Chapter 2 The Nature and Extent of Crime. How Criminologists Study Crime Survey Research Self-report surveys and interviews Victimization surveys

Chapter 2

The Nature and Extent of Crime

How Criminologists Study Crime

• Survey Research Self-report surveys and interviews Victimization surveys Sampling (selection process) Population (sharing of similar characteristics) Cross-sectional research (representative of all society)


• Cohort Research: Longitudinal and retrospective Cohort involves observing a group of people who share similar

characteristics Following cohorts is expensive and time consuming Examination of school, police, and courts records


• Official Record Research Criminologists use the records of government agencies to study

crime The Uniform Crime Report (UCR) data is collected by local law

enforcement agencies and published yearly by the FBI Census Bureau data used for information about income


• Weblink:

http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/ucr.htm








• Experimental Research Manipulation and intervention techniques Three elements: (1) random selection, (2) control group, and (3)

experimental condition Criminological experiments are rare due to expense and ethical

concerns


• Observational and Interview Research Commonly focuses on a few subjects for study In-depth interviews to gain insight into a behavior Field participation (Whyte’s Street Corner Society)


• Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review Meta-analysis involves gathering data from previous studies Grouped data provides powerful indication of relationships

between variables Systematic review involves collecting and synthesizing evidence

to address a particular scientific question (street lighting and crime)

Measuring Crime Trends and Rates

• Official Data: The Uniform Crime Report (UCR) More than 17,000 police agencies contribute records Index Crimes (Part I)

• Murder• Non-negligent manslaughter• Forcible rape• Robbery • Aggravated assault• Burglary• Larceny• Arson• Motor vehicle theft

Non-Index Crime (Part II)• All other crimes• Does not include traffic offenses

CNN Clip - Sims City or Sin City


• Compiling the Uniform Crime Report Each month law enforcement agencies report index crimes Unfounded or false reports are to be eliminated from the actual

count Each month law enforcement agencies report the number of

crimes cleared (by arrest or exceptional means) Slightly more than 20 percent of all reported index crimes are

cleared by arrest each year Victim crimes are more likely to be solved than property

Figure 2.1 Index Crimes Cleared by Arrest, 2003


• Uniform Crime Reports Validity Reporting practices:

• Some victims do not report serious crimes• Some victims do not trust police• Some thinks it is useless to report crime• Victims may fear reprisals

Less than 40 percent of all crime is reported to police


• Law enforcement practices:• Departments may loosely define crimes (trespass and

burglary)• Arrests may only be counted after formal booking• Deliberate alterations due to image concerns• Better record keeping processes can artificially inflate

crime rates


• Methodological Issues:• No federal crimes are reported• Reports are voluntary• Not all departments submit reports• The FBI uses estimates in its total projections• Multiple crime offenders are frequently counted as one

crime• Each act is listed as a single offense (robbing of six

people in one incident)• Incomplete acts are lumped together will completed

ones• Differences in definitions of crime between FBI and

states


• National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) Result of a five-year redesign effort Collects data on each reported incident Expands the categories of UCR to 46 specific offenses Currently, 22 states have implemented NIBRS


• Victim Surveys: National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) Attempts to measure crime unreported to police by surveying

victims Utilizes at large nationally representative sample People are asked to report their victimization experiences In 2002, the NCVS estimates about 247,000 rapes or attempted

rapes occurred compared to about 90,000 per UCR estimates


• Validity of the NCVS Overreporting due to victim’s misinterpretations Underreporting due to embarrassment Inability to record the criminal activity of those interviewed Sampling errors Inadequate question formats


• Self Report Surveys Attempts to measure the “dark figures” of crime Most focus on youth crime due to school setting Self-reports suggest the number of people who break the law is

greater than projected by official statistics Self-reports dispute the notion that people specialize in one type

of crime Most common offenses are truancy, alcohol abuse, shoplifting,

larceny under $50, fighting, marijuana use, and property damage


• Validity of Self-Reports People may exaggerate or forget their criminal acts Some surveys may contain an overabundance of trivial offenses Missing cases is also a concern when students refuse to

participate in the survey Institutionalized youth are generally not included in self-report

surveys Reporting differences may exist between racial, ethnic, and

gender groups

Figure 2.2 Self-Report Survey Questions


• Evaluating Crime Data Sources Each source has its strengths and weaknesses The FBI survey contains number and characteristics of people

arrested The NCVS includes unreported crimes and personal

characteristics of victims Self-report surveys provide information about offenders The crime patterns of each are often quite similar in their tallies of

crime

Crime Trends

• Overall crime rates have been declining since 1991 In 2003 about 11.8 million crimes were reported to police Teenage criminality has also been in decline during this period

Figure 2.3 Crime Trends

Crime Trends

• Trends in Violent Crime Violent crime rates have decreased about 11 percent between

1997 and 2002 Preliminary data indicates another 3 percent decline between

2002 and 2003 Homicide rates peaked around 1930, then held steady at about 5

per 100,000 population from 1950 through the mid-1960s, then rose to 10.2 per 100,000 population in 1991

Between 1991 and 2000 homicide rates dropped to about 5.5 per 100,000 population

New York reported a decline of more than 50 percent in their murder rates

Figure 2.4 Homocide Rate Trends, 1900-2003

Crime Trends

• Trends in Property Crime In 2002, about 10.4 million property crimes were reported at a

rate of 3,650 per 100,000 population Property crime rates have decreased, though not as dramatic as

violent crime rates Between 1992 and 2002 the property crime rate declined about

26 percent

Crime Trends

• Trends in Victimization Data (NCVS Findings) According to the NCVS, in 2002 about 23 million U.S. residents

experienced violent and property victimizations The downward trend represents the lowest number of criminal

victimizations since 1973 Between 1993 and 2002 the violent crime rate has decreased 54

percent and the property crime rate decreased 50 percent

Crime Trends

• Self-Report Findings The use drugs and alcohol increased markedly in the 1970s,

leveled off in the 1980s, began to increase in the mid-1990s and began to decline after 1997

Self report surveys suggest the crime problem with teenagers could be greater than the FBI data reveals

Crimes of theft and violence may be more stable than the trends reported in the UCR arrest data

Figure 2.5 Violent Crime Trends, 1973-2006

Figure 2.6 Property Crime Trends, 1973-2006

Crime Trends

• What the Future Holds James A. Fox predicts a significant increase in teen violence due

to the age makeup of the population Steven Levitt argues that keeping large numbers of people in

prison and adding more police will reduce crime rates Darrell Steffensmeier and Miles Harper suggest a more moderate

increase in crime due to “baby boomers”

Crime Patterns

• The Ecology of Crime Day, season, and climate:

• Most crime occurs during warm months since people spend more time outdoors and teenagers are out of school

• Murder and robbery tend to occur more during December and January

• Crime rates are higher on the first day of the month due to arrival of subsidy and retirement checks

Temperature: • Rising temperatures increase crime rates to a point (about 85

degrees) Regional differences:

• Large urban areas experience more violence than rural areas• The West and South consistently have higher crime rates than

the Midwest or Northeast

Figure 2.7 The Relationship Between Temperature and Crime

Figure 2.8 Regional Crime Rates, 2002

Crime Patterns

• Use of Firearms Involved in about 20 percent of robberies. 10 percent of assaults,

and 5 percent of rapes, according to the NCVS In 2002, UCRs report about two-thirds of all murder involved

firearms Franklin Zimring and Gordon Hawkins contend the use of

handguns is the single most factor that separates the crime problem from the rest of the developed world

By contrast, Gary Kleck and Marc Gertz suggest handguns may be a deterrent to crime

Crime Patterns

• Social Class and Crime Crime is thought to be a lower-class phenomenon Instrumental crimes refer to those designed to improve the

financial or social position of the criminal Expressive crimes refer to criminal acts committed due to anger,

frustration, or rage Victimization rates are higher for those in inner-city, high-poverty

areas than those in suburban and wealthier areas

Crime Patterns

• Class and Self-Reports Early self-report studies did not find a direct relationship between

social class and crime Official processing was determined by socioeconomic class Some criminologists challenge the contention that crime in

primarily a lower-class phenomenon

Crime Patterns

• The Crime-Class Controversy The associate between class and crime is complex Class may affect some groups more than others (women and

African Americans) The true crime-class relationship may be obscured because its

impact varies within and between groups

Crime Patterns

• Does Class Matter? Recent evidence suggest crime is more prevalent among the

lower classes Income inequality, poverty, and resource deprivation are all

associated with the most serious violent crimes Deprived residents may turn to criminal behavior to relieve their

frustrations

Crime Patterns

• Age and Crime Age is inversely related to crime Younger people commit more crime than older people Youth ages 13 to 17 account for about 25 percent of all index

crime arrests and about 17 percent of arrests for all crimes Generally, 16 is the peak age for property crimes and 18 is the

peak age for violent crimes

Figure 2.9 Relationships Between Age and Serious Crime Arrests

Crime Patterns

• Aging Out of Crime People commit less crime as they age

• Peak in adolescent criminal activity can be linked to:• Reduction in supervision• An increase in social and academic demands• Participation in a larger, more diverse social world• An increased desire for adult privileges• A reduced ability of cope in a legitimate manner and

increased incentives to solve problems in a criminal manner Younger people tend to discount the future Marriage may be a desisting factor in criminality

Crime Patterns

• Gender and Crime Males commit more crime than females Overall, 3.5 males to 1 female For serious offenses; 5 males to 1 female For murder; 8 males to 1 female

Table 2.2 High School Seniors Admitting to at Least One Offense

Crime Patterns

• Traits and Temperament Lombroso explained gender differences through the masculinity

hypothesis suggesting a few females commit the majority of crimes by women

Chivalry hypothesis suggests the culture is protective of women and masks the true criminality of women

Some criminologists have linked differences in crime rates to hormonal changes between men and women

Crime Patterns

• Socialization and Development Some suggest females are socialized into criminality through

alienation at home Females are more closely guarded than boys Some contend girls have cognitive traits that shield them from

criminal behaviors

Crime Patterns

• Feminist View Feminist argue that women experience lower crime rates

reflected in a “second class” position controlled largely by males Some suggested crime rates of males and females would

converge Is convergence likely?

• Some argue the emancipation of women has little effect on female crime rates

• Many females come from a socioeconomic class least affected by the women’s movement

• Offense patterns of women are still quite different than those of men

Crime Patterns

• Race and Crime Minority group members are involved in a disproportionate

amount of crime African Americans account for about 38 percent of violent crime

arrests and 30 percent of property crime arrests, while making up about 12 percent of the population

Self-reports contend minorities are more likely to be arrested and not necessarily more prone to crime than Whites

Crime Patterns

• Racism and Discrimination Criminologists suggest Black crime is a function of socialization Institutional racism results in African American males being

treated more harshly by the criminal justice system (social dynamite)

African Americans experience higher unemployment rates and lower incomes than Whites

Blacks are exposed to more violence than Whites Family dissolution his higher among African Americans than

Whites

Crime Patterns

• Criminal Careers A small group of criminal offenders account for a majority of all

criminal offenses Delinquency in a Birth Cohort by Wolfgang, Figlio, and Sellin,

1972 The cohort data indicated that 54 percent were repeat offenders 6 percent of the repeat offenders were chronic and responsible

for over 51 percent of all the crime committed by the cohort group Children exposed to a variety of personal and social problems at

an early age are the most at risk to repeat offending

Crime Patterns

• Persistence: The Continuity of Crime Those who start a delinquent career early are more likely to

persist as adults Youthful offenders are more likely to abuse alcohol, have lower

aspirations, get divorced, and have a weak employment record Apprehension and punishment have little effect on chronic youth

offenders Implications of chronic offending suggest individuals may

possess a trait which is responsible for their behavior Chronic offenders have become a central focus of crime policy

(three-strikes and mandatory sentences)

Documents

Chapter 2 The Nature and Extent of Crime. How Criminologists Study Crime Survey Research Self-report surveys and interviews Victimization surveys