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Atomic Orbitals (2.1-2.5)
– Wave functions that represent the probability of finding electrons in a specific region of space
s, p, d, f orbitals
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– In organic chemistry, need to concentrate only on s and p orbitals
p orbitals have a nodal plane
– Area of space where the probability of finding electrons is almost zero
34
ÚMolecular orbitals (2.2)are produced when atomic orbitals (either native or hybridized) of different atoms interact
q Produces bonding and anti-bonding orbitals
* antibonding molecular orbital
Molecular Orbitals for H2
35bonding molecular orbital
relativeenergy
s atomicorbital ofhydrogen
s atomicorbital ofhydrogen
Single Bonds (2.3)All single bonds are sigma bonds and all double or triple bonds contain only one sigma bond
ÚSigma bonds can be formed from
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ÚSigma bonds can be formed from atomic orbitals, hybridized or native or a combination
Ú ππππ-bond: cannot exists if a σσσσ-bond is not already present
ÚResult from the overlap of p orbitals of two atoms. The ππππ-bond is always perpendicular to the sigma bond connecting the nuclei.
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ÚOccur in sp2 and sp hybridized atoms (double/triple bonds)
ÚDouble bond 4 electrons in the bonding region between the nuclei
* first pair forms the sigma bond* second pair forms the pi bond
Normal combination for a double
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Normal combination for a double bond such as the one found in ethylene
Example: Ethene or ethylene
C C
H
H
H
H
ÚTriple Bond 6 electrons in the bonding region between the nuclei
* first pair forms the sigma bond* second/third pairs form the pi bondsNormal combination for a triple bond such as
the one found in acetylene
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the one found in acetylene
Hybridization and Molecular shapes (2.4)
ÚMolecular shapes are related to hybridization of central atom
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sp3: only single bonds; 109.5o angle (methane)
sp2: double bond; 120o angle (ethylene)sp: triple bond; 180o angle (acetylene)
ÚAtomic orbitals can combine to generate new orbitals:* Hybridization: combination of atomic orbitals of
the same atom producing new orbitals of lower energy
* sp, sp2 and sp3 These orbitals explain the geometry of molecules
Shape of sp Hybrid Orbitals
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in phase
out-of-phase one s orbital combines with 3 p orbitalsto form 4 new sp3 hybrid orbitals
sp sp3
Rotation of Single Bond vs Rigidity of Double Bond (2.7)
ÚConsider ethane: CH3-CH3
Each carbon is sp3
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Many structures of ethane are possible. They differ only by the position of one methyl group in relation to the other one:
ÚCONFORMATIONS:Structures that differ only by rotation along a single bondEx: ethane Both forms exist, and all other
structures in between. In facta real ethane molecule rotatesthrough all the conformations,
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through all the conformations, but the staggered conformationis favoured.
Ú In ethylene, rotation does not affect the sigma bond, but the pi overlap is broken
ÚRULE: Rotation is allowed along single bonds, but double/triple bonds are rigid and cannot be twisted
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ÚBecause of this rigidity, compounds with different substituent arrangements on a double bond are different:
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Úthese 2 compounds are different and have different chemical/physical properties. They are called:
Isomers
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Compounds having the same molecular formula, but different structures
Structural Isomers (2.8)
Also known as “constitutional isomers, they differ only by their bonding sequence
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Example 2: C5H12 pentane has3 structural isomers
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 CH3CHCH2CH3 CH3CCH3
CH3
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3 2 2 2 3
pentane
3 2 3
CH3isopentane
CH3CCH3CH3
neopentane
ÚStereoisomerism (2.8)compounds that differ by the 3D arrangements of atoms (or groups) in space. They are called:
Stereoisomers
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ÚProblem: what is the relationship between A/B, A/C and B/C?
H3C
H
CH3
H
H3C
H
H
CH3
H
H
CH3
CH3
A B C
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Problem: Draw all the possible isomers of formula C5H10 and identify the structural and stereoisomers.
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Polarity of molecules (2.9)
Bond polarity can range from:
Non-polar covalent (C-C)
Polar covalent (C-O)
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Polar covalent (C-O)
Ionic (NH4+ -Cl)
The polarity of bonds is related to electronegativity of atoms
Example:
Bond polarity is the most important topic
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Bond polarity is the most important topic to remember in order to understand organic chemistry
The molecular dipole moment is the dipole moment of the molecule taken as a whole. It is a good indicator of the
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overall polarity of molecules.
Its value is the vector sum of individual bond dipole moments
ÚBecause of bond dipole, partial positive and negative charges are induced within a neutral molecule. These induced charges will be important in reactivity as well as in interactions that exist between molecules.
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H Cl H OH
H NHH
Intermolecular Forces (2-10)
3 major kinds of attractive forces cause molecules to associate into solids or liquids:
Údipole-dipole forces (polar molecules)
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ÚLondon forces (affect all molecules)
ÚHydrogen bonds (for molecules with NH or OH groups)
ÚDipole-dipole forces:
attractive intermolecular forces resulting from the attraction of the positive and negative ends of polar molecules
The greater the forces, the higher will be the boiling point of a given compound
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the boiling point of a given compound
ÚLondon dispersion forces:In non-polar molecules (alkanes), this is the principal attractive force
They arise from temporary dipolemoments created by the proximity of other molecules
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molecules
Hydrogen bondingNot a true bond, but a very strong form of dipole-dipole attraction. An H atom can participate in H-bonding if it is bonded to O or N (-OH, -NH)
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ÚHydrogen bonds form between the hydrogen and the lone pair of the heteroatom from another molecule
Ú result: the stronger the H-bond, the higher the boiling/melting point– alcohols (OH) have higher boiling points
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– alcohols (OH) have higher boiling points than amines (NH) of similar molecular weights, because the OH bond is more strongly polarized than NH
OH NH2
Ethanolbp= 78oC
Propyl aminebp= 49oC
Nomenclature(will be covered as we introduce new functional groups
ÚTypes of Functional Groups
The following slides are to help you
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The following slides are to help you recognize organic compounds
See Inside Front Cover of Book
Ú3 general classes of organic compounds:
A) Hydrocarbons (contains only C, H)B) Compounds containing “O”C) Compounds containing “N”
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C) Compounds containing “N”
ÚHydrocarbons: compounds composed only of carbon and hydrogen. They include:– alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons)– alkenes (double bond)– alkynes (triple bond)
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– alkynes (triple bond)– Aromatics (double and single bonds
in conjugation)
ÚAlkanes:General formula CnH2n + 2
Names: ends with the suffix “anes”
First part of the names refer to the
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First part of the names refer to the number of carbon atoms.All other compounds are named based on the corresponding alkanes
#C Name Formula1 methane CH4
2 ethane C2H6
3 propane C3H8
4 butane C4H10
5 pentane C5H12
6 hexane C6H14
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6 hexane C6H14
7 heptane C7H16
8 octane C8H18
9 nonane C9H20
10 decane C10H22
Ú If the alkane molecule forms a ring, it is a “cycloalkane” and is formula is: CnH2n
(same as an alkene)
pentane heptane
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Ú If a molecule contains a non alkane part, the non alkane portion is referred to as:
Functional group
ÚThe alkane portion is then referred to as the Alkyl group
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pentanol
OH
alkyl
functionalgroup
ÚAlkyl group: the alkane portion of a molecule minus one H atom which was removed to allow bonding to the functional group
ÚNames of Alkyl groups: derived from the alkane
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alkane[alkane name - ane] + yl = alkyl
ÚWhen the structure of the alkyl group is of no concern, it is often replaced by “R’ as a generalization
83
ÚAlkenes: hydrocarbons with a C=CGeneral formula CnH2n (same as cycloalkanes)The C=C is the most reactive part of an alkene: it is the functional group
Names: [alkane – ane] + ene =alkene
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ethane ethene cyclohexanecyclohexene
Ú Alkene may have stereochemistry and can be labeled as cis or trans.
Ú In small rings (4-8 carbon atoms) containing a
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Ú In small rings (4-8 carbon atoms) containing a double bond, the term “cis” is omitted since the double bond is always in that geometry.
Ú In alkenes where there is more than one possibility for the position of the double bond, the location of the C=C must be specified
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ÚAlkynesHydrocarbons with a C-C triple bondThe triple bond is the functional group
Names: [alkane – ane] + yne = alkyne
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ÚAromatic Hydrocarbons:Aromatic hydrocarbons are derived from “benzene”Benzene is a 6-carbon cyclic structure containing 3 double bonds. Each double bond is separated from the next one by a single bond…a conjugated system where
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single bond…a conjugated system where the electron are delocalized
ÚNames: alkyl group first + benzene
ÚThe symbol Ar represents aryl groups the
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ÚThe symbol Ar represents aryl groups the same way R represented alkyl groups
Compounds Containing “O”– Alcohols– Ethers– Aldehydes and Ketones– Carboxylic Acids– Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
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– Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
ÚAlcohols: compounds containing the “OH” group, the hydroxyl group
ÚNames: [alkane – e] + ol = alkanolPosition of the “OH” group must be specified
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Ú Ethers: made of 2 alkyl groups bonded to the same “O”
Ú Names: [alkyl + alkyl] + ether or [dialkyl] + ether
If alkyl groups are different, use
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If alkyl groups are different, use alphabetical order.
Ú Aldehydes and Ketones
For both of these compounds, the functional group is the carbonyl group: C=O
Ú Ketones: 2 alkyl groups attached to C=O
Ú Aldehydes: 1 alkyl group and one H attached to C=O
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C=O
Ketones: [alkane – e] + one = alkanone C=O position must be specified
Aldehydes: [alkane – e] + al = alkanal OR[alkane – e] + aldehyde = alkanaldehydenot necessary to specify the position of
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not necessary to specify the position of C=O (always #1 unless with an acid derivative)
O
propanone(acetone)
O
2-pentanoneH
O
ethanal(acetaldehyde))
H
O
butanal
Ú Carboxylic acids: molecules containing the “carboxyl group”
OH
O
COOH CO2H
carboxyl group
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Ú Names: [alkane – e] + oic acid = alkanoic acid
Ú Carboxylic acid derivativesAll acid derivatives contain the carbonyl group bonded to an heteroatom (Cl, O, N).
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ÚAmines: alkylated derivatives of ammonia (NH3)
ÚAmines are basic. They are classified based on the number of alkyl groups attached to “N”.
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NH2R NHR NR N+RR R
R
R
RR
primaryamine
secondaryamine
tertiaryamine
quaternaryammoniumsalt
Study Problems:Ú 2-35
What is the relationship between the following pairs of compounds (same, structural or stereoisomers).
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