Chapter 2

Sociological Research Methods

Chapter Outline Why is Sociological Research

Necessary? The Sociological Research Process Research Methods Ethical Issues in

Sociological Research

Common Sense and Sociology: Suicide Common sense may tell us that people who

threaten suicide will not commit suicide. Sociological research indicates that people

who threaten to kill themselves may attempt suicide.

Common sense may tell us that suicide is caused by despair or depression. Research suggests that suicide is sometimes

used as a means of lashing out because of real or imagined wrongs.

Common Sense and Sociology: Suicide Historically, the commonsense view of suicide

was that it was a sin, a crime, and a mental illness.

Emile Durkheim related suicide to the issue of cohesiveness in society. In Suicide, Durkheim documented his

contention that a high suicide rate was symptomatic of large-scale societal problems.

His approach to research still influences researchers.

How Much Do You Know About Suicide? True or False?

In the United States, suicide occurs on the average of one every 18 minutes.

How Much Do You Know About Suicide? True

A suicide occurs on the average of every 18 minutes in the United States.

This differs with respect to the sex, race/ethnicity, and age of the individual. Men are four times more likely to kill

themselves than are women.

How Much Do You Know About Suicide? True or False?

More teenagers and young adults die from suicide than from cancer, heart disease, AIDS, birth defects, stroke, pneumonia, influenza, and chronic lung disease combined.

How Much Do You Know About Suicide? True.

Suicide is a leading cause of death among teenagers and young adults.

It is the third leading cause of death among young people between 15 and 24 years of age, following unintentional injuries and homicide.

Question Within the past 12 months, how many

people have you known personally that have committed suicide?

GSS National Data

Region East Midwest South West

None 91.9% 86.6% 90.2% 85.7%

1 or More

8.1% 13.4% 9.8% 14.3%

Sociology and Scientific Evidence Sociology involves debunking,

unmasking false ideas or opinions. Two approaches:

Normative Empirical

The Normative Approach The normative approach uses religion,

customs, habits, traditions, and law to answer important questions. It is based on beliefs about what is right

and wrong and what “ought to be” in society.

The Empirical Approach The empirical approach attempts to

answer questions through systematic collection and analysis. This is referred to as scientific method,

and is based on the assumption that knowledge is gained by direct, systematic observation.

Sociology and Scientific Standards

Two basic scientific standards must be met: Scientific beliefs should be supported

by good evidence or information. These beliefs should be open to public

debate and critiques from other scholars, with alternative interpretations being considered.

Question The scientific method is based on the

assumption that knowledge is best gained by:

a. direct observationb. systematic observationc. the support of good evidenced. the possibility for public debatee. all of these choices

Answer: e The scientific method is based on the

assumption that knowledge is best gained by: direct observation, systematic observation, the support of good evidence and the possibility for public debate.

Types of Empirical Studies Descriptive studies attempt to describe social

reality or provide facts about some group, practice, or event. Designed to find out what is happening to

whom, where, and when. Explanatory studies attempt to explain cause

and effect relationships and to provide information on why certain events do or do not occur.

Theory and Research Cycle A theory is a set of logically interrelated

statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events.

Research is the process of systematically collecting information for the purpose of testing an existing theory or generating a new one.

The theory and research cycle consists of deductive and inductive approaches.

Deductive Approach Researcher begins with a theory and uses

research to test the theory:1. Theories generate hypotheses.2. Hypotheses lead to observations.3. Observations lead to the formation of

generalizations.4. Generalizations are used to support the

theory, to suggest modifications to it, or to refute it.

Inductive ApproachResearcher collects information or data (facts or evidence) and then generates theories from the analysis of that data. 1.Specific observations suggest generalizations.2.Generalizations produce a tentative theory.3.The theory is tested through the formation of hypotheses.4.Hypotheses may provide suggestions for additional observations.

Question The _____ approach begins with a

theory and uses research to test the theory.

a. inductive

b. deductive

c. quantitative

d. qualitative

Answer: b The deductive approach begins with a

theory and uses research to test the theory.

Theory and Research Cycle

Understanding Statistical Data Presentations Sociologists use statistical tables to present a

lot of information in a relatively small space. To understand a table, follow these steps:

1. Read the title. 2. Check the source and explanatory notes.3. Read the headings for each column and

row.4. Examine and compare the data. 5. Draw conclusions.

U.S. Suicides, Sex And Method

Males Females

Method 1970 2000 1970 2000

Total 16,629 23,618 6,851 5,732

Firearms 9,704 14,454 2,068 2,132

Poisoning 3,299 2,792 3,285 2,067

Hanging/strangulation

2,422 4,733 831 955

Other 1,204 1,639 667 578

Quantitative and Qualitative Research Quantitative research focuses on data that

can be measured numerically (comparing rates of suicide, for example).

Qualitative research focuses on interpretive description rather than statistics to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WDo7jwikqqI

Conventional Research Model

1. Select and define the research problem.

2. Review previous research.

3. Formulate the hypothesis.

4. Develop the research design.

5. Collect and analyze the data.

6. Draw conclusions and report the findings.

Question With _____research, interpretive description

(words) rather than statistics (numbers) is used to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships.

a. inductiveb. deductivec. quantitatived. qualitative

Answer: d With qualitative research, interpretive

description (words) rather than statistics (numbers) is used to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships.

Definitions Hypothesis - a statement of the relationship

between two or more concepts. The independent variable is presumed to

cause or determine a dependent variable. The dependent variable is assumed to depend

on or be caused by the independent variable(s).

Definitions In random sampling, every member of

an entire populationbeing studied has the same chance of being selected.

In probability sampling, participants are deliberately chosen because they have specific characteristics, possibly including such factors as age, sex, race/ethnicity, and educational attainment.

Definitions Validity is the extent to which a study or

research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.

Reliability is the extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results when applied to different individuals at one time or to the same individuals over time.

Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables Causal Relationship

Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables Inverse Causal Relationship

Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables Multiple-cause Explanation\

Question In a medical study, lung cancer could be

the _____ variable, while smoking could be the ______ variable.

a. dependant, independent

b. independent, dependant

c. valid, reliable

d. reliable, valid

Answer: a In a medical study, lung cancer could be

the dependant variable, while smoking could be the independent variable.

Question In the book Suicide, Emile Durkheim used the

_____ as the independent variable to determine its influence on the dependent variable, the rate of suicide.

a. degree of social integration in societyb. proportion of mental illness in societyc. degree of the spread of hysteria in the

late 19th centuryd. degree of religious participation

Answer: a In the book Suicide, Emile Durkheim used the

degree of social integration in society as the independent variable to determine its influence on the dependent variable, the rate of suicide.

Qualitative Research Method

1. Researcher begins with a general approach rather than a highly detailed plan.

2. Researcher has to decide when the literature review and theory application should take place.

Qualitative Research Method3. The study presents a detailed view of

the topic.4. Access to people or other resources that

can provide necessary data is crucial.5. Appropriate research method(s) are

important for acquiring useful qualitative data.

Research Methods: Survey Research

Describes a population without interviewing each individual.

Standardized questions force respondents into categories.

Relies on self-reported information, and some people may not be truthful.

Research Methods: Analysis of Existing Data Materials studied may include:

books, diaries, poems, and graffiti movies, television shows,

advertisements, greeting cards music, art, and even garbage

Research Methods: Field Research Study of social life in its natural setting. Observing and interviewing people where

they live, work, and play. Generates observations that are best

described verbally rather than numerically.

Approaches to Field Research

Participant observation Collecting observations while part of the

activities of the group being studied. Action Research

Ethnography Detailed study of the life and activities

of a group of people over a period of years.

Approaches to Field Research Case Studies - An in-depth, multifaceted

investigation of a single event, person, or social grouping. A collective case study involves multiple

cases. An unstructured interview is an extended,

open-ended interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee.

Grounded Theory Researchers who use grounded theory

collect and analyze data simultaneously. For example, after in-depth interviews

with 106 suicide attempters, researchers in one study concluded that half of the individuals who attempted suicide wanted both to live and to die at the time of their attempt.

Research Methods: Experiments Study the impact of certain variables on

subjects’ attitudes or behavior. Designed to create “real-life” situations. Used to demonstrate a cause-and-effect

relationship between variables.

Question A university asks you to participate in an

interview asking questions about your cheating attitudes, experiences, and behaviors. The researchers assure complete confidentiality. How likely are you to agree to the interview?

a. Very likelyb. Somewhat likelyc. Unsured. Somewhat unlikelye. Very unlikely

Demonstrating Cause-and-Effect RelationshipsThree conditions must be fulfilled:

1. You must show that a correlation exists between the two variables.

2. You must ensure that the independent variable preceded the dependent variable.

3. You must make sure that any change in the dependent variable was not due to an extraneous variable—one outside the stated hypothesis.

Correlation Versus Causation A study might find that exposure to a suicide

hot line is associated (correlated) with a change in attitude toward suicide.

But if some of the students who were exposed to the hot line also received psychiatric counseling, the counseling may be the “hidden” cause of the observed change in attitude.

In general, correlations alone do not prove causation.

Correlation Versus Causation

Observed Correlation

Possible Causal Explanation

Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods

Research Method

Strengths Weaknesses

Experiments (Laboratory,

Field, Natural)

Control over research.

Ability to isolate experimental

factors.Little time and

money required.Replication possible,

except for natural experiments.

Artificial Reliance on volunteers or

captive audiences.Ethical questions of

deception.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods

Research Method

Strengths Weaknesses

Survey Research

(Questionnaire, Interview, Telephone

Survey)

Useful in describing features of a large population without

interviewing everyone

Relatively large samples possible

Multivariate analysis possible

Potentially forced answers

Respondent untruthfulness onemotional issues Data that are not

always “hard facts” presented as such

in statistical analyses

Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods

Research Method

Strengths Weaknesses

Secondary Analysis of

Existing Data (Existing Statistics, Content Analysis)

Data readily available.

inexpensive to collect.

Longitudinal and comparative studies

possible.Replication possible.

Difficult to determine accuracy of data.

Failure of data gathered by others to meet goals of current

research.Questions of privacy when using diaries,

other personal documents.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods

Research Method

Strengths Weaknesses

Field Research

(Participant Observation, Case Study, Ethnography, Unstructured

Interview)

Gain insider’s view.Useful for studying behaviors in natural

settings.Longitudinal studies

possible.Documentation of social problems of groups possible.

Forum for previously excluded groups.

Problems generalizing results.

Nonprecise data measurements.Inability to test

theories.Difficult to make

comparisons.Not representative.

Triangulation Triangulation is the term used to describe the

approach of combining multiple methods in a given study.

Triangulation refers not only to research methods but also to multiple data sources, investigators, and theoretical perspectives in a study.

Multiple data sources include persons, situations, contexts, and time.

ASA Code of Ethics

1. Disclose research findings in full and include all possible interpretations of the data.

2. Safeguard the participants’ right to privacy and dignity while protecting them from harm.

ASA Code of Ethics

3. Protect confidential information provided by participants.

4. Acknowledge research collaboration and disclose all financial support.

Quick Quiz

1. The unmasking of fallacies in the everyday and official interpretations of society is called:

a. defrauding

b. defeating

c. debunking

d. devaluing

Answer: c The unmasking of fallacies in the

everyday and official interpretations of society is called: debunking.

2. The approach where the researcher collects information or data and then generates theories from analysis of the data is called:

a. inductive

b. deductive

c. quantitative

d. qualitative

Answer: a The approach where the researcher

collects information or data and then generates theories from analysis of the data is called inductive.

3. With _____ research, the goal is scientific objectivity, and the focus is on data that can be measured numerically.

a. inductive

b. deductive

c. quantitative

d. qualitative

Answer: c With quantitative research, the goal is

scientific objectivity, and the focus is on data that can be measured numerically.

4. _____ exists when two variable are associated more frequently than could be expected by chance.

a. Multiple causation

b. Regression relation

c. Correlation

d. Spurious relation

Answer: c Correlation exists when two variable

are associated more frequently than could be expected by chance.

5. Reliability is the extent to which a study or research instrument:

a. measures the phenomenon it is intended to measure.

b. yields consistent results.

c. approximates a true experiment.

d. relies on other variables to preserve validity.

Answer: b Reliability is the extent to which a study

or research instrument yields consistent results.

6. Validity is the extent to which a study or research instrument:

a. accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.

b. yields consistent results.

c. approximates a true experiment.

d. relies on other variables to preserve validity.

Answer: a Validity is the extent to which a study or

research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.