Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life (31 – 43)

1. What 4 elements make up 96% of all living matter?

2. Sketch a model of an atom of helium, showing electrons, protons, and neutrons.

3. What are isotopes? Explain radioactive isotopes.

4. What is potential energy?

5. What determines the chemical behavior of an atom?

6. Explain the difference between a nonpolar covalent bond and a polar covalent bond.

7. Draw a diagram of a water molecule, labeling the regions that are more positive and those that

are more negative.

8. Another bond type is the ionic bond. Explain how ionic bonds form.

9. What is a hydrogen bond? Draw one

10. Explain van der Waals interactions.

11. Distinguish between reactants and products.

Chapter 3: Water and Life (46 – 54)

12. Distinguish between cohesion and adhesion.

13. Water has a high specific heat. What does this mean?

14. Summarize how water’s high specific heat contributes to the moderation of temperature.

15. What is heat of vaporization? Explain at least two effects of this property on living organisms.

16. Why is it important that ice floats?

17. Define the terms solute, solvent, and solution.

18. Distinguish between hydrophobic and hydrophilic substances.

19. Define molarity.

20. Define acid and base.

21. How do buffers moderate pH change?

22. Exercise results in the production of CO2 which acidifies the blood. Explain the buffering system

that minimizes blood pH changes.

Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life

23. Carbon is essential to life. How many valence electrons does it have? How many bonds can it

form? What kind of bonds does it form? What does organic mean?

24. What is a hydrocarbon? Are they hydrophobic or hydrophilic?

25. What is an isomer?

26. What is a functional group?

27. Make a table to show the structure, functional properties, and an example of the following

chemical groups: hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, and methyl.

Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules

28. The large molecules of all living things fall into four main classes. Name them.

29. Define macromolecules, polymer, and monomer.

30. Define and draw an example of a dehydration/condensation reaction.

31. Define and draw an example of a hydrolysis reaction.

32. Draw a molecule of glucose in its ring form, numbering the carbons.

33. Describe and draw a triglyceride and a phospholipid.

34. Compare and contrast saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.

35. Draw and label an amino acid.

36. Discuss some of the properties of different R groups.

37. Describe the 4 levels of protein structure.

38. Define denaturation.

39. Draw a nucleotide, numbering the carbons of the sugar.

40. Make a table to show the monomers, polymers, structure, function, and examples of the 4

major types of biological molecules.

Chapter 8: An Introduction to Metabolism

41. Define metabolism and metabolic pathway.

42. Distinguish between anabolism and catabolism. Which type of reaction is involved in each?

43. What is meant by a spontaneous process?

44. What is free energy?

45. Distinguish between endergonic and exergonic.

46. Draw and label a molecule of ATP.

47. What is energy coupling?

48. Define the following: catalyst, activation energy, enzyme, substrate, active site, cofactor,

coenzyme.

49. Describe the induced fit model.

50. Explain how protein structure is involved in enzyme specificity.

51. How do concentration of substrate, pH, and temperature each affect enzyme activity.

52. Compare and contrast competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors.

53. Describe allosteric regulation.

Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell

54. Which 2 domains consist of prokaryotic cells?

55. Draw and label a prokaryotic cell.

56. Explain how surface-area-to-volume ratio limits cell size.

57. Describe the difference in the products of free-floating ribosomes and ribosomes bound to the

RER.

58. Distinguish between food vacuoles, contractile vacuoles, and central vacuoles.

59. Describe endosymbiosis.

60. Why do many organelles have folded membranes?

61. Compare and contrast cilia and flagella.

62. Describe the structure and function of cell walls.

63. Describe the structure and function of the ECM.

64. Describe the structure and function of plasmodesmata.

65. Make a table that shows a description of and the function of each of the following organelles:

Nucleus, ribosomes, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, rough endoplasmic

reticulum, mitochondria, chloroplast, lysosomes, vacuoles, peroxisomes, microtubules,

centrioles, microfilaments.

Chapter 7: Membrane Structure and Function

66. Define amphipathic.

67. Draw and describe the fluid mosaic model of a cell membrane.

68. How would membrane fluidity be affected by the following: decreased temperature,

phospholipids with unsaturated hydrocarbon chains, cholesterol

69. Distinguish between integral and peripheral proteins.

70. Describe the various functions of membrane proteins.

71. Distinguish between channel proteins and carrier proteins.

72. What are aquaporins?

73. How do each of following materials cross the cell membrane: CO2, glucose, H+, O2, H2O

74. Compare and contrast diffusion and facilitated diffusion.

75. Explain the movement of water when cells are placed in hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic

environments.

76. Describe the process of active transport.

77. What are the two forces the drive the diffusion of ions across a membrane? What is the

combination of these forces called?

78. What is cotransport?

79. Define/describe each of the following: exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis, and pinocytosis.

80. What is a ligand?

Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

81. What are redox reactions? What’s the difference between oxidation and reduction?

82. What is an electron carrier and why are they necessary?

83. What is the function of the electron transport chain? How is it utilized in oxidative

phosphorylation?

84. What is substrate-level phosphorylation?

85. Describe glycolysis.

86. Describe the citric acid cycle.

87. What is the intermediate step between glycolysis and the citric acid cycle?

88. By the end of the citric acid cycle, what has happened to each of the 6 carbons found in the

original glucose molecule?

89. What is the role of oxygen in oxidative phosphorylation?

90. What is the proton-motive force and how is it created?

91. Explain the processes of alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation.

92. Explain how AMP stimulates cellular respiration and how citrate and ATP inhibit it.

93. Phosphofructokinase is an allosteric enzyme that catalyzes an important step in glycolysis.

94. Explain how step is a control point in cellular respiration.

Chapter 35: Plant Structure, Growth, and Development

95. Draw a picture of a plant and label the shoot system, root system, apical bud, and axillary bud.

96. Name the three types of plant tissues and describe their function.

97. Describe transport in the xylem and in the phloem.

98. Draw and label the structure of a leaf.

99. Compare and contrast apical meristems and lateral meristems.

Chapter 36 : Resource Acquisition and Transport in Vascular Plants

100. What are mycorrhizae and what is their role in resource acquisition?

101. Describe water potential.

102. What is transpiration?

103. Describe the cohesion-tension hypothesis.

104. Discuss the structure and function of stomata.

105. Define sink, source, and translocation.

Chapter 10: Photosynthesis

106. Draw and label a picture of a chloroplast including: stroma, thylakoid, thylakoid space,

grana, inner membrane, and outer membrane.

107. Explain what occurs in the light reactions of photosynthesis. Be sure to use NADP+ and

photophosphorylation in you discussion.

108. Explain the Calvin cycle, utilizing the term carbon fixation in your discussion.

109. Explain the correlation between an absorption spectrum and an action spectrum.

110. Draw and label a photosystem.

111. Compare and contrast linear and cyclic electron flow including examples of where each

can be found.

112. Describe how chemiosmosis is similar in photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

113. Explain how the regeneration of RuBP is accomplished.

114. Explain what is meant by a C3 plant.

115. What happens when a plant undergoes photorespiration?

116. Explain what is meant by a C4 plant.

117. Compare and contrast C4 plants and CAM plants.

Chapter 11: Cell Communication

118. What is a signal transduction pathway?

119. Describe the 3 stages of cell-to-cell signaling.

120. Describe a G protein-coupled receptor.

121. Describe a tyrosine kinase receptor.

122. Describe ligand-gated ion channel receptors.

123. Explain the difference between surface receptors and intracellular receptors.

124. Describe the functions of protein kinases and protein phosphatases.

125. What is the difference between first messengers and second messengers?

126. How do Ca++ and cAMP work as second messengers?

127. What are cell responses in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm?

128. Describe the process of apoptosis and explain why it is importance of organisms.

Chapter 39: Plant Responses to Internal and External Signals

129. What are hormones?

130. What is tropism and what are some stimuli that cause it?

131. Describe the experiments (and results) conducted by Charles and Francis Darwin and by

Boysen and Jensen.

132. Describe the functions of auxins.

133. Describe the functions of cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid, and ethylene.

134. What are phytochromes and how do they work?

135. Distinguish between short-day, long-day, and day-neutral plants.

136. Describe how plants can defend themselves from herbivory.

Chapter 51: Animal Behavior

137. What is a fixed action pattern?

138. Describe Tinbergen’s work with stickleback fish.

139. What are pheromones and what types of information can they transmit?

140. What is the difference between innate and learned behaviors?

141. What is imprinting?

142. Define associative learning, operant conditioning, and cognition.

143. Describe each of the following mating systems: promiscuity, monogamy, polygamy,

polygyny, and polyandry.

Chapter 52: An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere

144. Define the following terms: organismal ecology, population, population ecology,

community, community ecology, ecosystem, ecosystem ecology, biosphere, global ecology.

145. Explain the difference between macroclimate and microclimate.

146. Describe oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes.

147. Distinguish between biotic and abiotic factors. Give 2 examples of each and describe

how each factor can influence living organisms.

Chapter 53: Population Ecology

148. What is the difference between density and dispersion?

149. Describe the 3 different dispersion patterns.

150. Describe the 3 types of survivorship curves.

151. Describe exponential population growth.

152. What is carrying capacity?

153. Describe logistic population growth.

154. Describe the relationship between parental care and life history.

155. Compare and contrast and give example of density-dependent regulation and density-

independent regulation.

156. What is demographic transition?

157. Contrast the age-structure graphs from Afghanistan, the United States, and Italy.

Chapter 54: Community Ecology

158. Distinguish between intraspecific and interspecific interactions.

159. What is competitive exclusion?

160. Distinguish between a fundamental niche and a realized niche.

161. Describe the two types of mimicry.

162. Describe and give an example of each of the following interactions: parasitism,

mutualism, and commensalism.

163. What are the two components of species diversity?

164. Distinguish between a food web and a food chain.

165. Why are food chains limited in length?

166. Distinguish between a dominant species and a keystone species.

167. What is the intermediate disturbance hypothesis?

168. Distinguish between primary and secondary succession.

169. What is a species-area curve?

170. Describe island biogeography and island equilibrium.

Chapter 55: Ecosystem and Restoration Ecology

171. Contrast how energy and matter move through ecosystems.

172. What are detritivores and why are they important? Give examples.

173. Distinguish between gross primary production and net primary production.

174. What is eutrophication?

175. Summarize the water cycle. A drawing is encouraged.

176. Summarize the carbon cycle. A drawing is encouraged.

177. Summarize the nitrogen cycle. A drawing is encouraged.

178. What are bioremediation and biological augmentation.

Chapter 56: Conservation Biology and Global Change

179. Discuss at least 3 threats to biodiversity and how they reduce biodiversity.

180. Explain the consequences of introduced species.

181. What is an extinction vortex?

182. What is the declining-population model?

183. What are movement corridors and what is their purpose?

184. Describe the greenhouse effect. How are humans increasing it?

185. How is atmospheric ozone depleted?

Chapter 12: The Cell Cycle

186. What are the key roles of cell division?

187. Distinguish between somatic cells and gametes.

188. How many molecules of DNA are in each of your somatic cells?

189. Define the following terms: chromosome, chromatin, chromatid, centromere.

190. Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis.

191. What are the components of the mitotic spindle?

192. What is a kinetochore? Distinguish between kinetochore and nonkinetochore

microtubules.

193. Compare and contrast cytokinesis in an animal cell and a plant cell.

194. Describe binary fission. In what types of organisms does it occur?

195. Summarize what happens at each of the three cell cycle checkpoints.

196. Describe the function of protein kinases, CDks, and MPFs.

197. What are density-dependent inhibition and anchorage dependence and how do they

relate to cancer?

Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles

198. Distinguish between sex chromosomes and autosomes.

199. What is a karyotype and how is it prepared?

200. What are homologous chromosomes?

201. What are alleles? Give an example.

202. Describe the events of prophase I. Be sure to include the terms synapsis, crossing over,

and chiasmata.

203. How is the arrangement of chromosomes in metaphase I of meiosis different from the

arrangement of chromosomes in metaphase of mitosis?

204. Why is meiosis I called a reduction division?

205. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.

206. How do independent assortment, crossing over, and random fertilization contribute to

genetic diversity?

Chapter 14: Mendel and the Gene Idea

207. Define the P, F1, and F2 generation.

208. Explain the difference between a monohybrid and a dihybrid cross.

209. Distinguish between the multiplication rule and the addition rule and explain when you

would use each one.

210. Distinguish between codominance and incomplete dominance.

211. What are multiple alleles?

212. Make a table displaying the different genotypes and phenotypes possible in human

blood types.

213. Define pleiotropy and epistasis.

214. Describe polygenic inheritance using an example.

215. Describe the inheritance patterns of cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell anemia, achondroplasia,

and Huntington’s disease.

216. Describe the processes of amniocentesis and chorionic villi sampling.

Chapter 15: The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance

217. What is the chromosome theory of inheritance?

218. Explain Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent assortment and how the

behavior of chromosomes in meiosis relate to these two laws.

219. Describe Thomas Hunt Morgan’s work with fruit flies.

220. What does wild type mean?

221. What are sex-linked traits?

222. Name and describe e sex-linked traits.

223. What is a Barr body, how are they created, and why are they important?

224. What are linked genes? (It is very important not to get linked genes and sex-linked

genes confused!!!)

225. Define linkage group, parentals, recombinants, and map units.

226. Describe nondisjunction, aneuploidy, trisomy, monosomy, and polyploidy.

227. Describe deletion, duplication, inversion, and translocation. What causes these?

228. What is genomic imprinting?

Chapter 16: The Molecular Basis of Inheritance

229. Describe the experiments that led to the conclusion that DNA is the genetic material.

230. Draw and label a strand of DNA with at least 4 nucleotide pairs.

231. Distinguish between purines and pyrimidines. How do they bond to each other? Why is

this important?

232. What is meant by 5’ and 3’? What is meant by antiparallel?

233. What is meant by semiconservative replication? Describe the experiments that

supported this model of replication.

234. Outline the process of DNA replication. Make sure you include the following terms:

origin of replication, leading strand, lagging strand, helicase, primase, RNA primer, DNA

polymerase III, DNA polymerase I, ligase, Okazaki fragments, topoisomerase, SSBP, parental DNA

and new DNA.

235. Describe the structure and function of telomeres and telomerase.

236. Describe the structure and function of histones and nucleosomes.

237. Distinguish between heterochromatin and euchromatin.

Chapter 17: From Gene to Protein

238. What are inborn errors of metabolism?

239. Outline the process of transcription. Make sure to include discussion of the sense and

nonsense strand and direction.

240. Outline the process of mRNA processing. Make sure to discuss 5’ cap, poly-A tail,

snRNPs, spliceosomes, introns and exons.

241. Outline the process of transcription.

242. How is the genetic code universal? How is it degenerate (redundant)?

243. Explain the concept of a reading frame.

244. What is a transcription unit? What are transcription factors? What is a TATA box?

245. What is a ribozyme?

246. What is alternative splicing and why is it important?

247. Distinguish between a codon and an anticodon.

248. What are aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases? How many of them are there? What is wobble?

249. Describe, or draw and label, the structure of a ribosome.

250. What is a polyribosome?

251. What are post-translational modifications and why are they important?

252. Define mutation, point mutation, frameshift mutation, nonsense mutation, missense

mutation, and silent mutation.

253. What are mutagens?

Chapter 18: Regulation of Gene Expression

254. What is gene expression?

255. What is feedback inhibition?

256. Describe the structure of an operon.

257. Outline an inducible operon.

258. Outline a repressible operon.

259. Describe the relationship between glucose, cAMP, and CAP.

260. Describe the relationship between gene expression, cell differentiation, and

morphogenesis.

261. What are histone acetylation and DNA methylation and how do the regulate gene

expression.

262. What are genomic imprinting and epigenetic inheritance?

263. Explain how enhancers and activators interact with transcription factors to affect gene

expression.

264. Describe pot-transcriptional control, mRNA degradation, and noncoding RNAs and their

purpose.

265. How can proteins be activated, processed, and degraded.

266. What are cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals?

267. What are homeotic genes?

268. What are proto-oncogenes and how are they converted to oncogenes?

269. What are tumor-suppressor genes and why are they important?

Chapter 19: Viruses

270. Describe or draw and label the structure of a virus.

271. What are bacteriophages? Prophages?

272. Describe the lysogenic cycle.

273. Describe the lytic cycle.

274. What might trigger a virus to switch from lysogenic to lytic?

275. What are retroviruses?

276. What are prions?

Chapter 27: Bacteria & Archaea

277. Explain the difference between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

278. What are plasmids and why are they important?

279. What is horizontal gene transfer?

280. Describe transformation, transduction, and conjugation.

281. Construct a table with Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya across the top and nuclear

envelope, membrane-bound organelles, introns, histone proteins, and circular chromosomes

down the side. Enter Yes/No for each characteristic.

282. What are extremophiles? Give examples.

Chapter 20: Biotechnology

283. Define biotechnology and genetic engineering.

284. Explain the process of gene cloning.

285. What are restriction enzymes?

286. What is PCR? What materials are necessary for it? Why is it necessary?

287. Describe the process of gel electrophoresis? How can it be used to sequence DNA? To

identify paternity?

288. How can an entire animal be cloned?

289. Distinguish between embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells, and induced pluripotent

stem cells.

290. What are GMOs? Why are they controversial?

Chapter 21: Genomes and Their Evolution

291. What is the Human Genome Project and what 3 steps were used?

292. What do gene density comparisons between prokaryotes and eukaryotes show?

293. What are pseudogenes and repetitive DNA?

294. What are transposable elements?

295. What are retrotransposons?

296. What is meant by highly-conserved genes? What do the suggest about evolution?

297. What is evo-dvo?

298. What is a homeobox? Describe how it functions.

Chapter 22: Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life

299. Discuss the ideas of Hutton, Lyell, and Lamarck.

300. What are adaptations?

301. Explain the process of natural selection.

302. How do fossil records give evidence for evolution?

303. Define and give examples of homologous and vestigial structures and explain how the

offer evidence for evolution.

304. Define and give examples of convergent evolution and analogous structures and explain

how they can be confusing when trying to determine evolutionary relationships.

305. Define biogeography, continental drift, and endemic species.

***Remember – individuals do not evolve, populations do!

Chapter 23: The Evolution of Populations

306. Define allele frequency. What are the three main mechanisms that can cause change in

allele frequency?

307. What are the sources of genetic variation?

308. Define population and gene pool.

309. The greater the number of fixed alleles, the lower the species diversity. What does it

mean to say that an allele is fixed?

310. What conditions must be met for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

311. Define genetic drift, gene flow, founder effect, and bottleneck effect.

312. Define relative fitness.

313. Describe stabilizing, directional, and disruptive selection.

314. Define sexual selection, intrasexual selection, intersexual selection.

315. What is heterozygote advantage. Describe an example.

Refer to 51.4 for the following question:

316. What are altruism, kin selection, and inclusive fitness?

Chapter 24: The Origin of Species

317. Define species, speciation, and hybrid.

318. Distinguish between microevolution and macroevolution.

319. Distinguish between prezygotic and postzygotic reproductive barriers.

320. Define reproductive isolation, habitat isolation, temporal isolation, behavioral isolation,

mechanical isolation, and gametic isolation.

321. Define reduced hybrid viability, reduced hybrid fertility, and hybrid breakdown.

322. Distinguish between allopatric speciation and sympatric speciation.

323. Explain the mechanisms that make sympatric speciation possible.

324. Define allopolyploid speciation.

325. Distinguish between gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.

Chapter 25: The History of Life on Earth

326. The current theory of the origin of life suggests four main stages. Summarize them.

327. Describe the Miller-Urey experiment and its purpose.

328. Describe how fossils are formed.

329. Explain carbon-14 dating.

330. What unique ability was originated by cyanobacteria? How did this alter life on Earth

and lead to a wave of mass extinctions?

331. Explain endosymbiosis and describe evidence that supports it.

332. What is adaptive radiation and why does it tend to occur after mass extinctions?

333. What are Hox genes and why are they important to evolutionary change?

Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life

334. Define systematics, phylogenetics, and taxonomy.

335. Create a pneumonic device to remember the taxonomic categories.

336. What is molecular systematics and why is it important in sorting homology and analogy?

337. What is a clade? Distinguish between a monophyletic group, a paraphyletic group, and

a polyphyletic group.

338. What are shared derived characteristics?

339. How does the rate of changes in DNA sequences help investigations of evoluationary

relationships?

340. What are molecular clocks?

Chapter 29: Plant Diversity I: How Plants Colonized Land

341. Describe alternation of generations.

342. Recreate and complete the following diagram.

343. What is the dominant generation in the life cycle of a moss? A fern?

344. Why can vascular plants grow tall while nonvascular plants cannot?

345. Make a chart that shows the various challenges terrestrial life presents and the

solutions for those problems.

Chapter 30: Plant Diversity II: The Evolution of Seed Plants

346. List five characteristics common to seed plants.

347. What is the purpose of pollination? What are the advantages of pollen over free-

swimming sperm?

348. What are the advantages of seeds over spores?

349. Distinguish between gymnosperms and angiosperms.

350. What is the function of the flower? Fruit?

351. Distinguish between cross-pollination and self-pollination.

352. Explain double fertilization.

Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function

353. Give examples, functions, and locations for the four types of tissues.

354. Explain the difference between animals that are regulators and those that are

conformers.

355. Using an example, describe a negative feedback loop.

356. Using an example, describe a positive feedback loop.

357. What is thermoregulation? Distinguish between endotherms and exotherms.

358. What is countercurrent exchange and how does it work?

359. What is BMR and what is its relationship to body mass?

Chapter 45: Hormones and the Endocrine System

360. What are hormones and what are target cells?

361. Explain the differences between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland.

362. Compare and contrast hormones, local regulators, neurotransmitters, and pheromones.

363. Distinguish between water-soluble and lipid-soluble hormones. Be sure to discuss

method of secretion, mode of travel in bloodstream, location of receptors, response in target

cells, and give an example of each.

364. What are the responses in the liver to epinephrine and how does this help the body deal

with short-term stress?

365. Describe the control of blood sugar by insulin and glucagon.

366. Distinguish between type I and type II diabetes including causes, symptoms, and

treatments.

367. How is the hypothalamus important to the endocrine system?

368. Why is the pituitary gland considered the “master” gland?

369. Make a chart to show the action of the following hormones. Include where the

hormone is secreted from, what its target cells are, what its effect is, and, if relevant, problems

that arise from hypo- or hypersecretion of the hormone. Growth hormone, FSH, LH, TSH,

Thyroxin, PTH, Glucagon, Insulin, Testosterone, Cortisol, Epinephrine, Estrogen, Aldosterone.

Chapter 48: Neurons, Synapses, and Signaling

370. Draw, label and annotate a neuron.

371. Distinguish between sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.

372. Explain how resting potential is achieved.

373. Explain, in great detail, how an action potential travels along an axon.

374. What is myelin and why is it important?

375. Describe, in detail, synaptic transmission.

376. What are neurotransmitters? How can they be excitatory or inhibitory?

Chapter 49: Nervous System

377. Describe a reflex arc.

378. Distinguish between white matter and gray matter.

379. Outline the divisions of the nervous system in a graphic organizer. Include CNS, PNS,

somatic, autonomic, sympathetic and parasympathetic.

380. Briefly describe the functions of each of the following parts of the brain: brainstem

(medulla oblongata in particular), cerebrum, cerebellum, thalamus, hypothalamus.

Chapter 43: The Immune System

381. Distinguish between innate and adaptive immunity.

382. Explain the process of phagocytosis and identify the types of cells that perform it.

383. Explain the role of the toll receptor in producing antimicrobial peptides.

384. Describe the various barrier defenses.

385. Describe the role of natural killer cells.

386. What are interferons and complement?

387. Describe the inflammatory response.

388. What are antigens and antibodies? How do antibodies work?

389. What is immunological memory and why is it important?

390. How do cytokines help coordinate innate and adaptive immune response?

391. What are MHCs? How do host cells use them for antigen presentation?

392. Compare and contrast B cells and T cells.

393. How can so many different B cells and T cells be produced with a limited set of genes?

394. What are effector cells?

395. What is clonal selection?

396. Distinguish between a primary and a secondary immune response.

397. Distinguish between humoral immune response and cell-mediated immune response.

398. What is the role of helper T cells?

399. What are cytotoxic T cells and how are they activated?

400. Distinguish between active and passive immunity.

401. How does the immune system distinguish between self and nonself?

402. Describe an allergic response.

403. What are autoimmune diseases? Give examples.