmed through verification.

objectivityA state in which personal, subjective views do not influence one’s opinions or behavior.

conceptsThinking and communication tools that are used to give and receive complex information efficiently and to frame and explain observations.

research designA plan for gathering data that specifies the population and method of data collection.

method of data collectionThe procedures used to gather relevant data.

tracesMaterials or other evidence that yield information about human activity.

documentsWritten or printed materials used in research.

territoriesSettings that have borders or that are set aside for particular activities.

householdsAll related and unrelated persons who share the same dwelling.

small groupsTwo to about 20 people who interact with one another in meaningful ways.

populationsThe total number of individuals, traces, documents, territories, households, or groups that could be studied.

sampleA portion of the cases from a larger population.

random sampleA sample in which every case in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

representative sampleA research sample with the same distribution of characteristics as the population from which it is selected.

sampling frameA complete list of every case in the population.

self-administered questionnaireA set of questions given to respondees who read the instructions fill in the answers themselves.

interviewsInterviewer asks questions and records respondent’s answers.

structured interviewWording and sequence of questions are set in advance and cannot be changed during the interview.

unstructured interviewQuestion-answer sequence is spontaneous, open-ended, and flexible.

observationA research technique involving watching, listening to, and recording behavior and conversations as they happen.

nonparticipant observationA research technique involving detached watching and listening in which the research does not interact with the study participants.

participant observationResearcher interacts directly with study participants.

secondary sourcesData that have been collected by other researchers for some other purpose.

variableTrait or characteristics that can change under different conditions or that consist of more than one category.

dependent variableThe behavior to be explained or predicted.

independent variableThe variable that explains or predicts the dependent variable.

hypothesisTrial explanation put forward as the focus of research that predicts how independent and dependent variables are related and what outcomes will occur.

operational definitionsPrecise definitions and instructions about how to observe and measure variables.

reliabilityThe extent to which the operational definitions gives consistent results.

validityThe degree to which an operational finding measures what it claims to measure.

generalizabilityThe extent to which findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample is drawn.

correlation conflictA mathematical representation of the extent to which a change in one variable is associated with a change in another variable.

spurious correlationA correlation that is coincidental or accidental because some third variable is related to both the independent anted dependent variables.

control variableVariables suspected of causing a spurious correlation.

ascribed characteristicsAny physical trait that is biological in origin and/or cannot be changed but to which people assign overwhelming significance.