Chapter 2 Gender Stereotypes and Other Gender Biases

Chapter 2Chapter 2Gender Stereotypes and Gender Stereotypes and

Other Gender BiasesOther Gender Biases

The Psychology The Psychology of Womenof Women

Biased Representations Biased Representations of Women and Menof Women and Men

TerminologyStereotypes

Prejudice

Discrimination

Gender Bias

Androcentrism

Normative-Male Problem


Gender Biases in Religion and Mythology1. Women are evil.

2. Women are terrifying sorceresses.

3. Women are virtuous.


Gender Biases in LanguageTerms Used for Women

• non-parallel terms• negative terms• infantilizing terms


Gender Biases in LanguageThe Masculine Generic

• masculine generic terms are not gender neutral• Gastil's research on mental images• research on career choices• shifting to gender-neutral language


Gender Biases in the MediaStereotyped Representations

1. Women are relatively invisible.

2. Women are relatively inaudible.

3. Women are seldom shown working outside the home.

4. Women are shown doing housework.

5. Women and men are represented differently.


Gender Biases in the MediaStereotyped Representations (continued)

6. Women’s bodies are used differently from men’s bodies.

7. Women of color are underrepresented, and they are often shown in a particularly biased way.

8. Lower-social-class women are underrepresented, and they are often shown in a particularly biased way.


Gender Biases in the MediaThe Effects of Stereotyped Representations

Reflecting and influencing reality• Behaviors and beliefs• Gender-role attitudes• Cognitive performance

People’s Beliefs About People’s Beliefs About Women and MenWomen and Men

The Content of StereotypesCommunion & Agency

Stereotypes About Women and Men From Different Ethnic Groups

• gender and ethnicity combine to create a variety of gender stereotypes.

• subtypes within gender-ethnicity categories


The Content of Stereotypes

Subject Variables That Could Influence Stereotypes

• Gender• Ethnicity• Culture• Class• Ableism


Implicit Gender Stereotypes

Explicit vs. Implicit Gender Stereotypes

Implicit Association Test (IAT)• stereotype-consistent pairings

vs. stereotype-inconsistent pairings


Attitudes Toward Women’s Competence

Women’s competence is likely to be devalued:

• when males are doing the evaluating• when the participants have traditional

attitudes • when little information is available about a

person’s qualifications• bias may be strongest when a woman is

acting in a stereotypically masculine fashion• --Victoria Brescoll’s “Double Bind” work


Attitudes Toward Women’s “Pleasantness”

Women & menWomen & feminists

Ambivalent Sexism (Glick & Fiske, 1996, 2001)

Hostile sexismBenevolent sexismAmbivalent sexism and gender

equality


Gender Discrimination in Interpersonal Interactions

Discrimination in North AmericaLaboratory research

Real-life gender discrimination• gender-stereotyped remarks• demeaning comments and behaviors• sexual comments and behaviors

Other forms of interpersonal gender discrimination


HeterosexismHeterosexism: a belief system that devalues lesbians, gay males, and bisexuals—or any group that is not exclusively heterosexual

Sexual prejudice: a negative attitude toward someone because of her or his sexual orientation


HeterosexismExamples of Heterosexism

• Lack of family acceptance• Verbal abuse• Physical assault• Institutional discrimination

Factors Correlated with Heterosexism• Men more negative than women• More negative attitudes toward gay men than

toward lesbians

The Personal Consequences of The Personal Consequences of Gender StereotypesGender Stereotypes

Gender Stereotypes and Cognitive ErrorsSocial Cognitive Approach: stereotypes are belief systems that guide the way we process information

Categorization

ErrorsExaggerating the Contrast Between Women and Men

Gender polarization

Personal Consequences Personal Consequences of Gender Stereotypesof Gender Stereotypes

Gender Stereotypes and Cognitive ErrorsThe Normative Male

Making Biased Judgments about Females and Males

Judgments fall back on stereotypesAttributions for success

Memory for Personal CharacteristicsGender-consistent and gender-inconsistent information

Multitasking and strong stereotypes


Gender Stereotypes and BehaviorSelf-Fulfilling ProphecyStereotype Threat--Claude Steele


Internalizing Gender StereotypesAssessing Self-Concepts about Gender

Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI)

Androgynous

Problems with androgynyInternalizing Gender Stereotypes

Variety of gender-related characteristicsSocial categoriesSocial context


Internalizing Gender StereotypesAre Gender Stereotypes Personally Important?

Conclusions About Internalizing Gender Stereotypes

• Flexible self-concepts about gender• Views about gender-related characteristics• Confronting your "-ISMS"

Chapter 3 Chapter 3 Infancy and ChildhoodInfancy and Childhood


Background on Gender Background on Gender DevelopmentDevelopment

People’s Responses to Infant Girls and Boys

Parental Preferences About Sex of Children• North America• Cultural differences

People's Stereotypes About Infant Girls and Boys

• Parents' ratings of infant sons and daughters• Strangers' judgments• Greeting cards• Social constructionism


Theories of Gender DevelopmentThe Social Learning Approach

• Children are rewarded for "gender-appropriate" behavior, and they are punished for "gender-inappropriate" behavior

• Children watch and imitate the behavior of other people of their own gender


Theories of Gender DevelopmentThe Cognitive Developmental Approach

• Children develop powerful gender schemas

• Children use gender schemas to evaluate themselves, other people, and other things

• Gender schemas• Gender identity


Theories of Gender DevelopmentGeneral Comments about Theories of Gender Development

• Children’s behaviors are important• Children’s thoughts are important

Factors That Shape Factors That Shape Gender TypingGender Typing

ParentsInfants vs. ToddlersGender-Typed Activities

• Chores• Toys• Discouraging “gender-inappropriate” activity• Different messages to girls vs. boys• Messages from male adults


Parents (continued)

Conversations About Emotions• Daughters vs. sons• Different emotions discussed

Attitudes About Aggression• Research inconsistent• Imitation• Power dynamics

Attitudes about Independence


Parents (continued)Individual Differences in Parents' Gender Typing

• parents vary widely• ethnicity• social class• nontraditional gender beliefs


Peers• Peer group

Rejection of Nontraditional Behavior

Gender Segregation• entitlement

Gender Prejudice• preference for own gender• verbal harassment• physical hostility


Peers (continued)Differential Treatment (for Girls and Boys)

• attractiveness• prosocial behavior • physical aggression


SchoolTeachers' Behavior

• girls as invisible

• provide boys with more positive feedback and attention

Students' Characteristics and Teachers' Treatment

• ignore girls of color

• discourage girls' assertiveness and responsibility

• social class


School (continued)Encouraging Change in North American Schools

• teacher training in gender and ethnic diversity• de-emphasize gender schemas• pay equal attention to girls• reduce inappropriate stereotypes about gender


School (continued)Gender and Education on the International Level

• schooling• literacy rates• employment• birth rates and infant mortality


The MediaTelevision and Videogames

• frequency of exposure• gender stereotypes• males more visible• males and females perform different activities• correlation between TV viewing and gender

stereotyping• parental controls and involvement


The Media (continued)Books

• main characters• activities• stereotyped roles

Children’s Knowledge Children’s Knowledge About GenderAbout Gender

Infants' Basic Information About Gender

Children's Usage of Gender Labels

Children’s Stereotypes About Activities and Occupations

Reactions to “Gender Inconsistent” Activities

Choosing Activities & Toys

Gender Schemas & Occupations

Children’s Knowledge Children’s Knowledge About GenderAbout Gender

• Sex of the Child

• Ethnicity• Social Class• Family Views

• Age of the Child• Flexibility• Individual Differences

Children's Stereotypes About Personality

Factors Related to Children's Gender Stereotypes

Cognitive AbilitiesCognitive Abilities

Explaining the Gender ComparisonsBiological Explanations

• 1. Genetic explanations

• 2. Hormonal explanations

• 3. Brain organization explanations Lateralization


Explaining the Gender ComparisonsExperience as an Explanation

• 1. Different experiences with mathematics and spatial activities outside school

• 2. Parents and teachers may provide different experiences for males and females

• 3. Lack of positive images & role models


Explaining the Gender ComparisonsAttitudes as an Explanation

• 1. Parents’ and teachers’ attitudes and children’s self-confidence

• 2. Boys perceive themselves as more competent in math than girls do, even though boys may actually receive lower grades

• 3. Students believe that math, computers, and science are associated with males

• 4. Stereotype threat

Attitudes About Attitudes About AchievementAchievement

Confidence in Your Own Achievement and Ability

Self-Confidence and Evaluation Provided by Others• Women’s self-confidence is influenced by comments

from other people; men’s self-confidence is less likely to change based on comments from other people.

• Women are more likely than men to use the information from other people’s evaluations in assessing their own performance, even when the evaluations are not accurate

Chapter 6 Chapter 6 Gender Comparisons in Gender Comparisons in Social and Personality Social and Personality

CharacteristicsCharacteristics


Theoretical BackgroundSocial Constructionist Approach: We construct or invent our own versions of reality, based on prior experiences, social interactions, and beliefs.

IntroductionIntroduction

Theoretical Background (continued)Social-Setting Factors Related to Size of Gender Differences in Social and Personality Characteristics

1. Gender differences are usually largest when other people are present.

• 2. Gender differences are generally largest when gender is prominent and other shared roles are minimized.

• 3. Gender differences are usually largest when the behavior requires specific gender-related skills.

IntroductionIntroduction

Communication PatternsCommunication Patterns

Verbal CommunicationTalkativeness

Interruptions• Status

Language Style

The Content of Language


Nonverbal CommunicationPersonal SpaceBody PostureGazeFacial Expression

• Smiling• Anger

Decoding Ability• Facial Expressions• Vocal Cues


Nonverbal Communication (continued)Facial Expression

• Smiling• Anger

Decoding Ability• Facial Expressions• Vocal Cues

CommunicationCommunication Patterns Patterns

Potential Explanations for Gender Differences in Communication

Power and Social Status Explanations

Social Learning Explanations

Conclusions

Characteristics Related Characteristics Related to Helping and Caringto Helping and Caring

AltruismHypothetical ScenariosHeroismSocial Role

NurturanceWho finds babies interesting and engaging?Operational Definitions


Empathy1. Females and males are equally empathic

when the operational definition requires physiological measures.

2. Females and males are equally empathic when the operational definition requires nonverbal measures.

3. Females are more empathic than males when the operational definition is based on self-report.


FriendshipThe Nature of Girls' and Boys' Same-Gender Friendships

• Individuals• Groups• Self-disclosure


FriendshipThe Nature of Women’s and Men’s Friendships

• What friends do• Intimacy & self-disclosure • Qualities important for an intimate friendship

How Women and Men Help Their Friends

Characteristics Related Characteristics Related to Aggression and Powerto Aggression and Power

Gender and Aggression: The Social Constructionist Perspective

The Language of AggressionCultural Constructions of Aggression


Physical Aggression Versus Relational Aggression

Physical AggressionRelational AggressionPreschoolers


Other Factors Related to Gender and Aggression

1. Gender differences are relatively large when measuring spontaneous aggression.

2. Gender differences are relatively large when the individuals know each other.

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Chapter 2 Gender Stereotypes and Other Gender Biases