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Chapter 19. Air Pollution. Core Case Study: When Is a Lichen Like a Canary?. Lichens can warn us of bad air because they absorb it as a source of nourishment. Figure 19-1. Core Case Study: When Is a Lichen Like a Canary?. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Chapter 19
Air Pollution
Core Case Study: When Is a Lichen Like a Canary?
Lichens can warn us of bad air because they absorb it as a source of nourishment.
Figure 19-1
Core Case Study: When Is a Lichen Like a Canary?
Some lichen species are sensitive to specific air-polluting chemicals.
After Chernobyl, more than 70,000 reindeer had to be killed because they ate highly radioactive lichens.
Because lichens are widespread, long-lived, and anchored in place, they can help track pollution to its source.
STRUCTURE AND SCIENCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere consists of several layers with different temperatures, pressures, and compositions.
Figure 19-2
Fig. 19-2, p. 440
Atmospheric pressure (millibars)
Temperature
ThermospherePressure
MesopauseHeating via ozone
Mesosphere
Stratopause
Alti
tude
(kilo
met
ers)
Stratosphere Alti
tude
(mile
s)
TropopauseOzone “layer”
Heating from the earthTroposphere
Temperature (˚C)
Pressure = 1,000 millibars at ground level
(Sea level)
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE Troposphere: innermost layer, decreasing
temp, movement causes weather, contains 80% of air mass & 99% of H2O vapor
Stratosphere: increasing temp, Ozone filters out most of the sun’s UV radiation. Very stable, little mixing
Mesosphere: decreasing temp Thermosphere: outer most layer, increasing
temp (up to 1500oC) 2 sub layers: ionosphere-northern lights, exosphere- satellites
AIR POLLUTION
Some primary air pollutants may react with one another or with other chemicals in the air to form secondary air pollutants.
Figure 19-3
Fig. 19-3, p. 442
Primary Pollutants
CO CO2 Secondary PollutantsSO2 NO NO2Most hydrocarbons SO3
Most suspended particles HNO3H2O2 O3 PANs
Most NO3– and SO4
2– saltsSources Natural Stationary
Mobile
H3SO4
• The activities of humans make a make a major contribution to global air pollution, but natural processes can also be responsible.
Lightning causes forest fires, oxidizes nitrogen, and creates ozone.
• Volcanic activity releases toxic, corrosive, & greenhouse gases. Volcanic particulates can also block out sunlight and contribute to global cooling.
Natural Processes
Causes of Air Pollution
Motor vehiclesHydrocarbons
HCNitric oxide NOCarbon monoxide
COSmoke and lead
IndustrySulfur doxide SO2
Nitrogen dioxide NO2
Carbon monoxide COHydrogen sulfide H2S
Dust, smoke
VolcanoesSulfur oxides
Carbon dioxideVolcanic dust
Photochemical smogIn the presence of direct sunlight,
the mixture of pollutants from primary sources reacts to form
ozone, nitric acid, PANs (peroxyacyl nitrates), and organic
compounds such as formaldehyde.
Petrol and diesel combustion engines
Emissions from power plants and industry, as well as burning fossil fuels
Volcanoes and forest fires are a natural source of air pollutants
Methane from the belching and flatus of ruminants
Major Air Pollutants
Carbon oxides: Carbon monoxide (CO) is a highly toxic gas that
forms during the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing materials.
93% of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the troposphere occurs as a result of the carbon cycle.
7% of CO2 in the troposphere occurs as a result of human activities (mostly burning fossil fuels).• It is not regulated as a pollutant under the U.S. Clean
Air Act.
Major Air Pollutants Nitrogen oxides and nitric acid:
Nitrogen oxide (NO) forms when nitrogen and oxygen gas in air react at the high-combustion temperatures in automobile engines and coal-burning plants. NO can also form from lightening and certain soil bacteria.• NO reacts with air to form NO2.• NO2 reacts with water vapor in the air to form nitric acid
(HNO3) and nitrate salts (NO3-) which are components
of acid deposition. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a greenhouse gas, from
fertilizer, animal waste, & burning fossil fuel
Major Air Pollutants
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfuric acid: About one-third of SO2 in the troposphere occurs
naturally through the sulfur cycle. Two-thirds come from human sources, mostly
combustion (S+ O2 SO2) of sulfur-containing coal and from oil refining and smelting of sulfide ores.
SO2 in the atmosphere can be converted to sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and sulfate salts (SO4
2-) that return to earth as a component of acid deposition.
Major Air Pollutants
Suspended particulate matter (SPM): Consists of a variety of solid particles and liquid
droplets small and light enough to remain suspended in the air.
The most harmful forms of SPM are fine particles (PM-10, with an average diameter < 10 micrometers) and ultrafine particles (PM-2.5).
According to the EPA, SPM is responsible for about 60,000 premature deaths a year in the U.S.
Major Air Pollutants
Ozone (O3): Is a highly reactive gas that is a major
component of photochemical smog. It can
• Cause and aggravate respiratory illness.• Can aggravate heart disease.• Damage plants, rubber in tires, fabrics, and paints.
Major Air Pollutants Volatile organic compounds (VOCs):
Hydrocarbons emitted by the leaves of many plants Methane
• 1/3 natural sources: plants, wetlands, termites, anaerobic respiration
• 2/3 from human sources: landfills, oil & natural gas wells, cattle belching & flatulence, and rice paddies
Other VOCs: industrial solvents (trichlorethylene, benzene, vinyl chloride) and components of gasoline plastics, drugs, synthetic rubber.• Long-term exposure to benzene can cause cancer, blood
disorders, and immune system damage.
Major Air Pollutants
Radon (Rn): Is a naturally occurring radioactive gas found in
some types of soil and rock. It can seep into homes and buildings sitting
above such deposits. Causes lung cancer
URBAN OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION
Industrial smog is a mixture of sulfur dioxide, droplets of sulfuric acid, and a variety of suspended solid particles emitted mostly by burning coal. In most developed countries where coal and
heavy oil is burned, industrial smog is not a problem due to reasonably good pollution control or with tall smokestacks that transfer the pollutant to rural areas.
Case Study: South Asia’s Massive Brown Cloud
A huge dark brown cloud of industrial smog, caused by coal-burning in countries such as China and India, stretches over much of southeastern Asia. In areas beneath the cloud, photosynthesis is
reduced interfering with crop development. Fine particles and droplets in the cloud appear to
be changing regional climates (including rainfall).• May have contributed to floods in 2002 and 2005
which killed thousands of people.
Sunlight plus Cars Equals Photochemical Smog
Photochemical smog is a mixture of air pollutants formed by the reaction of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic hydrocarbons under the influence of sunlight.
Sunlight plus Cars Equals Photochemical Smog
Mexico City is one of the many cities in sunny, warm, dry climates with many motor vehicles that suffer from photochemical smog.
Figure 19-4
Factors Influencing Levels of Outdoor Air Pollution
Outdoor air pollution can be reduced by: settling out, precipitation, sea spray, winds, and
chemical reactions. Outdoor air pollution can be increased by:
urban buildings (slow wind dispersal of pollutants), mountains (promote temperature inversions), and high temperatures (promote photochemical reactions).
Temperature Inversions
Cold, cloudy weather in a valley surrounded by mountains can trap air pollutants (left).
Areas with sunny climate, light winds, mountains on three sides and an ocean on the other (right) are susceptible to inversions.
Figure 19-5
Fig. 19-5, p. 447
Warmer air Descending warm air mass
Inversion layer Inversion layer
Sea breezeIncreasing altitude
Decreasing temperature
ACID DEPOSITION
Sulfur dioxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulates can react in the atmosphere to produce acidic chemicals that can travel long distances before returning to the earth’s surface. Tall smokestacks reduce local air pollution but
can increase regional air pollution.
ACID DEPOSITION
Acid deposition consists of rain, snow, dust, or gas with a pH lower than 5.6.
Figure 19-6
Fig. 19-6, p. 448
WindTransformation to sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3)
Windborne ammonia gas and particles of cultivated soil partially neutralize acids and form dry sulfate and nitrate salts
Wet acid depostion (droplets of H2SO4 and HNO3 dissolved in rain and snow)Nitric oxide (NO)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and NO
Dry acid deposition (sulfur dioxide gas and particles of sulfate and nitrate salts)
Acid fogFarm
OceanLakes in deep
soil high in limestone are
buffered
Lakes in shallow soil low in limestone
become acidic
ACID DEPOSITION
pH measurements in relation to major coal-burning and industrial plants.
Figure 19-7
ACID DEPOSITION
Acid deposition contributes to chronic respiratory disease can leach toxic metals (such as lead and
mercury) from soils and rocks into acidic lakes used as sources for drinking water.
ACID DEPOSITION
Acid deposition Damages statues, monuments, buildings Kills fish Harms crops & trees Is a regional problem downwind from coal-
burning facilities.
ACID DEPOSITION
Figure 19-8
ACID DEPOSITION
Air pollution is one of several interacting stresses that can damage, weaken, or kill trees and pollute surface and groundwater.
Figure 19-9
Fig. 19-9, p. 451
Emissions
SO2 NOxAcid deposition
H2O2 O3
Others
Direct damage to leaves & bark
Reduced photo-synthesis and growth
Susceptibility to drought, extreme cold, insects, mosses, & disease organisms
Soil acidification
Tree death
Leaching
of soil nutrients
Release of toxic metal ions
Root damage
Reduced nutrient & water uptakeAcids
Lake
Groundwater
PANs
Fig. 19-10, p. 452
SolutionsAcid Deposition
Prevention Cleanup Reduce air pollution by improving energy efficiency
Add lime to neutralize acidified lakes
Reduce coal useAdd phosphate fertilizer to neutralize acidified lakes
Increase natural gas use
Increase use of renewable energy resources
Burn low-sulfur coal
Remove SO2 particulates & NOx from smokestack gases
Remove NOx from motor vehicular exhaust
Tax emissions of SO2
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION Indoor air pollution usually is a greater threat
to human health than outdoor air pollution. According to the EPA, the four most
dangerous indoor air pollutants in developed countries are: Tobacco smoke. Formaldehyde. Radioactive radon-222 gas. Very small fine and ultrafine particles.
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION Indoor air pollutants 2 – 5 times higher than
outdoor levels Source of cancer risk: 6000 deaths/yr Pesticide residue brought in on shoes Mold & mildew greatest cause of allergic
reactions Dust mite & coachroach droppings increase
asthma rates by 3x
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION
Household dust mites that feed on human skin and dust, live in materials such as bedding and furniture fabrics. Can cause asthma
attacks and allergic reactions in some people.
Figure 19-12
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)
1 in 5 commercial buildings considered “sick”• When 20% or more report symptoms when inside the
building and/or report relief of symptoms when outside Exposes employees to health risks from unhealthy levels
of indoor air pollutants Dizzyness, headaches, coughing, shortness of breath,
nausea, burning eyes, sore throats, respiratory infections, flu-like symptoms, skin irritation, chronic fatigue
Buildings at risk• Newer – formaldehyde & other VOCs offgasses, also
less gas exchange because more air-tight• Older – lead, asbestos, mold, mildew, poor ventilation,
temperature, & humidity control
Chloroform
Benzo-a-pyrene
Styrene
Radon-222
Methylene Chloride
Tobacco Smoke
Carbon Monoxide
Asbestos
Nitrogen Oxides
1, 1, 1-Trichloroethane
Particulates
FormaldehydeTetrachloroethylene
Para-dichlorobenzene
Fig. 19-11, p. 453
‣ Major indoor air pollutants:Radon is a radioactive gas that results from the decay of radium and uranium found in the bedrock under buildings. Responsible for tens of thousands of lung cancer deaths each year. Prevention: Remove radon by sealing or ventilating where radon enters the home.
Molds and allergens are caused by moisture induced growth of mold and mildew and the release of animal dander and plant pollen. Prevention: filtration, humidity and dust control methods
Carbon monoxide can be released from tobacco smoke, space heaters that use fossil fuel and wood burning stoves. Causes headaches and dizziness. Prevention: Proper ventilation
Indoor Air Pollution
Radon
Molds & Allergens
Carbon Monoxide
FormaldehydeAsbestos
Lead
‣ Major indoor air pollutants:VOCs like formaldehyde that can be associated with new building material like furniture and carpeting. Causes irritation of eyes, nose, throat and lungs Prevention: Ventilation or alternative materials
Asbestos fibers are present in floor or ceiling tiles and insulation materials of older buildings. Long term inhalation can lead to lung disease or mesothelioma. Prevention: Removal or sealing
Lead can be found in old plumbing pipes and fixtures, older paints, and some ceramic glazes. Causes impaired mental and physical development. Prevention: alternative paints or plumbing
Indoor Air Pollution
Radon
Molds & Allergens
Carbon Monoxide
FormaldehydeAsbestos
Lead
Case Study: Radioactive Radon
Radon-222, a radioactive gas found in some soils and rocks, can seep into some houses and increase the risk of lung cancer.
Sources and paths of entry for indoor radon-222 gas.
Figure 19-13
Fig. 19-13, p. 454
Outlet vents for furnaces and dryers
Open window
Openings around pipes
Cracks in wall
Slab joints
Wood stoveCracks in floor
Clothes dryer
Sump pumpFurnace
Slab Radon-222 gas Uranium-238
Soil
HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
Your respiratory system can help protect you from air pollution, but some air pollutants can overcome these defenses. Figure 19-14
Fig. 19-14, p. 455
Epithelial cellCilia
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
Goblet cell (secreting mucus)
Pharynx (throat)
MucusTrachea (windpipe)
BronchusBronchioles
Right lung
Bronchioles
Alveolar sac (sectioned)
Alveoli
Alveolar duct
HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
Normal human lungs (left) and the lungs of a person who died of emphysema (right).
Figure 19-15
Air Pollution is a Big Killer
Each year, air pollution prematurely kills about 3 million people, mostly from indoor air pollution in developing countries. In the U.S., the EPA estimates that annual deaths
related to indoor and outdoor air pollution range from 150,000 to 350,000.
According to the EPA, each year more than 125,000 Americans get cancer from breathing diesel fumes.
Air Pollution is a Big Killer
Spatial distribution of premature deaths from air pollution in the United States.
Figure 19-16
PREVENTING & REDUCING AIR POLLUTION
The Clean Air Acts in the United States have greatly reduced outdoor air pollution from six major pollutants: Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides Sulfur dioxides Suspended particulate matter (less than PM-10) Ozone Lead
‣ Major primary pollutants:Carbon monoxide (CO) is odorless and colorless poisonous gas emitted form the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels especially for transportation and combustion of waste. CO has a stronger affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen in the blood and can potentially cause suffocation. NAAQS criteria: Yes
Lead (Pb) is a product of leaded gasoline and comes out of the exhaust of cars and is also a product of metal smelting. Lead is a heavy metal that is toxic to nerve cells and can cause neurological damage. NAAQS criteria: YesSulfur dioxide (SO2) is produced from industrial processes that burn fossil fuels like coal and petroleum. SO2 is implicated as a precursor to acid rain. Volcanoes are a non-anthropogenic source of SO2. SO2 reacts with the atmosphere to produce H2SO4 (sulfuric acid). NAAQS criteria: Yes
Primary Criteria Air Pollution
‣ Major pollutants:Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is both primary and secondary and is emitted form high temperature combustion like power plants for energy production and automobile engines NO2 (N2+O2 NO2) Besides being a major component in photochemical smog, it can also lead to acid deposition. NAAQS criteria: Yes
Particulate matter (suspended particulate matter / spm) is both primary and secondary and consist of tiny particles, solid or liquid, suspended in a gas and are derived from soot and SO2 from coal burning. Dust from human activities and dust from storms, fires & volcanoes are other sources. Causes respiratory irritation. NAAQS criteria: YesTropospheric ozone (O3) aka Ground level ozone is a secondary air pollutant that forms in a reaction with NO from motor vehicles, VOC’s, sunlight, heat and O2. Ozone in the troposphere damages plants and respiratory systems, traps heat and contributes to thermal inversions. NAAQS criteria: Yes
Criteria Air Pollution
2 SO2 + 2 H2O + O2 → 2 H2SO4
PREVENTING & REDUCING AIR POLLUTION
The EPA also established standards for 187 hazardous air pollutants (HAPs)
Cause serious health and ecological effects Chlorinated hydrocarbons Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
• Benzene• Formaldehyde
Toxic metals
‣ Major air pollutants:Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a primary polluntant produced from the combustion of any organic material: gasoline, petroleum, coal, natural gas, biomass and also is a product of respiration. CO2 is a greenhouse gas that absorbs thermal radiation and re-emits the radiation at lower wavelengths.
Mercury (Hg) is a primary pollutant and the product of the combustion of coal. Mercury is a heavy metal that is toxic to nerve cells and is capable of bioaccumulation and biomagnification once fallout occurs and the Hg gets into water.
Nitrogen oxides (NO) is a prmary pollutant from transportation (cars, trucks, trains, boats & planes). High heat of engine causes O2 + N2 NO. Besides being poisonous NO reacts with O2 to form NO2, leading to ground-level ozone production.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are both primary and secondary pollutants and are emitted from automobile exhaust, solvents, industrial processes, and household chemicals. These volatile chemicals contribute to climate change & ground level ozone. Some are carcinogenic (cancer causing) while some harm the respiratory system.
Non-Criteria Air Pollution
‣ Major air pollutants:Nitric acid (HNO3) is a secondary pollutant produced from reactions associated with transportation (cars, trucks, trains, boats and planes). NO2 + H2O NO + HNO3. Besides being a contributor to acid deposition nitric acid also harms respiratory systems and causes loss of soil fertility by leaching nutrients.
Peroxyacetyl nitrates (PANs) are secondary pollutants produced from reactions associated with transportation (cars, trucks, trains, boats and planes). NO2 + hydrocarbons (“HC”) PANs. PANs are a strong respiratory and eye irritant, can be potentially mutagenic and can damage vegetation by the inhibition of photosynthesis.Sulfur trioxide (SO3) is a secondary pollutant produced from the combustion of coal and petroleum. (Coal has variable quantities of sulfur.) SO3 reacts with water in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4) which contributes to acid deposition.
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is a secondary pollutant produced from the combustion of coal and petroleum. (Coal has variable quantities of sulfur.) H2SO4 contributes to acid deposition and harms respiratory systems and causes loss of soil fertility by leaching nutrients and possibly releasing toxic elemernts.
Secondary Air Pollutants
Air Quality is better in US; EPA estimates since 1970
Particulate Matter (PM) – down 78% Carbon Monoxide (CO) – down 56% Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) – down 30% Lead (Pb) – down 98% Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) – down 32% Ground level Ozone (O3) – down 14% VOCs – down 55%Air quality is worse in developing countries:Mexico City & Beijing: air exceeds WHO
standards 350 days/year
PREVENTING AND REDUCING AIR POLLUTION
Environmental scientists point out several deficiencies in the Clean Air Act: The U.S. continues to rely on cleanup rather than
prevention. The U.S. Congress has failed to increase fuel-
efficiency standards for automobiles. Regulation of emissions from motorcycles and
two-cycle engines remains inadequate. There is little or no regulation of air pollution from
oceangoing ships in American ports.
PREVENTING AND REDUCING AIR POLLUTION
Airports are exempt from many air pollution regulations.
The Act does not regulate the greenhouse gas CO2.
The Act has failed to deal seriously with indoor air pollution.
There is a need for better enforcement of the Clean Air Act.
PREVENTING AND REDUCING AIR POLLUTION
Executives of companies claim that correcting these deficiencies would cost too much, harm economic growth, and cost jobs.
Using the Marketplace to Reduce Outdoor Air Pollution
To help reduce SO2 emissions, the Clean Air Act authorized and emission trading (cap-and-trade) program. Enables the 110 most polluting power plants to
buy and sell SO2 pollution rights. Between 1990-2002, the emission trading system
reduced emissions. In 2002, the EPA reported the cap-and-trade
system produced less emission reductions than were projected.
Solutions: Reducing Outdoor Air Pollution
There are a of ways to prevent and control air pollution from coal-burning facilities. Electrostatic precipitator: are used to attract
negatively charged particles in a smokestack into a collector.
Wet scrubber: fine mists of water vapor trap particulates and convert them to a sludge that is collected and disposed of usually in a landfill.
Electrostatic Precipitator Can remove 99% of
particulate matter Does not remove
hazardous ultrafine particles.
Produces toxic dust that must be safely disposed of.
Uses large amounts of electricity
Figure 19-18
Fig. 19-18a, p. 460
Clean gas out
Negatively charged electrode
Positively charged precipitator wall
Dirty gas (smoke) in
Dust falls off into collector
Taken to landfill
Wet Scrubber
Can remove 98% of SO2 and larger particulate matter.
Not very effective in removing hazardous fine and ultrafine particles.
Figure 19-18
Fig. 19-18b, p. 460
Clean gas out
Separator
Liquid water in
Dirty gas (smoke) in
Polluted liquid (sludge) out
Catalytic Converter
installed on cars allow for more complete combustion of gasoline.
Fig. 19-17, p. 459
Solutions
Stationary Source Air Pollution
Prevention
Burn low-sulfur coal
Disperse emissions above thermal inversion layer with tall smokestacksRemove sulfur
from coal
Convert coal to a liquid or gaseous fuel
Remove pollutants after combustion
Shift to less polluting fuels
Tax each unit of pollution produced
Dispersion or Cleanup
Solutions: Reducing Outdoor Air Pollution
In 2003, fourteen states and a number of U.S. cities sued the EPA to block new rules that would allow older coal-burning power plants to modernize without having to install the most advanced air pollution controls.
Solutions: Reducing Outdoor Air Pollution
There are a of ways to prevent and control air pollution from motor vehicles. Because of the Clean Air Act, a new car today in
the U.S. emits 75% less pollution than did pre-1970 cars.
There is and increase in motor vehicle use in developing countries and many have no pollution control devices and burn leaded gasoline.
Fig. 19-19, p. 460
Solutions
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Prevention Cleanup Emission control devices
Mass transit
Bicycles and walking
Less polluting engines
Less polluting fuels
Improve fuel efficiency
Car exhaust inspections twice a year
Get older, polluting cars off the road
Give buyers large tax write-offs or rebates for buying low-polluting, energy efficient vehicles
Stricter emission standards
Indoor Air Pollution
Little effort has been devoted to reducing indoor air pollution even though it poses a much greater threat to human health than outdoor air pollution.
Environmental and health scientists call for us to focus on preventing air pollution (especially indoor) in developing countries.
Fig. 19-20, p. 461
SolutionsIndoor Air Pollution
Prevention
Cover ceiling tiles & lining of AC ducts to prevent release of mineral fibers
Use adjustable fresh air vents for work spaces
Increase intake of outside airBan smoking or limit it to well ventilated areas
Change air more frequentlySet stricter formaldehyde emissions standards for carpet, furniture, and building materials
Circulate a building’s air through rooftop green houses
Prevent radon infiltration Use exhaust hoods for stoves and appliances burning natural gasUse office machines in well
ventilated areas
Use less polluting substitutes for harmful cleaning agents, paints, and other products
Install efficient chimneys for wood-burning stoves
Cleanup or Dilution
Fig. 19-21, p. 461
What Can You Do?Indoor Air Pollution
• Test for radon and formaldehyde inside your home and take corrective measures as needed.
• Do not buy furniture and other products containing formaldehyde.• Remove your shoes before entering your house to reduce inputs of dust, lead, and pesticides.
• Test your house or workplace for asbestos fiber levels and for any crumbling asbestos materials if it was built before 1980.
• Don't live in a pre-1980 house without having its indoor air tested for asbestos and lead.
• Do not store gasoline, solvents, or other volatile hazardous chemicals inside a home or attached garage.
• If you smoke, do it outside or in a closed room vented to the outside.• Make sure that wood-burning stoves, fireplaces, and kerosene- and gas-burning heaters are properly installed, vented, and maintained.
• Install carbon monoxide detectors in all sleeping areas.
Fig. 19-22, p. 462
SolutionsAir Pollution
Outdoor Indoor
Improve energy efficiency to reduce fossil fuel use
Reduce poverty
Rely more on lower-polluting natural gas
Distribute cheap & efficient cookstoves or solar cookers to poor families in developing countries
Rely more on renewable energy (especially solar cells, wind, & solar-produced hydrogen) Reduce or ban indoor
smoking
Transfer technologies for latest energy efficiency, renewable energy, & pollution prevention to developing countries
Develop simple and cheap tests for indoor pollutants such as particulates, radon, and formaldehyde