CHAPTER

Reconstruction

508 CHAPTER 16

1865Black Jamaicans rebelagainst the wealthyplanter class.

1865Abraham Lincolnis assassinated.

1865

Job History When the Civil War ended, it was time to rebuild. People were ready to get back to work. But life had changed for many people and would continue to change. As you read this chapter, think about jobs people may have had during Reconstruction.

FOCUS ON WRITING

1865–187716

History–Social Science8.10 Students analyze the multiple causes, key events, and complexconsequences of the Civil War.

8.11 Students analyze the character and lasting consequences ofReconstruction.

Analysis SkillsHR 3 Students distinguish relevant from irrelevant information.

HI 4 Students recognize the role of chance, oversight, and error inhistory.

English–Language ArtsWriting 8.2.5 Write documents related to career development.

Reading 8.2.0 Students read and understand grade-level apporpriatematerial.

California Standards

HOLT

▲

HOLT

RECONSTRUCTION 509

History’s Impact

1868The Meiji dynastyreturns to powerin Japan.

1868President AndrewJohnson isimpeached andalmost removedfrom office.

1869The Suez Canal opens,linking the Mediterraneanand Red seas.

1871Otto von Bismarck andWilhelm I unite Germany.

1877The Compromise of 1877ends Reconstruction.

video seriesWatch the video to under-stand the impact of thepreservation of the Union.

1870Hiram Revelsbecomes the firstAfrican Americanto serve in theU.S. Senate.

1875 1880

The ruins of this Virginia plantation stand as a bleak reminder of the changes brought to the South by the Civil War. In this chapter you will learn about the challenges that faced the nation after the Civil War and attempts to meet those challenges.

1870

What You Will Learn…

510 CHAPTER 00510 CHAPTER 16

Religion

Reading Social Studies

Additional readingsupport can be

found in the

by Kylene Beers

Focus on Reading History books are full ofinformation. As you read, you are confronted withnames, dates, places, terms, and descriptions onevery page. You don’t want to have to deal withanything unimportant or untrue.

Identifying Relevant and Essential InformationInformation in a history book should be relevant to

the topic you’re studying. It should also be essentialto understanding that topic and verifi able. Anythingelse distracts from the material you are studying.

The fi rst passage below includes several pieces ofirrelevant and nonessential information. In the sec-ond, this information has been removed. Note howmuch easier the revised passage is to comprehend.

First PassagePresident Abraham Lincoln, who wasvery tall, wanted to reunite the nationas quickly and painlessly as possible.He had proposed a plan for readmit-ting the southern states even beforethe war ended, which happened on aSunday. Called the Ten Percent Plan,it offered southerners amnesty, or offi -cial pardon, for all illegal acts support-ing the rebellion. Today a group calledAmnesty International works to protectthe rights of prisoners. Lincoln’s plancertainly would have worked if it wouldhave been implemented.

Focus on Themes In this chapter, you will read

about the time immediately after the Civil War. You

will see how the government tried to help the South

rebuild itself and will learn about how life changed

for African Americans after slavery was declared

illegal. You will read about the political confl icts

that emerged as southern leadership worked to gain

control of Reconstruction efforts. Throughout the

chapter, you will read how the culture of the South

changed after the War.

GeographyPolitics

Economics Religion Societyand Culture

Science andTechnology

Analyzing Historical Information

Revised PassagePresident Abraham Lincoln wantedto reunite the nation as quickly andpainlessly as possible. He had pro-posed a plan for readmitting thesouthern states even before the warended. Called the Ten Percent Plan,it offered southerners amnesty, oroffi cial pardon, for all illegal acts sup-porting the rebellion.

From Chapter 16, p. 513

Lincoln’sappearanceand the day onwhich the warended are notessential facts.

AmnestyInternational isnot relevant tothis topic.

There is noway to provethe accuracyof the lastsentence.

SECTION TITLE 511RECONSTRUCTION 511

Key TermsKey Termsand Peopleand People

You Try It!The following passage is adapted from the chapter you are aboutto read. As you read, look for irrelevant, nonessential, or unverifi ableinformation.

The Freedmen’s BureauIn 1865 Congress established the Freed-men’s Bureau, an agency providing relief notonly for freedpeople and certain poor peo-ple, but white refugees as well. The Bureauhad a diffi cult job. It may have been one ofthe most diffi cult jobs ever. At its high point,about 900 agents served the entire South.All 900 people could fi t into one hotel ball-room today. Bureau commissioner OliverO. Howard eventually decided to use theBureau’s limited budget to distribute food tothe poor and to provide education and legalhelp for freedpeople. One common food inthe South at that time was salted meat. TheBureau also helped African American warveterans. Today the Department of Veterans’Affairs assists American war veterans.

FromChapter 16,p. 516

After you read the passage, answer the following questions.

1. Which sentence in this passage is unverifi able and should be cut?

2. Find two sentences in this passage that are irrelevant to the dis-cussion of the Freedmen’s Bureau. What makes those sentencesirrelevant?

3. Look at the last sentence of the passage. Do you think this sen-tence is essential to the discussion? Why or why not?

Chapter 16

Section 1Reconstruction (p. 512)Ten Percent Plan (p. 513)Thirteenth Amendment (p. 514)Freedmen’s Bureau (p. 516)Andrew Johnson (p. 517)

Section 2Black Codes (p. 518)Radical Republicans (p. 519)Civil Rights Act of 1866 (p. 520)Fourteenth Amendment (p. 521)Reconstruction Acts (p. 521)impeachment (p. 522)Fifteenth Amendment (p. 523)

Section 3Hiram Revels (p. 525)Ku Klux Klan (p. 526)Compromise of 1877 (p. 527)poll tax (p. 528)segregation (p. 528)Jim Crow laws (p. 528)Plessy v. Ferguson (p. 529)sharecropping (p. 529)

Academic VocabularySuccess in school is related toknowing academic vocabulary—the words that are frequently usedin school assignments and discus-sions. In this chapter, you will learnthe following academic words:

procedure (p. 513)principle (p. 520)

As you read Chapter 16, ask yourselfwhat makes the information youare reading essential to a study ofReconstruction.

ELA Analysis HI 3 Distinguish relevant, essential, and verifiable information.HSS Reading 8.2.0 Students read and understand grade-level-appropriate material.

You are a young soldier who has been fi ghting in the Civil War

for many months. Now that the war is over, you are on your way

home. During your journey, you pass plantation manor homes,

houses, and barns that have been burned down. No one is doing

spring planting in the fi elds. As you near your family’s farm, you

see that fences and sheds have been destroyed.

What would you think your future on the farm would be like?

BUILDING BACKGROUND When the Civil War ended, much ofthe South lay in ruins. Like the young soldier above, many people re-turned to destroyed homes and farms. Harvests of corn, cotton, rice,and other crops fell far below normal. Many farm animals had beenkilled or were roaming free. These were some of the challenges inrestoring the nation.

Reconstruction BeginsAfter the Civil War ended in 1865, the U.S. government facedthe problem of dealing with the defeated southern states. Thenation dealt with the challenges of ReconstructionReconstruction,, the process ofthe process ofreadmitting the former Confederate states to the Union.readmitting the former Confederate states to the Union. It lastedfrom 1865 to 1877.

1 Rebuilding the South

1. President Lincoln andCongress differed in theirviews as Reconstructionbegan.

2. The end of the Civil Warmeant freedom for AfricanAmericans in the South.

3. President Johnson’s planbegan the process ofReconstruction.

The nation faced many problemsin rebuilding the Union.

Key Terms and PeopleReconstruction, p. 512Ten Percent Plan, p. 513Thirteenth Amendment, p. 514Freedmen’s Bureau, p. 516Andrew Johnson, p. 517

Main Ideas

The Big Idea

SECTION

What You Will Learn… If YOU were there...

512 CHAPTER 16

HSS 8.10.7 Explain how the waraffected combatants, civilians, thephysical environment, and futurewarfare.

8.11.1 List the original aims of Recon-struction and describe its effects onthe political and social structures ofdifferent regions.

8.11.3 Understand the effects of theFreedmen’s Bureau and the restric-tions placed on the rights and oppor-tunities of freedmen, including racialsegregation and “Jim Crow” laws.

8.11.5 Understand the Thirteenth,Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amend-ments to the Constitution and analyzetheir connection to Reconstruction.

War destroyed Richmond, Virginia, once the proud capital of the Confederacy.

Damaged SouthTired southern soldiers returned home to fi nd that the world they had known before the war was gone. Cities, towns, and farms had been ruined. Because of high food prices and wide-spread crop failures, many southerners faced starvation. The Confederate money held by most southerners was now worthless. Banks failed, and merchants had gone bankrupt because people could not pay their debts.

Former Confederate general Braxton Bragg was one of many southerners who faced economic hardship. He found that “all, all was lost, except my debts.” In South Carolina, Mary Boykin Chesnut wrote in her diary about the isolation she experienced after the war. “We are shut in here. . . . All RR’s [railroads] destroyed—bridges gone. We are cut off from the world.”

Lincoln’s PlanPresident Abraham Lincoln wanted to reunite the nation as quickly and painlessly as pos-sible. He had proposed a plan for readmitting the southern states even before the war ended. Called the Ten PercentTen Percent Plan Plan ,, it offered south- it offered south-erners amnesty, or official pardon,erners amnesty, or offi cial pardon, for all ille- for all ille-gal acts supporting the rebellion.gal acts supporting the rebellion. To receive amnesty, southerners had to do two things. They had to swear an oath of loyalty to the United States. They also had to agree that slav-ery was illegal. Once 10 percent of voters in

a state made these pledges, they could form a new government. The state then could be readmitted to the Union.

Louisiana quickly elected a new state leg-islature under the Ten Percent Plan. Other southern states that had been occupied by Union troops soon followed Louisiana back into the United States.

Wade-Davis Bill Some politicians argued that Congress, not the president, should control the southern states’ return to the Union. They believed that Congress had the power to admit new states. Also, many Republican members of Congress thought the Ten Percent Plan did not go far enough. A senator from Michigan expressed their views.

“The people of the North are not such fools as to . . . turn around and say to the traitors, ‘all you have to do [to return] is . . . take an oath that henceforth you will be true to the Government.’”

–Senator Jacob Howard, quoted in Reconstruction: America’s Unfi nished Revolution, 1863–1877, by Eric Foner

Two Republicans—Senator Benjamin Wade and Representative Henry Davis—had an alternative to Lincoln’s plan. Under the procedure of the Wade-Davis bill, a state had to meet two conditions before it could rejoin the Union. First, it had to ban slavery. Sec-ond, a majority of adult males in the state had to take the loyalty oath.

ACADEMIC VOCABULARYprocedurea series of steps taken to accom-plish a task

RECONSTRUCTION 513

514 CHAPTER 16

Under the Wade-Davis bill, only south-erners who swore that they had never sup-ported the Confederacy could vote or holdoffi ce. In general, the bill was much stricterthan the Ten Percent Plan. Its provisionswould make it harder for southern states torejoin the Union quickly.

President Lincoln therefore refusedto sign the bill into law. He thought thatfew southern states would agree to meetits requirements. He believed that his planwould help restore order more quickly.

READING CHECK Contrasting How wasthe Ten Percent Plan different from the Wade-Davis Bill?

Freedom for AfricanAmericansOne thing Republicans agreed on was abol-ishing slavery. The Emancipation Proclama-tion had freed slaves only in areas that hadnot been occupied by Union forces, not inthe border states. Many people feared thatthe federal courts might someday declare itunconstitutional.

Slavery EndsOn January 31, 1865, at President Lincoln’surging, Congress proposed the ThirteenthThirteenthAmendmentAmendment. TThis amendmenthis amendment made slav- made slav-ery illegal throughout the United States.ery illegal throughout the United States.

Testing New Freedoms

RECONSTRUCTION 515

The freedpeople at left have packed their household belongings and are leaving Richmond. Many people trav-eled in search of relatives. Others placed newspaper advertisements looking for long-lost relatives. For other freedpeople, like the couple above, freedom brought the right to marry.

In what ways did former slaves react to freedom?

The amendment was ratifi ed and took effect on December 18, 1865. When abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison heard the news, he declared that his work was now fi nished. He called for the American Anti-Slavery Society to break up. Not all abolitionists agreed that their work was done, however. Frederick Douglass insisted that “slavery is not abolished until the black man has the ballot [vote].”

Freedom brought important changes to newly freed slaves. Many couples held ceremonies to legalize marriages that had not been recognized under slavery. Many freedpeople searched for relatives who had been sold away from their families years

earlier. Others placed newspaper ads seeking information about their children. Many women began to work at home instead of in the fi elds. Still others adopted children of dead relatives to keep families together. Church members established voluntary associations and mutual-aid societies to help those in need.

Now that they could travel without a pass, many freedpeople moved from mostly white counties to places with more African Americans. Other freedpeople traveled sim-ply to test their new freedom of movement. A South Carolina woman explained this need. “I must go, if I stay here I’ll never know I’m free.”

For most former slaves, freedom to travel was just the fi rst step on a long road toward equal rights and new ways of life. Adults took new last names and began to insist on being called Mr. or Mrs. as a sign of respect, rather than by their fi rst names or by nicknames. Freedpeople began to demand the same economic and political rights as white citizens. Henry Adams, a for-mer slave, argued that “if I cannot do like a white man I am not free.”

Forty Acres to Farm? Many former slaves wanted their own land to farm. Near the end of the Civil War, Union general William Tecumseh Sherman had issued an order to break up plantations in coastal South Carolina and Georgia. He wanted to divide the land into 40-acre plots and give them to former slaves as compensa-tion for their forced labor before the war.

Many white planters refused to surren-der their land. Some freedpeople pointed out that it was only fair that they receive some of this land because their labor had made the plantations prosper. In the end, the U.S. government returned the land to its original owners. At this time, many freedpeople were unsure about where they would live, what kind of work they would do, and what rights they had. Many freedoms that were theirs by law were diffi cult to enforce.

Freedmen’s BureauIn 1865 Congress established the Freedmen’sFreedmen’sBureauBureau,, an agency providing relief not onlyan agency providing relief not onlyfor freedpeople and certain poor people, butfor freedpeople and certain poor people, butwhite refugees as well.white refugees as well. The Bureau had adiffi cult job. At its high point, about 900agents served the entire South. Bureaucommissioner Oliver O. Howard eventu-ally decided to use the Bureau’s limitedbudget to distribute food to the poor and toprovide education and legal help for freed-people. The Bureau also helped African Amer-ican war veterans.

The Freedmen’s Bureau played an impor-tant role in establishing more schools in theSouth. Laws against educating slaves meantthat most freedpeople had never learned toread or write. Before the war ended, however,northern groups, such as the American Mis-sionary Association, began providing booksand teachers to African Americans. Theteachers were mostly women who were com-mitted to helping freedpeople. One teachersaid of her students, “I never before saw chil-dren so eager to learn. . . . It is wonderfulhow [they] . . . can have so great a desire for

knowledge, and such a capacity for attaining[reaching] it.”

After the war, some freedpeople organizedtheir own education efforts. For example, Freed-men’s Bureau agents found that some AfricanAmericans had opened schools in abandonedbuildings. Many white southerners contin-ued to believe that African Americans shouldnot be educated. Despite opposition, by 1869more than 150,000 African American studentswere attending more than 3,000 schools. TheFreedmen’s Bureau also helped establish sever-al universities for African Americans, includingHoward and Fisk universities.

Students quickly filled the new class-rooms. Working adults attended classes in theevening. African Americans hoped that edu-cation would help them to understand andprotect their rights and to enable them to fi ndbetter jobs. Both black and white southernersbenefi ted from the effort to provide greateraccess to education in the South.

READING CHECK Analyzing How did the Freed-men’s Bureau help reform education in the South?

Congress created the Freedmen’s Bureauto help freedpeople and poor southernersrecover from the Civil War. The Bureauassisted people by:

• providing supplies and medical services• establishing schools• supervising contracts between

freedpeople and employers• taking care of lands abandoned or

captured during the war

What role did the Freedmen’s Bureauplay during Reconstruction?

Helping the Freedpeople

516 CHAPTER 16

RECONSTRUCTION 517

President Johnson’sReconstruction PlanWhile the Freedmen’s Bureau was help-ing African Americans, the issue of how theSouth would politically rejoin the Unionremained unresolved. Soon, however, a tragicevent ended Lincoln’s dream of peacefullyreuniting the country.

A New PresidentOn the evening of April 14, 1865, PresidentLincoln and his wife attended a play at Ford’sTheater in Washington, D.C. During the play,John Wilkes Booth, a southerner who opposedLincoln’s policies, sneaked into the president’stheater box and shot him. Lincoln was rushedto a boardinghouse across the street, wherehe died early the next morning. Vice Presi-dent Andrew Johnson was sworn into offi cequickly. Reconstruction had now become hisresponsibility. He would have to win the trustof a nation shocked at their leader’s death.

Johnson’s plan for bringing southernstates back into the Union was similar to Lin-coln’s plan. However, he decided that wealthysoutherners and former Confederate offi cialswould need a presidential pardon to receiveamnesty. Johnson shocked Radical Repub-licans by eventually pardoning more than7,000 people by 1866.

New State GovernmentsJohnson was a Democrat whom Republicanshad put on the ticket in 1864 to appeal to theborder states. A former slaveholder, he was astubborn man who would soon face a hostileCongress.

Johnson offered a mild program for settingup new southern state governments. First, heappointed a temporary governor for each state.Then he required that the states revise theirconstitutions. Next, voters elected state andfederal representatives. The new state govern-ment had to declare that secession was illegal.It also had to ratify the Thirteenth Amendmentand refuse to pay Confederate debts.

By the end of 1865, all the southern statesexcept Texas had created new governments.Johnson approved them all and declared thatthe United States was restored. Newly electedrepresentatives came to Washington fromeach reconstructed southern state. However,Republicans complained that many new rep-resentatives had been leaders of the Confed-eracy. Congress therefore refused to readmitthe southern states into the Union. Clearly,the nation was still divided.

READING CHECK Summarizing What wasPresident Johnson’s plan for Reconstruction?

Problems Solutions

Online QuizKEYWORD: SS8 HP16

Section 1 Assessment

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People 1. a. Identify What does Reconstruction mean?

b. Summarize What was President Lincoln’splan for Reconstruction?

2. a. Recall What is the Thirteenth Amendment?b. Elaborate In your opinion, what was the most important

accomplishment of the Freedmen’s Bureau? Explain. 3. a. Recall Why was President Lincoln killed?

b. Analyze Why did some Americans oppose PresidentJohnson’s Reconstruction plan?

Critical Thinking4. Explaining Copy the chart below and use it to explain the

federal government’s solutions for solving the problemspresented by Reconstruction.

FOCUS ON WRITING

5. Considering Historical Context Many people planned tocontinue doing what they had done before the war. Othersplanned to start a new life. How do you think events and con-ditions you just read about might have affected their plans?

SUMMARY AND PREVIEW In this sectionyou learned about early plans for Recon-struction. In the next section, you willlearn that disagreements about Recon-struction became so serious that the presi-dent was almost removed from offi ce.

HSS 8.10.7,8.11.1, 8.11.3,8.11.5

SECTION

What You Will Learn…

518 CHAPTER 16

2

1. Black Codes led to oppositionto President Johnson’s planfor Reconstruction.

2. The Fourteenth Amendmentensured citizenship for Afri-can Americans.

3. Radical Republicans inCongress took charge ofReconstruction.

4. The Fifteenth Amendmentgave African Americans theright to vote.

The return to power of thepre-war southern leadership ledRepublicans in Congress to takecontrol of Reconstruction.

Main Ideas

The Big Idea

The Fight overReconstruction

A member of Congress, you belong to the same political party

as the president. But you strongly disagree with his ideas about

Reconstruction and civil rights for African Americans. Now some

of the president’s opponents are trying to remove him from offi ce.

You do not think he is a good president. On the other hand, you

think removing him would be bad for the unity of the country.

Will you vote to remove the president?

BUILDING BACKGROUND Americans were bitterly divided aboutwhat should happen in the South during Reconstruction. They dis-agreed about ending racial inequality and guaranteeing civil rightsfor African Americans. These conflicts split political parties. They ledto showdowns between Congress and the president. Political fightseven threatened the president’s job.

Opposition to President JohnsonIn 1866 Congress continued to debate the rules for restoring theUnion. Meanwhile, new state legislatures approved by PresidentJohnson had already begun passing laws to deny African Americans’civil rights. “This is a white man’s government, and intended for whitemen only,” declared Governor Benjamin F. Perry of South Carolina.

Black CodesSoon, every southern state passed Black CodesBlack Codes,, oror laws that greatlylaws that greatlylimited the freedom of African Americans.limited the freedom of African Americans. They required AfricanAmericans to sign work contracts, creating working conditionssimilar to those under slavery. In most southern states, any Afri-can Americans who could not prove they were employed could bearrested. Their punishment might be one year of work without pay.African Americans were also prevented from owning guns. In addi-tion, they were not allowed to rent property except in cities.

The Black Codes alarmed many Americans. As one Civil Warveteran asked, “If you call this freedom, what do you call slavery?”

Key Terms and PeopleBlack Codes, p. 518Radical Republicans, p. 519Civil Rights Act of 1866, p. 520Fourteenth Amendment, p. 521Reconstruction Acts, p. 521impeachment, p. 522Fifteenth Amendment, p. 523

If YOU were there...

HSS 8.11.3 Understand theeffects of the Freedmen’s Bureauand the restrictions placed on therights and opportunities of freedmen,including racial segregation and“Jim Crow” laws.

8.11.5 Understand the Thirteenth,Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amend-ments to the Constitution and analyzetheir connection to Reconstruction.

ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES

African Americans organized to oppose thecodes. One group sent a petition to offi cialsin South Carolina.

“We simply ask . . . that the same laws which gov-ern white men shall govern black men . . . that, inshort, we be dealt with as others are—in equity[fairness] and justice.”

—Petition from an African American convention heldin South Carolina, quoted in There Is a River: The Black

Struggle for Freedom in America by Vincent Harding

Radical RepublicansThe Black Codes angered many Republicanswho felt the South was returning to its oldways. Most Republicans were moderates whowanted the South to have loyal state govern-

ments. They also believed that African Ameri-cans should have rights as citizens. They hopedthat the national government would not haveto force the South to follow federal laws.

Radical RepublicansRadical Republicans,, on the otheron the otherhand, took a harsher stance. They wantedhand, took a harsher stance. They wantedthe federal government to force changethe federal government to force changein the South.in the South. Like the moderates, theythought the Black Codes were cruel andunjust. The radicals, however, wantedthe federal government to be much moreinvolved in Reconstruction. They fearedthat too many southern leaders remainedloyal to the former Confederacy and wouldnot enforce the new laws. Thaddeus Stevens

POLITICAL CARTOON

Republicans were outraged to see former Confeder-ates return to power as leaders of the Democratic Party.This 1868 political cartoon shows former ConfederatesRaphael Semmes and Nathan Bedford Forrest. Semmes

was a Confederate admiral who had captured62 Union merchant ships during the Civil War.Forrest was a cavalry officer known for brutalitywho later founded the Ku Klux Klan.

Supporting Radical Republican Ideas

How do the actions of the people in these illustrations support the artist’s point of view?

How do events in the background of these illustrations support the artist’s point of view?

Primary Source

ANALYSIS

SKILLWhy do you think that the men are shown in theirConfederate uniforms?

519

520 CHAPTER 16

of Pennsylvania and Charles Sumner of Mas-sachusetts were the leaders of the RadicalRepublicans.

A harsh critic of President Johnson,Stevens was known for his honesty and sharptongue. He wanted economic and politicaljustice for both African Americans and poorwhite southerners. Sumner had been a strongopponent of slavery before the Civil War.He continued to argue tirelessly for AfricanAmericans’ civil rights, including the right tovote and the right to fair laws.

Both Stevens and Sumner believedthat President Johnson’s Reconstruction planwas a failure. Although the Radicals did notcontrol Congress, they began to gain supportamong moderates when President Johnsonignored criticism of the Black Codes. Stevensbelieved the federal government could notallow racial inequality to survive.

READING CHECK Comparing and ContrastingHow were Radical Republicans and moderateRepublicans similar and different?

Fourteenth AmendmentUrged on by the Radicals in 1866, Congressproposed a new bill. It would give the Freed-men’s Bureau more powers. The law wouldallow the Freedmen’s Bureau to use militarycourts to try people accused of violating Afri-can Americans’ rights. The bill’s supportershoped that these courts would be fairer thanlocal courts in the South.

Johnson versus CongressTo the surprise of many in Congress, Johnsonvetoed the Freedmen’s Bureau Bill. He insist-ed that Congress could not pass any new lawsuntil the southern states were represented inCongress. Johnson also argued that the Freed-men’s Bureau was unconstitutional.

Republicans responded with the CivilCivilRights Act of 1866Rights Act of 1866.. This act provided AfricanThis act provided AfricanAmericans with the same legal rights as whiteAmericans with the same legal rights as whiteAmericans.Americans. President Johnson once againused his veto power. He argued that the actgave too much power to the federal govern-ment. He also rejected the principle of equal

POINTS OF VIEW

Johnson vs. StevensPresident Andrew Johnson arguedthat the South should not be placedunder military control.

“Military governments . . . established for an indefinite period, would have divided the people into the vanquish-ers and the vanquished, and would have envenomed [made poisonous] hatred rather than have restored affection.”

—Andrew Johnson

Thaddeus Stevens believed thatCongress had the power to treatthe South as conquered territory.

“The future condition of the conquered power depends on the will of the conqueror. They must come in as new states or remain as conquered provinces. Congress . . . is the only power that can act in the matter.”

—Thaddeus Stevens

Primary Source

ACADEMIC VOCABULARYprinciple basicbelief, rule, or law

How did Johnson’s and Stevens’s viewson the South differ?

ANALYSIS

SKILL IDENTIFYING POINTS OF VIEW

Disputed

TX1870

MS1870

AL1868

FL1868

SC1868

NC1868

GA1870

VA1870

TN1866

AR1868

LA1868

Gulf of Mexico

20°N

Tropic of Cancer

30°N80°W

90°WN

S

WE

Military District 1

Military District 2

Military District 3

Military District 4

Military District 5

Date formerConfederate statewas readmittedto Union

18680 150 300 Miles

0 150 300 Kilometers

READING CHECK Summarizing What issue did the Fourteenth Amendment address, and how did it affect the congressional elections of 1866?

Congress Takes Control of ReconstructionThe 1866 elections gave the Republican Party a commanding two-thirds majority in both the House and the Senate. This majority gave the Republicans the power to override any presidential veto. In addition, the Republi-cans became united as the moderates joined with the Radicals. Together, they called for a new form of Reconstruction.

Reconstruction ActsIn March 1867, Congress passed the fi rst of several Reconstruction ActsReconstruction Acts .. These lawsThese laws divided the South into five districts.divided the South into fi ve districts. A U.S. military commander controlled each district.

rights for African Americans. Congress, how-ever, overrode Johnson’s veto.

Many Republicans worried about what would happen when the southern states were readmitted. Fearing that the Civil Rights ActFearing that the Civil Rights Act might be overturned, the Republicans pro-might be overturned, the Republicans pro-posedposed thethe Fourteenth AmendmentFourteenth Amendment in the summer of 1866. The Fourteenth Amend-ment included the following provisions.

1. It defi ned all people born or naturalized within the United States, except Native Americans, as citizens.

2. It guaranteed citizens the equal protec-tion of the laws.

3. It said that states could not “deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, with-out due process of law.”

4. It banned many former Confederate offi -cials from holding state or federal offi ces.

5. It made state laws subject to federal court review.

6. It gave Congress the power to pass any laws needed to enforce it.

1866 Elections President Johnson and most Democrats opposed the Fourteenth Amendment. As a result, civil rights for African Americans became a key issue in the 1866 congressio-nal elections. To help the Democrats, John-son traveled around the country defending his Reconstruction plan. Johnson’s speaking tour was a disaster. It did little to win votes for the Democratic Party. Johnson even got into arguments with people in the audiences of some of his speaking engagements.

Two major riots in the South also hurt Johnson’s campaign. On May 1, 1866, a dispute in Memphis, Tennessee, took place between local police and black Union soldiers. The dispute turned into a three-day wave of violence against African Americans. About three months later, another riot took place during a political demonstration in New Orleans. During that dispute, 34 Afri-can Americans and three white Republicans were killed.

INTERPRETING MAPS

1. Region Which district consisted of only one state?2. Human-Environment Interaction Do you see any reason why Military District 5 might be more difficult for federal troops to control than the other districts?

GEOGRAPHY

SKILLS

Reconstruction Military Districts

521

The military would remain in control of theSouth until the southern states rejoined theUnion. To be readmitted, a state had to writea new state constitution supporting the Four-teenth Amendment. Finally, the state had togive African American men the right to vote.

Thaddeus Stevens was one of the newReconstruction Acts’ most enthusiasticsupporters. He spoke in Congress to defendthe acts.

“Have not loyal blacks quite as good a right tochoose rulers and make laws as rebel whites?Every man, no matter what his race or color . . .

has an equal right to justice, honesty, and fairplay with every other man; and the law shouldsecure him those rights.”

–Thaddeus Stevens, quoted in Sources of theAmerican Republic, edited by Marvin Meyers et al.

President on TrialPresident Johnson strongly disagreed withStevens. He argued that African Americansdid not deserve the same treatment as whitepeople. The Reconstruction Acts, he said, used“powers not granted to the federal govern-ment or any one of its branches.” Knowingthat Johnson did not support its Reconstruc-tion policies, Congress passed a law limiting

his power. This law prevented thepresident from removing cabinetoffi cials without Senate approval.Johnson quickly broke the law byfi ring Edwin Stanton, the secretaryof war.

For the fi rst time in United Stateshistory, the House of Representativesresponded by voting to impeach thepresident. ImpeachmentImpeachment is the pro- is the pro-cess used by a legislative body to bringcess used by a legislative body to bringcharges of wrongdoing against a pub-charges of wrongdoing against a pub-lic offi cial.lic offi cial. The next step, under Arti-cle I of the Constitution, was a trial inthe Senate. A two-thirds majority wasrequired to fi nd Johnson guilty andremove him from offi ce.

Although Johnson was unpop-ular with Republicans, some ofthem believed he was being judgedunfairly. Others did not trust thepresident pro tempore of the Sen-ate, Benjamin Wade. He wouldbecome president if Johnson wereremoved from offi ce. By a singlevote, Senate Republicans failed toconvict Johnson. Even so, the trialbroke his power as president.

Election of 1868Johnson did not run for anotherterm in 1868. Instead, the Demo-

The Reconstruction Amendments

This Reconstruction-erapainting shows AfricanAmericans voting afterpassage of the FifteenthAmendment.

What right did the FifteenthAmendment protect?

Fourteenth Amendment (1868)Overturned the Dred Scott case by granting citizenship to all people born in the United States (except for Native Americans)

Fifteenth Amendment (1870)Gave African American men the right to vote

Thirteenth Amendment (1865)Banned slavery throughout the United States

522 CHAPTER 16

RECONSTRUCTION 523

crats chose former New York governor HoratioSeymour as their presidential candidate. TheRepublicans chose Ulysses S. Grant. As a warhero, Grant appealed to many northern vot-ers. He had no political experience but sup-ported the congressional Reconstruction plan.He ran under the slogan “Let Us Have Peace.”

Shortly after Grant was nominated,Congress readmitted seven southern states—Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana,North Carolina, and South Carolina. (Tennesseehad already been readmitted in 1866.) Underthe terms of readmission, these seven statesapproved the Fourteenth Amendment. Theyalso agreed to let African American men vote.However, white southerners used violence to tryto keep African Americans away from the polls.

Despite such tactics, hundreds of thou-sands of African Americans voted for Grantand the “party of Lincoln.” The New OrleansTribune reported that many former slaves “seeclearly enough that the Republican party [is]their political life boat.” African Americanvotes helped Grant to win a narrow victory.

READING CHECK Analyzing To what voters didGrant appeal in the presidential election of 1868?

Fifteenth AmendmentAfter Grant’s victory, Congressional Republi-cans wanted to protect their Reconstructionplan. They worried that the southern statesmight try to keep black voters from the pollsin future elections. Also, some Radical Repub-licans argued that it was not fair that manynorthern states still had laws preventing Afri-can Americans from voting. After all, everysouthern state was required to grant suffrageto African American men.

In 1869 Congress proposed the FifteenthFifteenthAmendmentAmendment, which gave African American, which gave African Americanmen the right to vote.men the right to vote. Abolitionist WilliamLloyd Garrison praised “this wonderful, qui-et, sudden transformation of four millions ofhuman beings from . . . the auction block to theballot-box.” The amendment went into effect in

1870. It was one of the last important Recon-struction laws passed at the federal level.

The Fifteenth Amendment did not pleaseevery reformer, however. Many women wereangry because the amendment did not alsogrant them the right to vote.

READING CHECK Finding Main Ideas How didRadical Republicans take control of Reconstruction?

Today the VotingRights Act of1965 enforcesand expands thevoting protectionsof the FifteenthAmendment.

THE IMPACT

TODAY

Section 2 Assessment Online QuizKEYWORD: SS8 HP16

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People 1. a. Describe What were Black Codes?

b. Make Inferences Why did Republicans think Johnson’sReconstruction plan was a failure?

2. a. Recall What was the Civil Rights Act of 1866?b. Summarize Why was the Fourteenth Amendment

important? 3. a. Recall Why was President Johnson impeached?

b. Evaluate Which element of the Reconstruction Actsdo you believe was most important? Why?

4. a. Recall What does the Fifteenth Amendment state?b. Elaborate Do you think that women should have been

included in the Fifteenth Amendment? Explain.

Critical Thinking 5. Analyzing Copy the chart below. Use it to identify the

main provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment andtheir effects.

FOCUS ON WRITING

6. Recognizing Cause-and-Effect RelationshipsAs you have read in this section, social and political unrestcontinued long after the war ended. How could thisunrest cause people to leave their jobs? What new jobsmight they fi nd?

SUMMARY AND PREVIEW In this sectionyou learned that Congress took control ofReconstruction away from President John-son and took steps to protect the rights ofAfrican Americans. In the next section youwill learn about increasing opposition toReconstruction.

Provisions Effects

HSS 8.11.3,8.11.5

SECTION

What You Will Learn… If YOU were there...

524 CHAPTER 16

3 Reconstruction in the South

You live on a farm in the South in the 1870s. Times are hard because

you do not own your farm. Instead, you and your family work in a

landowner’s cotton fi elds. You never seem to earn enough to buy

land of your own. Some of your neighbors have decided to give up

farming and move to the city. Others are going to work in the textile

mills. But you have always been a farmer.

Will you decide to change your way of life?

BUILDING BACKGROUND Reconstruction affected politics and economics in the South. Republican and Democratic politicians fought over policies and programs. New state governments began reforms, but later leaders ended many of them. Some parts of the southern economy improved. However, many farmers, like the family above, went through hard times.

Reconstruction GovernmentsAfter Grant became president in 1869, the Republicans seemed stronger than ever. They controlled most southern governments, partly because of the support of African American voters. However, most of the Republican offi ceholders were unpopular with white southerners.

Carpetbaggers and ScalawagsSome of these offi ce-holders were northern-born Republicans who had moved South after the war. Many white southerners called them carpetbaggers. Supposedly, they had rushed South carrying all their possessions in bags made from carpeting. Many south-erners resented these northerners, accusing them—often unfairly—of trying to profi t from Reconstruction.

Southern Democrats cared even less for white southern Repub-licans. They referred to them as scalawags, or greedy rascals. Democrats believed that these southerners had betrayed the South by

1. Reconstruction governments helped reform the South.

2. The Ku Klux Klan was orga-nized as African Americans moved into positions of power.

3. As Reconstruction ended, the rights of African Americans were restricted.

4. Southern business leaders relied on industry to rebuild the South.

Main Ideas

As Reconstruction ended, African Americans faced new hurdles and the South attempted to rebuild.

The Big Idea

Key Terms and PeopleHiram Revels, p. 525Ku Klux Klan, p. 526Compromise of 1877, p. 527poll tax, p. 528segregation, p. 528Jim Crow laws, p. 528Plessy v. Ferguson, p. 529sharecropping, p. 529

HSS 8.11.1 List the original aims of Reconstruction and describe its effects on the political and social structures of different regions.

8.11.3 Understand the effects of the Freedmen’s Bureau and the restrictions placed on the rights and opportunities of freedmen, including racial segregation and “Jim Crow” laws.

8.11.4 Trace the rise of the Ku Klux Klan and describe the Klan’s effects.

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voting for the Republican Party. Many south-ern Republicans were small farmers who had supported the Union during the war. Others, like Mississippi governor James Alcorn, were former members of the Whig Party. They pre-ferred to become Republicans rather than join the Democrats.

African American Leaders African Americans were the largest group of southern Republican voters. During Recon-struction, more than 600 African Americans won election to state legislatures. Some 16 of these politicians were elected to Congress. Other African Americans held local offi ces in counties throughout the South.

African American politicians came from many backgrounds. Hiram RevelsHiram Revels was born free in North Carolina and went to college in Illinois. He became a Methodist minister and served as a chaplain in the Union army. In 1870 Revels became the fi rst African American in the U.S. Senate. He took over the seat previ-ously held by Confederate president Jefferson

Davis. Unlike Revels, Blanche K. Bruce grew up in slavery in Virginia. Bruce became an impor-tant Republican in Mississippi and served one term as a U.S. senator.

State Governments Change DirectionReconstruction governments provided money for many new programs and organizations in the South. They helped to establish some of the fi rst state-funded public school systems in the South. They also built new hospitals, pris-ons, and orphanages and passed laws prohibit-ing discrimination against African Americans.

Southern states under Republican con-trol spent large amounts of money. They aided the construction of railroads, bridges, and public buildings. These improvements were intended to help the southern economy recover from the war. To get the money for these projects, the Reconstruction govern-ments raised taxes and issued bonds.

READING CHECK Summarizing What reforms did Reconstruction state governments carry out?

Blanche K. Bruce escaped from slavery and began a school for African Americans before the Civil War. Bruce was the first African American elected to a full six-year term in the U.S. Senate.

Hiram Revels was the son of former slaves and helped orga-nize African American regiments in the Civil War. Revels was selected to fill the U.S. Senate seat formerly held by Jefferson Davis, president of the Confederacy.

FOCUS ON READINGHow does the heading of this section tell you about what you will learn?

RECONSTRUCTION 525

INTERPRETING MAPS

1. Location Which state had the most African Americanstate legislators?

2. Region Which southern states had the fewest African American representatives?

GEOGRAPHY

SKILLS

African American Representation in the South, 1870

Ku Klux KlanAs more African Americans took offi ce, resis-tance to Reconstruction increased amongwhite southerners. Democrats claimed thatthe Reconstruction governments were cor-rupt, illegal, and unjust. They also dislikedhaving federal soldiers stationed in theirstates. Many white southerners disapprovedof African American offi ceholders. One Dem-ocrat noted, “‘A white man’s government’[is] the most popular rallying cry we have.”In 1866 a group of white southerners in Ten-nessee created the Ku Klux KlanKu Klux Klan .. This secretThis secretsociety opposed civil rights, particularlysociety opposed civil rights, particularlysuffrage, for African Americans.suffrage, for African Americans. The Klanused violence and terror against AfricanAmericans. The group’s membership grewrapidly as it spread throughout the South.

Klan members wore robes and disguises tohide their identities. They attacked—andeven murdered—African Americans, whiteRepublican voters, and public offi cials, usu-ally at night.

Local governments did little to stop theviolence. Many offi cials feared the Klan orwere sympathetic to its activities. In 1870 and1871 the federal government took action.Congress passed laws that made it a federalcrime to interfere with elections or to denycitizens equal protection under the law.

Within a few years, the Klan was nolonger an organized threat. But groups ofwhites continued to assault African Ameri-cans and Republicans throughout the 1870s.

READING CHECK Drawing Conclusions Whydid southerners join the Ku Klux Klan?

526

The Ku Klux Klan

Members of the Ku Klux Klan often attacked undercover of darkness to hide their identities. Thisklansman from Tennessee, shown on the left, evendisguised his horse.

Why do you think Klan members disguisedthemselves?

RECONSTRUCTION 527

Reconstruction EndsThe violence of the Ku Klux Klan was not the only challenge to Reconstruction. Republicans slowly lost control of southern state govern-ments to the Democratic Party. The General Amnesty Act of 1872 allowed former Confed-erates, except those who had held high ranks, to serve in public offi ce. Many of these former Confederates, most of whom were Democrats, were soon elected to southern governments.

The Republican Party also began losing its power in the North. Although President Grant was re-elected in 1872, fi nancial and political scandals in his administration upset voters. In his fi rst term, a gold-buying scheme in which Grant’s cousin took a leading role led to a brief crisis on the stock market called Black Friday. During his second term, his per-sonal secretary was involved in the Whiskey Ring scandal, in which whiskey distillers and public offi cials worked together to steal liquor taxes from the federal government. Further-more, people blamed Republican policies for the Panic of 1873.

Panic of 1873This severe economic downturn began in September 1873 when Jay Cooke and Com-pany, a major investor in railroads and the largest fi nancier of the Union’s Civil War effort, declared bankruptcy. The company had lied about the value of land along the side of the Northern Pacifi c Railroad that it owned and was trying to sell. When the truth leaked out, the company failed.

The failure of such an important business sent panic through the stock market, and investors began selling shares of stock more rapidly than people wanted to buy them. Companies had to buy their shares back from the investors. Soon, 89 of the nation’s 364 railroads had failed as well. The failure of almost 18,000 other businesses followed within two years, leaving the nation in an economic crisis. By 1876 unemployment had risen to 14 percent, with an estimated

2 million people out of work. The high unemployment rate set off numerous strikes and protests around the nation, many involving railroad workers. In 1874 the Dem-ocrats gained control of the House of Repre-sentatives. Northerners were becoming less concerned about southern racism and more concerned about their fi nancial well-being.

Election of 1876Republicans could tell that northern support for Reconstruction was fading. Voters’ atten-tion was shifting to economic problems. In 1874 the Republican Party lost control of the House of Representatives to the Demo-crats. The Republicans in Congress man-aged to pass one last civil rights law. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 guaranteed African Americans equal rights in public places, such as theaters and public transportation. But as Americans became increasingly worried about economic problems and government corruption, the Republican Party began to abandon Reconstruction.

Republicans selected Ohio governor Rutherford B. Hayes as their 1876 presiden-tial candidate. He believed in ending federal support of the Reconstruction governments. The Democrats nominated New York gov-ernor Samuel J. Tilden. During the election, Democrats in the South again used violence at the polls to keep Republican voters away.

The election between Hayes and Tilden was close. Tilden appeared to have won. Republicans challenged the electoral votes in Oregon and three southern states. A special commission of members of Congress and Supreme Court justices was appointed to settle the issue.

The commission narrowly decided to give all the disputed votes to Hayes. Hayes thus won the presidency by one electoral vote. In the Compromise of 1877Compromise of 1877,, the Democratsthe Democrats agreedtoacceptHayes’svictory.agreed to accept Hayes’s victory. Inreturn, theyIn return, they wanted all remaining federal troops removedwanted all remaining federal troops removed from the South.from the South. They also asked for funding for internal improvements in the South and

528 CHAPTER 16

the appointment of a southern Democrat to the president’s cabinet. Shortly after he took offi ce in 1877, President Hayes removed the last of the federal troops from the South.

RedeemersGradually, Democrats regained control of state governments in the South. In each state, they moved quickly to get rid of the Reconstruction reforms.

Democrats who brought their party back to power in the South were called Redeemers. They came from a variety of backgrounds. For instance, U.S. senator John T. Morgan of Alabama was a former general in the Confed-erate army. Newspaper editor Henry Grady of Georgia was interested in promoting south-ern industry.

Redeemers wanted to reduce the size of state government and limit the rights of Afri-can Americans. They lowered state budgets and got rid of a variety of social programs. The Redeemers cut property taxes and reduced public funding for schools. They also succeed-ed in limiting African Americans’ civil rights.

African Americans’ Rights RestrictedRedeemers set up the poll tax in an effort to deny the vote to African Americans. The pollpolltaxtax waswas a special tax people had to pay beforea special tax people had to pay before they could vote.they could vote.

Some states also targeted African Ameri-can voters by requiring them to pass a lit-eracy test. A so-called grandfather clause written into law affected men whose fathers or grandfathers could vote before 1867. In those cases, a voter did not have to pay a poll tax or pass a literacy test. As a result, almost every white man could escape the voting restrictions.

Redeemer governments also introduced legal segregationsegregation,, the forced separation ofthe forced separation of whites and African Americans in publicwhites and African Americans in public places.places. Jim Crow lawsJim Crow laws ——laws that enforcedlaws that enforced segregationsegregation—became common in southern states in the 1880s.

African Americans challenged Jim Crow laws in court. In 1883, however, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was unconstitutional. The Court

Plessy v. Ferguson(1896)

Background of the Case In 1892, Homer Plessy took a seat in the “whites only” car of a train in Louisiana. He was arrested, put on trial, and convicted of violat-ing Louisiana’s segregation law. Plessy argued that the Louisiana law violated the Thirteenth Amend-ment and denied him the equal protection of the law as guaranteed.

The Court’s Ruling

The Court ruled that the Louisiana “separate-but-equal” law was constitutional.

The Court’s ReasoningThe Court stated that the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments did not apply. The Court decided that the case had nothing to do with the abolition of slavery mentioned in the Thirteenth Amendment. The justices also ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment was not designed to eliminate social barriers to equality between the races, only political barriers.

Justice John Marshall Harlan dis-agreed with the Court’s ruling. In a dissenting opinion, he wrote that “in respect of civil rights, all citizens are equal before the law.”

Why It MattersPlessy was important because it approved the idea of separate but equal facilities for people based on race. The doctrine of separate but equal led to segregation in trains, buses, schools, restaurants, and many other social institutions.

The separate-but-equal doctrine led to unequal treatment of minority groups for decades. It was finally struck down by another Supreme Court ruling, Brown v. Board of Education, in 1954.

ANALYZING INFORMATIONANALYSIS

SKILL 1. Why did the Court reject Plessy’s

arguments?2. Why was Plessy v. Ferguson an

important Supreme Court case?

RECONSTRUCTION 529

also ruled that the Fourteenth Amendmentapplied only to the actions of state govern-ments. This ruling allowed private individu-als and businesses to practice segregation.

Plessy v. FergusonIn 1896, the U.S. Supreme Court returnedto the issue of segregation. When HomerPlessy, an African American, refused toleave the whites-only Louisiana train carhe was riding on, he was arrested andaccused of breaking a state law requir-ing separate cars for blacks and whites.Plessy sued the railroad company and lost.His lawyers argued that the law violatedhis right to equal treatment under the Four-teenth Amendment. He then appealed tothe U.S. Supreme Court. The Supreme Courtruled against Plessy in PlessyPlessy v. v. FergusonFerguson..Segregation was allowed, said the Court,Segregation was allowed, said the Court,if “separate-but-equal” facilities wereif “separate-but-equal” facilities wereprovided.provided. Among the justices, only JohnMarshall Harlan disagreed with the Court’sdecision. He explained his disagreement ina dissenting opinion:

“In the eye of the law, there is in the country nosuperior, dominant [controlling], ruling class ofcitizens….Our constitution is color-blind, andneither knows nor tolerates classes amongcitizens. In respect of civil rights, all citizens areequal before the law.”

—John Marshall Harlan, from Plessy v. Ferguson: A BriefHistory with Documents, edited by Brook Thomas

Despite Harlan’s view, segregation becamewidespread across the country. African Ameri-cans were forced to use separate public schools,libraries, and parks. When they existed, thesefacilities were usually of poorer quality thanthose created for whites. In practice, these so-called separate but equal facilities were separateand unequal.

Farming in the SouthFew African Americans in the South couldafford to buy or even rent farms. Moving Westalso was costly. Many African Americans there-fore remained on plantations. Others tried tomake a living in the cities.

African Americans who stayed on plan-tations often became part of a system knownas sharecroppingsharecropping ,, oror sharing the crop. Land-sharing the crop. Land-owners provided the land, tools, and sup-owners provided the land, tools, and sup-plies, and sharecroppers provided the labor.plies, and sharecroppers provided the labor.At harvest time, the sharecropper usuallyhad to give most of the crop to the land-owner. Whatever remained belonged to thesharecropper. Many sharecroppers hoped tosave enough money from selling their shareof the crops to one day be able to buy afarm. Unfortunately, only a few ever achievedthis dream.

Instead, most sharecroppers lived in acycle of debt. When they needed food, cloth-ing, or supplies, most families had to buygoods on credit because they had little cash.When sharecroppers sold their crops, they

Slavery• No rights• Forced labor• No freedom of movement without permission• Family members sold away

from one another• No representation in government

Freedom• Slavery banned• Free to work for wages• Could move and live anywhere• Many families reunited• Could serve in political office

Rights Denied• Sharecropping system

put in place• Ability to vote and hold office restricted• White leadership regained

control of southern state governments

Hopes Raised and Denied

When sharecroppers sold their crops, theyhoped to be able to pay off these debts. How-ever, bad weather, poor harvests, or low cropprices often made this dream impossible.

Sharecroppers usually grew cotton, oneof the South’s most important cash crops.When too many farmers planted cotton,however, the supply became excessive. As aresult, the price per bale of cotton dropped.Many farmers understood the drawbacksof planting cotton. However, farmers feltpressure from banks and others to keepraising cotton. A southern farmer explainedwhy so many sharecroppers depended oncotton:

“Cotton is the thing to get credit on in this coun-try . . . . You can always sell cotton … [Y]ou loadup your wagon with wheat or corn . . . and I doubtsome days whether you could sell it.”

–Farmer quoted in The Promise of the New South,by Edward L. Ayers

READING CHECK Finding Main Ideas Howwere African Americans’ rights restricted?

Rebuilding SouthernIndustryThe southern economy suffered through cyclesof good and bad years as cotton prices went upand down. Some business leaders hoped indus-try would strengthen the southern economyand create a New South.

Southern IndustryHenry Grady, an Atlanta newspaper editor,was a leader of the New South movement.“The new South presents . . . a diversifi ed [var-ied] industry that meets the complex needs ofthis complex age,” he wrote. Grady and hissupporters felt that with its cheap and abun-dant labor, the South could build factoriesand provide a workforce for them.

The most successful industrial develop-ment in the South involved textile production.Businesspeople built textile mills in manysmall towns to produce cotton fabric. Manypeople from rural areas came to work inthe mills, but African Americans were notallowed to work in most of them.

The New South

530 CHAPTER 16

SUMMARY AND PREVIEW In this sectionyou learned about the end of Recon-struction. In the next chapter you willlearn about America’s continued westwardexpansion.

RECONSTRUCTION 531

“The NewSouth...isstirred withthe breath

of a new life.”

Atlanta rebuilt quickly after the war,becoming a leading railroad and industrialcenter. Newspaper editor Henry Gradygave stirring speeches about the need forindustry in the South. He became one ofthe best-known spokesmen of the“New South.”

Why might Grady point to Atlanta as amodel for economic change?

—Henry Grady

Southern Mill LifeWork in the cotton mills appealed to farmfamilies who had trouble making ends meet.As one mill worker explained, “It was a neces-sity to move and get a job, rather than dependon the farm.” Recruiters sent out by the millspromised good wages and steady work.

Entire families often worked in the samecotton mill. Mills employed large numbersof women and children. Many childrenstarted working at about the age of 12. Somechildren started working at an even earlierage. Women did most of the spinning andwere valued workers. However, few womenhad the opportunity to advance within thecompany.

Many mill workers were proud of the skillsthey used, but they did not enjoy their work.One unhappy worker described it as “thesame thing over and over again. . . . The moreyou do, the more they want done.” Workersoften labored 12 hours a day, six days a week.Cotton dust and lint fi lled the air, causingasthma and an illness known as brown-lungdisease. Fast-moving machinery caused

injuries and even deaths. Despite the longhours and dangerous working conditions,wages remained low. However, mill workdid offer an alternative to farming.

READING CHECK Finding Main Ideas What didsouthern business leaders hope industry would do?

Before After

Section 3 Assessment Online QuizKEYWORD: SS8 HP16

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People 1. a. Identify Who were some prominent

African American leaders during Reconstruction? b. Evaluate What do you think was the most important

change made by Reconstruction state governments?Explain your answer.

2. a. Recall Why didn’t some local governments stop theKu Klux Klan?

b. Draw Conclusions How did the Ku Klux Klan’s use ofterror interfere with elections in the South?

3. a. Recall How did Reconstruction come to an end? b. Explain What was the relationship between Jim Crow

laws and segregation? 4. a. Identify Who was Henry Grady, and why was he

important? b. Predict What are some possible results of the rise of

the “New South”?

Critical Thinking 5. Comparing Copy the chart below. Use it to compare the

rights of African Americans before and after Reconstruction.

WRITING JOURNAL

6. Relating Historical Change to Individual ChoiceDespite the diffi culties of Reconstruction, the Freedmen’sBureau and plans to bring industry to the “New South”did create new jobs. What might have led people to leavetheir jobs for new ones?

HSS 8.11.1,8.11.3, 8.11.4

Social Studies SkillsAnalysis

Critical Thinking

Understand the Skill

Sometimes, history can seem very routine. Oneevent leads to others which, in turn, lead to stillothers. You learn to look for cause-and-effectrelationships among events. You learn how pointof view and bias can infl uence decisions and actions.These approaches to the study of history imply thatthe events of the past are orderly and predictable.

In fact, many of the events of the past areorderly and predictable! They may seem even moreso since they’re over and done with, and we knowhow things turned out. Yet, predictable patterns ofbehavior do exist throughout history. Recognizingthem is one of the great values and rewards ofstudying the past. As the philosopher GeorgeSantayana once famously said, Those who cannotremember the past are condemned to repeat it.”

At its most basic level, however, history ispeople, and people are “human.” They make mis-takes. Unexpected things happen to them, bothgood things and bad. This is the unpredictableelement of history. The current phrase “stuffhappens” is just as true of the past as it is today.Mistakes, oversights, and just plain “dumb luck”have shaped the course of history—and havehelped to make the study of it so exciting!

Learn the Skill

California merchant John Sutter decided to build asawmill along the nearby American River in 1848.He planned to sell the lumber it produced to settlerswho were moving into the area. Sutter put JamesW. Marshall to work building the mill. To installthe large water wheel that would power the saw,

Chance, Oversight, and Error in HistoryMarshall fi rst had to deepen the river bed next tothe mill. During his digging, he noticed some shinybits of yellow metal in the water. The result of thisaccidental fi nd was the California Gold Rush, whichsent thousands of Americans to California, andspeeded settlement of the West.

In 1863 the army of Confederate General RobertE. Lee invaded Maryland. The Civil War had beengoing well for the South. Lee hoped a southernvictory on Union soil would convince the British toaid the South in the war. However, a Confederateoffi cer forgot his cigars as his unit left its camp inthe Maryland countryside. Wrapped around thecigars was a copy of Lee’s battle plans. When a Unionsoldier came upon the abandoned camp, he spottedthe cigars. This chance discovery enabled the Unionarmy to defeat Lee at the Battle of Antietam. TheUnion victory helped keep the British out of the war.More importantly, it allowed President Lincoln toissue the Emancipation Proclamation and begin theprocess of ending slavery in the United States.

Practice and Apply the Skill

In April 1865 President Lincoln was assassinatedwhile attending the theater in Washington, D.C.Bodyguard John Parker was stationed outside thedoor of the President’s box. However, Parker left hispost to fi nd a seat from which he could watch theplay. This allowed the killer to enter the box andshoot the unprotected President.

Write an essay about how this chanceevent altered the course of history. How mightReconstruction, North–South relations, and AfricanAmericans’ struggle for equality have been differenthad Lincoln lived?

532 CHAPTER 16

Participation Study

HSS HI4 Students recognize the role ofchance, oversight, and error in history.

RECONSTRUCTION 533

VisualSummary

Reform During Reconstruction, the Freedmen’s Bureau opened schools for former slaves and performed other services to help the poorest southerners.

Dispute Differing ideas about how to govern the South led to conflicts between African Americans and white southerners, as well as between Republicans and Democrats.

Division After the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction, segregation laws were enacted by southern governments and upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court.

Use the visual summary below to help you reviewthe main ideas of the chapter.

16

Reviewing Vocabulary,Terms, and PeopleComplete each sentence by fi lling in the blank with thecorrect term or person from the chapter.

1. ________________ were laws that allowed racialsegregation in public places.

2. The Radical Republicans were led by _______,a member of Congress from Pennsylvania.

3. The period from 1865 to 1877 that focusedon reuniting the nation is known as _______.

4. Following the Civil War, many AfricanAmericans in the South made a living byparticipating in the __________ system.

5. After opposing Congress, Andrew Johnsonbecame the first president to face _____proceedings.

6. The _____ Amendment made slavery in theUnited States illegal.

7. In 1870, ________ became the first AfricanAmerican to serve in the U.S. Senate.

Comprehension andCritical ThinkingSECTION 1 (Pages 512–517) HSS 8.10.7, 8.11.1, 8.11.3, 8.11.5

8. a. Describe How did the lives of African Ameri-cans change after the Civil War?

b. Compare and Contrast How was PresidentJohnson’s Reconstruction plan similar anddifferent from President Lincoln’s Ten PercentPlan?

c. Evaluate Which of the three Reconstructionplans that were originally proposed do youthink would have been the most successful?Why?

SECTION 2 (Pages 518–523) HSS 8.11.3, 8.11.5

9. a. Identify Who were the Radical Republicans,and how did they change Reconstruction?

b. Analyze How did the debate over the Four-teenth Amendment affect the election of 1866?

c. Elaborate Do you think Congress was right toimpeach President Andrew Johnson? Explain.

CHAPTER Standards Review

534 CHAPTER 16

SECTION 3 (Pages 524–531) HSS 8.11.1, 8.11.3, 8.11.4

10. a. Describe What reforms did Reconstructiongovernments in the South support?

b. Draw Conclusions In what ways did southerngovernments attempt to reverse the accom-plishments of Reconstruction?

c. Evaluate Do you think the South was success-ful or unsuccessful in its rebuilding efforts?Explain your answer.

Reviewing Themes 11. Politics Explain the political struggles that took

place during Reconstruction.

12. Society and Culture How were the lives ofordinary southerners affected in the years afterReconstruction?

Using the Internet KEYWORD: SS8 US16

13. Activity: Drawing conclusions A challenge foranyone trying to understand Reconstruction isdrawing conclusions from primary and second-ary sources from the time period. This activitywill help you see how complex this can be.Enter the activity keyword, and then rate thecredibility of the sources provided. Make sureyou explain whether the source is a primaryor secondary source, whether or not you thinkthe source is credible, and the reasons for yourthoughts.

Reading SkillsReading for Essential and Relevant Information Usethe Reading Skills taught in this chapter to answer thequestion about the reading selection below.

Radical Republicans … wanted the federal gov-ernment to force change in the South. Like themoderates, they thought the Black Codes werecruel and unjust. The radicals, however, wantedthe federal government to be much moreinvolved in Reconstruction. (p. 519)

14. Which of the following is relevant informationfor the passage above?

a. Thaddeus Stevens was a Radical Republican.

b. Andrew Johnson was a Democrat.

c. Radical Republicans wanted the federal gov-ernment to make major changes in the South.

d. Radical Republicans were eventually removedfrom power.

Social Studies SkillsChance, Oversight, and Error in History Use theSocial Studies Skills taught in this chapter to answer thequestion about the reading selection below.

Johnson’s speaking tour was a disaster. It didlittle to win votes for the Democratic Party. Heeven got into arguments with people in theaudience. (p. 521)

15. Which of the following is an example ofchance, oversight, or error that affected history?

a. Johnson got into arguments with audiences.

b. The tour was a disaster.

c. The tour didn’t win votes.

d. Johnson spoke for the Democratic Party.

FOCUS ON WRITING

16. Writing A Job History Review your notes aboutthe changing job scene during Reconstruction.Put yourself in the shoes of a person livingthen. It could be anyone—a returning soldier,a shopkeeper, a schoolteacher, or a politician.What jobs would that person seek? Why wouldhe or she leave one job for another?

Write a brief job history for that person duringReconstruction. Include at least four jobs. Makeeach job description 2 to 4 sentences long. Endeach one with a sentence or two about why theperson left that job. Add one sentence explainingwhy they took the next job. Be sure to includespecific historical details.

RECONSTRUCTION 535

DIRECTIONS: Read each question and write the letter of the best response. Use the map below to answer question 1.

!

Disputed

TX1870

MS1870

AL1868

FL1868

SC1868

NC1868

GA1870

VA1870

TN1866

AR1868

LA1868

Gulf of Mexico

30°N80°W

90°WN

S

WE

Which military district contained the largest number of states?A Military District 2

B Military District 3

C Military District 4

D Military District 5

@ What can you infer from the map information?A South Carolina was diffi cult to reconstruct.

B The largest number of troops was in Military District 1.

C Military District 5 was the last district to end Reconstruction.

D Tennessee was readmitted to the Union before the other southern states.

# The quickest approach to reuniting the nation was proposed by theA Ten Percent Plan.

B Wade-Davis Bill.

C Civil Rights Act of 1866.

D Compromise of 1877.

$ What development convinced Republicans in Congress to take control of Reconstruction from the president?A President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated

by a southern sympathizer.

B President Andrew Johnson vetoed the Wade-Davis bill.

C Southern states began passing Black Codes to deprive African Americans of their freedoms.

D White southern women refused to support the Fifteenth Amendment.

% All of the following limited opportunities for African Americans in the South after Reconstruction ended exceptA sharecropping.

B the Redeemers.

C Jim Crow laws.

D carpetbaggers.

Connecting with Past Learning

^ During Reconstruction, southerners were ruled by a small number of outsiders known as carpetbaggers. This situation is mostsimilar to the period ofA Mongol rule over China

B Roman control over Italy

C Chinese control of Japan

D Aztec rule over the Olmec

& In Grade 7 you learned about Bartolomé de Las Casas’s effort to improve conditions for Native Americans. This was most similar to which group’s efforts during Reconstruction? A Redeemers

B Radical Republicans

C Democrats

D sharecroppers

Military District 1

Military District 2

Military District 3

Military District 4

Military District 5

Date formerConfederate statewas readmittedto Union

18680 150 300 Miles

0 150 300 Kilometers

Standards Assessment

536 UNIT 5

AssignmentCollect information and writean informative report on atopic related to the Civil War.

A Social StudiesReportAll research begins with a question. Why did the North

win the Civil War? Why did Abraham Lincoln chooseUlysses S. Grant? In a research report, you find answers toquestions like these and share what you learn with your reader.

1. PrewriteChoosing a SubjectSince you will spend a lot of time researching and writing about yourtopic, pick one that interests you. First, think of several topics relatedto the Civil War. Narrow your list to one topic by thinking about whatinterests you and where you can find information about the topic.

Developing a Research QuestionA guiding question related to your topic will help focus your research.For example, here is a research question for the topic “Robert E. Lee’sRole in the Civil War”: How did Lee’s decision to turn down the leadershipof the Union Army affect the Civil War? The answer to this questionbecomes the thesis, or the big idea of your report.

Finding Historical InformationUse at least three sources of historical information besides your text-book. Good sources include

■ books, maps, magazines, newspapers■ television programs, movies, Internet sites, CD-ROMs

For each source, write down the kinds of information shown below.When taking notes, put a circled number next to each source.

Encyclopedia article 1 “Title of Article.” Name of Encyclopedia. Edition or year published.Book 2 Author. Title. City of Publication: Publisher, Year published.Magazine or newspaper article 3 Author. “Title of Article.” Publication name Date: page number(s)Internet site 4 Author (if known). “Document title.” Web Site. Date of electronic

publication. Date information was accessed <url>

T I P Narrowing the Task The keyto a successful research report ispicking a topic that is broad enoughthat you can find information, butnarrow enough that you can cover itin detail. To narrow a subject, focuson one aspect of the larger subject.Then think about whether that oneaspect can be broken down intosmaller parts. Here’s an example ofhow to narrow a topic:Too Broad: Civil War LeadersLess Broad: Civil War GeneralsNarrower: Robert E. Lee’s Role in theCivil War

ELA Writing 8.2.3 Write researchreports.

THE NATION BREAKS APART 537

T I P Seeing Different ViewpointsConsult a variety of sources,including those with different pointsof view on the topic. Reading sourceswith different opinions will give youa more complete picture of yoursubject. For example, reading articlesabout Robert E. Lee written by asouthern writer as well as a northernwriter may give you a more balancedview of Lee.

Introduction■ Start with a quote or an interesting

historical detail to grab your reader’sattention.

■ State the main idea of your report.■ Provide any historical background

readers need to understand yourmain idea.

Body■ Present your information under at

least three main ideas, using logicalorder.

■ Write at least one paragraph foreach of these main ideas.

■ Add supporting details, facts, orexamples to each paragraph.

Conclusion■ Restate your main idea, using slightly

different words.■ Include a general comment about

your topic.■ You might comment on how the

historical information in your reportrelates to later historical events.

A Writer’s Framework

The Thesis/Big Idea: Robert E. Lee’s decision to decline the leadershipof the Union Army had serious consequences for the path of theCivil War.

I. Lee’s Military ExpertiseA. Achievements at the U.S. Military AcademyB. Achievements during the Mexican War

II. Lee’s Personality and CharacterA. Intelligence and strengthB. Honesty and fairnessC. Daring and courage

III. Lee’s Military VictoriesA. Battle of FredericksburgB. Battle of Chancellorsville

Taking NotesAs you read the source material, take thorough notes on facts, statis-tics, comparisons, and quotations. Take special care to spell namescorrectly and to record dates and facts accurately. If you use a directquotation from a source, copy it word for word and enclose it in quo-tation marks. Along with each note, include the number of its sourceand its page number.

Organizing Your Ideas and InformationInformative research reports are usually organized in one of these ways:

■ Chronological order (the order that events occurred)■ Order of importance■ Causes (actions or situations that make something else happen)

and effects (what happened as a result of something else)

Use one of these orders to organize your notes in an outline. Here is apartial outline for a paper on Robert E. Lee.

2. WriteYou can use this framework to help you write your first draft.

T I P Recording Others Ideas Youwill be taking three types of notes.Paraphrases Restatements of all theideas in your own words.Summaries Brief restatements ofonly the most important parts.Direct quotations The writer’s exactwords inside quotation marks.

538 UNIT 5

INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH

Attention grabber

Statement of thesis

BODY PARAGRAPHS

CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH

Summary of main points

Restatement of big idea

Studying a ModelHere is a model of a research report. Study it to see how one studentdeveloped a paper. The first and the concluding paragraphs are shownin full. The paragraphs in the body of the paper are summarized.

“I cannot raise my hand against my birthplace, my home,my children.” With these words, Robert E. Lee changedthe course of the Civil War. Abraham Lincoln had turned toLee as his first choice for commander of the Union Army.However, Lee turned Lincoln down, choosing instead toside with his home state of Virginia and take command ofthe Confederate Army. Lee’s decision to turn Lincoln downweakened the North and strengthened the Confederates,turning what might have been an easy victory for the Northinto a long, costly war.

In the first part of the body, the student points out that Lee gradu-ated from the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, served in theMexican War, and was a member of the Union Army. She goes on toexplain that he would have been a strong leader for the North, and hisabsence made the North weaker.

In the middle of the report, the writer discusses Lee’s personality andcharacter. She includes information about the strength of charac-ter he showed while in the military academy and while leading theConfederate Army. She discusses and gives examples of his intelli-gence, his daring, his courage, and his honesty.

In the last part of the body of the report, the student provides exam-ples of Lee leading the outnumbered Confederate Army to a series ofvictories. The student provides details of the battles of Fredericksburgand Chancellorsville and explains how a lesser general than Lee mayhave lost both battles.

Lee’s brilliant and resourceful leadership bedeviled a seriesof Union generals. He won battles that most generals wouldhave lost. If Lee had used these skills to lead the larger andmore powerful Union Army, the Civil War might have endedin months instead of years.

THE NATION BREAKS APART 539

3. Evaluate and ReviseEvaluating and Revising Your DraftEvaluate your first draft by carefully reading it twice. Ask the questionsbelow to decide which parts of your first draft should be revised.

T I P Organizing Your Time Bycreating a schedule and following it,you can avoid that panicky momentwhen the due date is near and youhaven’t even started your research.To create your schedule and manageyour time, include these six steps.

1 Develop a question and researchyour topic (10% of your total time).

2 Research and take notes (25%).3 Write your main idea statement and

create an outline (15%).4 Write a first draft (25%).5 Evaluate and revise your first draft

(15%).6 Proofread and publish your report

(10%).

Evaluation Questions for an Informative Report

■ Does the introduction attract thereaders’ interest and state the bigidea/thesis of your report?

■ Does the body of your report have atleast three paragraphs that developyour big idea? Is the main idea ineach paragraph clearly stated?

■ Have you included enoughinformation to support each of yourmain ideas? Are all facts, details,and examples accurate? Are allof them clearly related to the mainideas they support?

■ Is the report clearly organized? Doesit use chronological order, order ofimportance, or cause and effect?

■ Does the conclusion restate thebig idea of your report? Does it endwith a general comment about theimportance or significance ofyour topic?

■ Have you included at least threesources in your bibliography? Haveyou included all the sources youused and not any you did not use?

4. Proofread and PublishProofreadingTo improve your report before sharing it, check the following:

■ The spelling and capitalization of all proper names for people,places, things, and events.

■ Punctuation marks around any direct quotation.■ Your list of sources (Works Cited or Bibliography) against a guide

to writing research papers. Make sure you follow the examples inthe guide when punctuating and capitalizing your source listings.

PublishingChoose one or more of these ideas to publish your report.

■ Share your report with your classmates by turning it into aninformative speech.

■ Submit your report to an online discussion group that focuses onthe Civil War and ask for feedback.

■ With your classmates, create a magazine that includes reportson several different topics or post the reports on your schoolWeb site.

5. Practice and ApplyUse the steps and strategies outlined in this workshop to researchand write an informative report on the Civil War.