The US and WWIIChapter 18

The Four Freedoms

FDR’s statement of WHY the US needed to be involved in the war. Stressed the idea that we were protecting these for ourselves- rather than bringing them to other nations (opposed to Wilson’s idealism in WWI Freedom of Speech Freedom of Worship Freedom from Want Freedom from Fear

Famously illustrated by Norman Rockwell

America in WWII

A lot of economic and social trends were born in the war : military industrial complex (the idea that arms manufacturing in a big part of econ) civil rights, women’s liberation, movement to Sunbelt

And of course- it makes America a superpower….

Good Neighbor Policy

As Europe begins to get tense- FDR decides it’s important to bring western hemisphere together, and recognized lingering resentments from American imperialism

So… declare policy of non intervention and cooperation “A good neighbor respects himself and the rights of others”. Pull troops out of Nicaragua and Haiti, repeal the Platt Amendment (keep Guantanamo)

The Road to War

Aggression began during depression (remember- Japan and Germany will end theirs through militarization)

Japanese invasion of Manchuria 1931. Invasion of China 1937 (Rape of Nanking – 300K civilians killed)

German annexation of Rhineland 1936, Austria and Sudetenland 1938 (Appeasement)

Italian invasion of Ethiopia 1937 Spanish Civil War 1936-38

American Isolationism

US emerged from WWI as a world leader- but refused to step and shape world events AFTER the debacle of the Versailles treaty. US fatally weakened the League of Nations by not joining 1935 Neutrality act- forbid Americans from

traveling on any vessel owned by a “belligerent nations” (anyone at war- don’t want Lusitania)

Most Americans were far more concerned about Communism that Fascism- Henry Ford built a plant in Germany that used slave labor.

FDR did worry about Hitler- and recognized USSR in 1933.

The Rise of Fascism

For Europe- the “Great War” had been a cataclysmic event, and, people were worried about the spread of

communism from Russia (after all, remember what happened after those French Revs) Plus there was the Depression to worry about

In a time of chaos and fear- radical solutions seemed like good options. If we are afraid of the left…. Let’s turn WAY right instead

Both the Communism of Stalin and the Fascism of Mussolini/Hitler are forms of totalitarianism- just with different angles….

Fascism in Italy

Mussolini actually invented the word – from the Fasces, an ancient Roman symbol of strength. Took power in Italy 1922

Il Duce used mass culture and propaganda to spread his message- a promise of security (in exchange for freedom) and a return to glory

Fascism in Germany

But if you’re talking fascists- Hitler’s the man. Germany was a HOT mess, and the Nazi’s offered a solution and someone to blame

Plan was to create a new world order based on the “Master” Aryan race- social darwinism on crack

Came to power legally (they fudged some election results and set a building on fire, but other than that) Their success is the best example of how psychologically damaging wwi really was for Germany

Rise of Stalin

Won the power struggle after Lenin died in 1924. Actually the most successful of the totalitarians- he dominates the USSR from 1927-1953.

Big move in the 30s was modernizing USSR. Collectivization and Industrialization- which resulted in the death of 10-20 million Russians BEFORE the war started

Rise of Japan

Was a newly powerful country- having rapidly transformed themselves into a modern nation by government supported industrialization (Meiji Restoration)

Their lack of industrial resources, and desire to be taken “seriously” by European powers will push them towards aggression

The US in a Menacing World It wasn’t hard to see another war coming…but

boy did we try… Some were pacifists, some isolationists, some

resented the extra $$ which would take focus from domestic issues

Preparing for neutrality- FDR signed a series of acts to protect commerce. Most important was idea of “Cash and Carry” that US would only sell for cash to nations at war, and those nations had to transport their own goods. (and he starts quietly preparing for war… building up navy, and instituting a peacetime draft )

The Onset of War

Nazi Soviet Pact allowed Hitler to attack w/o worrying about a two front war (for the time being) invaded Poland on Sept 1, 1939.

Blitzkrieg very effective- allowed the Nazis to overrun Poland, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, and France

Tripartite Pact united Japan with Germany/Italy (Rome Berlin Axis) Never really coordinated war efforts/aims, but did ensure that it would be the allies fighting in multiple directions this time.

Britain stood alone for almost a year- resisting the Blitz in the Battle of Britain.

Neutrality Act of 1940

US response to Invasion of Poland. Like wwi, it’s not like people don’t know whose side we are on…but this allowed us to sell arms to any nation. FDR also outlines “danger areas” where Americans cannot travel.

FDR gives “Arsenal of Democracy” speech saying we would help all those who were fighting for freedom (meaning the British) BUT Congress will only allow arms sales on a “Cash and Carry” basis- and the British have to transport them themselves

A 3rd Term for FDR

In an uncertain world, with US under threat from the “three bandit nations”, Germany, Italy, Japan FDR decided to break tradition and run for a 3rd term in 1940 (by then war in Europe has already begun) Ran against Wendell Wilkie- a Wall Street Businessman (show Reps know they have little chance)

Lend Lease

Nazis had spent 5 years building up military- Allies didn’t start until after Munich Conference in spring of ‘39, they are behind

Fall of France changes the game- England is alone in 1940 so FDR created the Lend Lease Plan- where Britain would “borrow” war products and return (or pay for) when war was over. Really big deal for congress- they are involving US in war- and giving president a “blank check”. But FDR is adamant “When your neighbor’s house is on fire, you don’t talk about the cost of your garden hose”.

Atlantic Charter

August 1941 Winston Churchill and FDR met off coast of Newfoundland and

drew up Atlantic Charter- goals for war (eliminate the Nazis) and after war was over: Collective Security, Disarmament, Freedom of the Seas etc…

We became more engaged- using convoy system to deliver lend –lease goods, with a “shoot on sight” directive which made it clear our entry into the war was only a matter of time.

Tension between US and Japan We refused to recognize Japanese

territorial expansions- and in 1940 put an embargo on trade with Japan. No fuel (and they NEED our oil), chemicals, iron and steel. We also made arrangements with the free French to take over military bases in Vietnam

Clear to Japan that US will be on opposite side- started “peace negotiations” to buy time before fighting.

Pearl Harbor

Japan begins planning to fight, and decide a 1st strike attack is the way to play. Japanese War plan is to take Indonesia, Malaysia, and Philippines for oil and agriculture- so we assume 1st attack on US will come at the Philippines. Instead they hit Hawaii. Dec 7th 1941 (“A Day that Will

Live in Infamy”) at 7:00 am. 2402 killed, 187 airplanes, 18 ships (8 battleships destroyed) in just over 2 hours. By chance, non of our aircraft carriers were at pearl (they were the ultimate target) but still, a devastating blow.

December 8th- we declare war on Japan. Dec 9th – Germany declares war on US (which was a mistake on their part)

Nature of the War

Total War- full commitment of resources – and the winner decided by who has the most (rather like Civil War, seems obvious on paper now that we will win, we have more stuff, but it didn’t seem so at the time).

Even more destructive than WWI, we take all those technologies (minus the gas attacks) and add aircraft carriers, bombers, rocketry, radar and atomic weapons

Lines between military and civilians blurred, both sides bombed cities full of noncombatants, and genocide was an important aspect of Nazi strategy (interestingly- that diversion of resources might have cost the Nazis the war)

War in Pacific

Japan very successful in beginning of war. Invasion of Manchuria/China gave them the resources they needed and that allies needed-

they controlled 95% of the world’s rubber supply (we develop synthetics), and 70% of tin, started taking European colonies: Hong Kong, Singapore, The Philippines Malaya and Indonesia. Dominated a population of 450 million (way more than Nazis)

War in the Pacific fought primarily at sea- aircraft carriers vital.

Bataan- 78,000 American troops forced to surrender- “Bataan Death March”. Battle of the Coral Sea our 1st significant victory, Midway the turning point. Island Hopping the strategy.

War in Europe

Nazi strategy was Blitzkrieg- and worked really well in Poland, Denmark, Norway,

Belgium and France. 1942 High water mark of Nazi rule First place they ran into a snag was the Battle of

Britain- and that “defeat” prompted Hitler to order the invasion of Russia way ahead of schedule- and he gets stuck there (Stalingrad)

Once US is in war- allies decide to attack through “Soft Underbelly” of North Africa - Which had been conquered by Italy while Nazis had been busy up north.

Operation Torch successful by 1943 (El Alamein most important battle). But what is most significant Allies (US, Eng, Fr Resistance Canadians) get used to working together. With Africa cleared we head north into Italy, which flips sides, and hangs Mussolini

The Home front

More transformation in the power of the government- as the war effect the entire population (far more than wwi) federal employees goes from 1 m to 4 mil. Unemployment goes from 14% in 1940 to 2% in 1943.

Draft authorized for men 18-65, but majority of US forces are volunteer. By end of war 16 million men and women will serve (out of pop of 132 million)

New Agencies: War Production Board, War Manpower Commission, Office of Price Administration.

Even within our fear- this restores our confidence and optimism. Here is something we can DO- something concrete to fight.

Once again- propaganda plays and important role

Economic Conversion

Began with Lend Lease- but by 1942 ½ of manufacturing capacity converted to military manufacturing, creating 60,000 planes, 45,000 tanks and 8,000,000 tons of military supplies in 1942 alone. By 1943 US produced 2x as many war goods as enemy nations combined Cost of war supplies 10x wwi and 100x Civil War

Still used bond drives (raised 185 million), but also increased taxes (and the number of people who had to pay income tax) and increased the national debt from $49 billion in 1940 to $259 Billion by 1945

Gov’t spent $100 million on research for new tech (radar, sonar and atomic most important)

Rationing of consumer items like gas, sugar, coffee and cloth.

West coast develops into manufacturing center (Seattle)

Fighting for “Freedom”

The Four Freedoms were at the heart of American support of War- not only a desire for peace, but for security in a world that seemed to have changed “too” much.

Sharp contrast with the coercive patriotism of WWI. Freedom of Speech- that was something we had been limiting in past- now it’s out front and center.

War brought prosperity- and a “5th” Freedom began to be talked about for after the war – “freedom of choice” in a restored consumer economy (50s are all about that)

Women at War

Really kept the economy moving during conflict – rep 1/3 of labor force Unmarried women from 20-35 could be called to work in

key industries or as agricultural workers. US had 350,000 women in military

In US and Britain rules about “women’s work” fell by wayside as new professional opportunities opened, and more married women worked. Led to the development of daycares etc. (and to criticisms of mothers leaving their children to work) “Rosie the Riveter” became a symbol of women’s contributions.

Marriage Rates- which had fallen during depression- boomed during war. This will create a HUGE population burst (the Baby Boom) after the war.

Visions of Postwar Freedom War brings a new conception of America’s role in the

world: tied to continued international involvement, the promise of economic abundance and the idea that the American experience should be a model for other nations.

“Economic Bill of Rights” – in 1944 FDR spoke of the need for gov’t to ensure full employment, adequate income, medical care, education, and a decent home for all Americans. Not enacted- BUT

GI Bill – (Serviceman’s readjustment act) offered veterans benefits like scholarships for college (over 1 million will use – half of total college students in 1946) and low interest mortgages (4 million – suburban housing boom of 50s) goal was to prevent a flood of unemployment for returning GIs.

The American Dilemma

If one can say anything good came out of the Holocaust (and that is tough to say) it would be that it discredited the idea of racial/ethnic “inferiority” .

Pluralism became a part of the American ideal. (we literally re-wrote textbooks to make it look like the “melting pot” had always been our thing)

Racism and Nativism (at least outside the south) became officially “unacceptable, and unAmerican”- though it would take time for actual intolerance to dissipate –and we hadn’t done a great job with tolerance/pluralism during to war itself

Mexicans

1942 US encouraged Mexican agricultural workers to emigrate as part of Bracero program- which allowed short term residency. (about 150,000 came) Cultural differences created tensions and conflict- Zoot Suit riots 1943 Mexicans attacked by Marines/Navy who associated their fashions with frivolity a lack of patriotism (cloth was rationed) Still – nearly 500,000 people of Hispanic heritage served in the Armed forces.

Native Americans

Exercising their newly returned sovereignty, the Iroquois nation declared war on

Germany and Japan separately from rest of US

25,000 native Americans served in US armed forces, most famous were the “wind-talkers” Navajo who transmitted messages in their own language- which the Japanese could not decifer.

Japanese Internment

After Pearl Harbor, anti-Japanese feelings were intense. Like German in WWI, we wanted to “Americanize” various aspects of culture. 120,000 Americans with Japanese heritage (2/3 born in US) were sent to “relocation centers” for the duration of the war by executive order 9066.

Most were from west coast- moved to interior, forced to sell homes/businesses at a loss and conditions would best be compared to a communal prison.

Korematsu v US in 1944 upheld the idea, but in 1984 congress voted to award reparations ($1.25 Billion- about $20k per person) as apology for racial blindness. No act of sabotage was ever proven against a Japanese American

African Americans

Nazis used Jim Crow laws as samples to draft their own racial laws (Nuremberg laws) When War began air force and marines both excluded

Blacks. Over 1 million African Americans served in the during, primarily in segregated units -although that was not possible in the Navy - and success there helped create an integrated military by 1947

Tuskegee Airmen served with exceptional distinction Labor needs also continued the migration of African

American labor to the north – 700K move from north by 1945. And FDR (ex order 8802) required defense contractors to hire without discrimination

The Civil Rights Movement Really born in the war- America is turning against the

idea of racism, “scientific” theories have been debunked- so why aren’t all Americans truly equal?

For Blacks “freedom from Fear” meant ending lynching and discriminatory hiring practices.

NAACP grew from 50k to 500k during the war. Congress on Racial Equality (CORE- they will be big in civil rights movement- based on ideas of Gandhi) founded

For the 1st time since reconstruction, status of African Americans assumed a place at the forefront on discussions of reform- and federal official were supporting idea (Truman de-segregating army etc)

Election of 1944

FDR ran for a 4th term in 1944….and while he won, it was his smallest margin of victory (primarily b/c Thomas Dewey, who ran against him was a bland choice)

FDR had a different VP every term- this time he had chosen a virtually unknown senator from Missouri with little experience in international affairs.

The End of the War

By 1943- the tide had turned against the Nazis Stalingrad turns the Germans back in the USSR

(militarily, this is the most important battle in Europe)

Operation Avalanche (allied invasion of Italy) cost Hitler his major Ally

Allied forces captured and broke the code for the enigma machine- and that helped us win the battle of the Atlantic- now it is safe to transport massive numbers of troops and prepare for an end to the war- and to open up a 2nd front against the Nazis

D- Day and VE

June 6th 1944 Operation Overlord commences- the largest amphibious landing in history- 167,000 troops landed in 1 day. (2,245 kia) Fought our way up the beach- and pushed

towards Paris. Germans gave a last ditch effort at the Battle of the Bulge- but we broke through.

Russians are pushing from the east, Eng/US/Fr pushing from west- and Germany implodes. Hitler commits suicide sometime around May 1st, and on May 7th the Nazis surrender.

War in Pacific

Hard to fight and supply- different climate, terrain etc, and US doesn’t have a ton of experience there. Australian helped US build the Burma Road to supply over the Himalayas

Battle of Midway (June 1942) turning point in Pacific theater.

We island hopped our way until we were close enough to start bombing Japan- but our experiences taught us that the Japanese would not give up without a huge fight. On Okinawa there were 50,000 American casualties, and 40,000 Japanese committed suicide rather than surrender. Experts predicted that a frontal invasion of japan would cost a million lives on each side….

Atomic Bomb

We had been working on the technology since 1939 (when Einstein told us the Nazis were working on it)- by July 1945 we have it. President Truman authorized it’s use- after issuing an final ultimatum to the Japanese warning them of “prompt and utter destruction”.

Aug 6th Hiroshima “little boy” (80,000 instantly, 120,000 radiation) Aug 9th Nagasaki “Fat man” (30,000 instantly, 60,000 radiation- smaller city) and warn the 3rd bomb is for Tokyo (we don’t have a 3rd bomb, but they don’t know that….)

Japan surrenders Aug 14th – treaty signed on Sept 2nd (V-J day) and the war is over

Controversy of the bomb

Atomic bomb most controversial part of war in ensuing decades -didn’t really bother people at the time. After all- civilians have been targets in the war all along on both sides (Rape of Nanking, Battle of Britain, Firebombing of Dresden) of the 50 million who died- 20 million were NOT in military

The big argument is that it SAVES lives (unless you live in Hiroshima or Nagasaki). Many also felt it was “payback” for sneak attack at Pearl. Critics say we could have used a blockade and conventional bombs. Also criticized b/c neither city was a military target

Recently historians have been writing that Japan may not have been the TRUE target…the REAL goal was to SHOW the USSR what we had.

Planning the Postwar World

Churchill, Stalin, and FDR (Truman at last one) met 3 times during war: Tehran

1943, Yalta in Feb 1945, and Potsdam July 1945 to plan and coordinate war.

Tense- all 3 countries had different “visions” for process of war and the world after. Soviets want buffers, Britain wants to keep colonies, we tell Eng, but not USSR about bomb (though Stalin finds out anyway and is mad)

Britain and US genuinely close allies during the war- the USSR had been at best, a necessary evil. As war came to a close, their divisions became obvious, and tensions began mounting

A New World Order

Europe had been “leading” the world since exploration in 1500s- but they are done (some more than

others) Japan in ruins- China goes into a death struggle between Communists and Nationalists- world is a hot mess when war is over- and a radical redistribution of power is happening.

US was clearly the dominant power left standing – but the USSR (Stalin) is DONE being 2nd place….

But there is new hope for internationalism- UN established in 1944, and unlike League of Nations, people WANT to join this one.

Aftermath of the War

50 million dead worldwide (20 million in USSR)

30 million refugees in Europe and Japan. 4 million buildings destroyed in Britain, 7

million in Germany. 1,700 entire towns/cities wiped out in USSR

Holocaust- 6 million Jews and 5-6 million “others” (gypsies, homosexuals, handicapped, political opponents, Jehovah’s Witnesses). Along with Japanese atrocities led to idea of “Crimes against Humanity”.

The Cold War1945-53

Chapter 23

Roots of the Cold War: US POV

Stalin was creating “spheres of influence in Eastern Europe- broke promises at Yalta to allow elections and self determination

USSR refused to “release” their part of Germany to any form of independent gov’t.

US wanted the markets of Eastern Europe to maintain our econ boom (avoid another depression)

US intended UN to spread democracy and global peace- but USSR doesn’t- yet US needs them IN the UN for legitimacy, and so they can keep an eye on them….

Soviet POV US did not open a 2nd front in

France fast enough- which meant Soviets had fought bulk of Nazi army alone until 1944.

US and England kept Soviets out of Atomic Bomb project

US terminated lend-lease for USSR in 1945, while Britain got 3.75 billion in additional goods that year

USSR is having a buffer zone- period, and THEY want Eastern Europe’s raw materials to rebuild THEIR econ

Roots of Containment As war ended and Churchill lost power (gov’t displaced

1946) US gradually assumed Britain’s former role as world leader- especially as it related to dealing with the new threat from the Soviets- (what we don’t know is that it is all a front, Soviets have EVERYTHING in the window, nothing to back it up) US will not be returning to isolationism

Soviets see their actions as accomplishing multiple goals: create buffer zone, (this whole getting invasion thing is getting tired –and are happy to point out it’s a lot like imperialism, which everyone else did for centuries) Regain lands taken at Brest Litovsk in 1917, and FINALLY get the recognition they have been looking for since the 1700s!

Long Telegram 1946: George Kennan says you can’t think of USSR as a “normal” gov’t too many other layers – and if we don’t stop them, no one will.

Truman Doctrine

It was Churchill (in a speech at a college in Missouri) who said an “Iron Curtain” had fallen across the continent.

Leads to Truman Doctrine: “I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities (internal communists) or outside pressures (USSR)” Truman himself is an interesting president- had been an undistinguished senator – ZERO foreign policy before 1945.

Cold War becomes (as the war had been) an ideological struggle with the “forces of liberty” defending against the “forces of darkness”.

Greece and Turkey

The Test. Both countries had internal communist movements (not backed significantly by USSR) and “democratic gov’ts” (I am using that loosely, neither were really democratic- and that will be a thing in cold war, we support a LOT of people who are not so nice- as long as they are not communist) had been supported by England- in 1947 they say they can’t help anymore- need US to take over. We d0 (spend about $400 million), assuming a permanent (to this point) global responsibility

National Securities Act

Created the “Defense Department” (Housed within the Pentagon) to coordinate the various branches/actions of the military , with the National Security Council (NCS) and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) created in 1948/49 to deal with the “threats” at home and abroad to US interests.

We also maintained the draft (1st peacetime draft) and planned to continue large scale military spending

Containment

1947- US stated goal was that no other country should become communist (Saw USSR as a threat to “American way of life”)

Became even more adamant after Communist takeover of China in 1949

There was recognition that communist ideology was not going to change as long as Stalin was around- they best they could do was hold. Truman Doctrine, Marshall plan, and NATO all part of containment.

Marshall Plan Greece/Turkey was new thing for

us- and we follow it with another….massive foreign aide

Europe was in trouble- econs were in ruin, physical damage everywhere, food/housing shortages.

Marshall plan offered loans to rebuild any European nation that asked for them- including the communists (though USSR won’t take or let satellites take) We spend $12.5 billion from 1947-51 in 16 European countries- facilitating their recovery – but also solidifying “us” and “them”

The Reconstruction of Japan Gen. Douglas MacArthur put in charge of

rebuilding Japan from ground up. We wrote them a new constitution and

required them to accept. Created democratic gov’t Gave women the vote Required that they forever “renounce” war and

abolish military (they still don’t really have one By 1950s recovery was well underway –

along with significant culture adjustment.

Germany

Main goal of allies was “de-nazification”, erasing the ideology, and the crisis that had created it- again, trying NOT to make mistakes of 1918.

In 1945 Germany was split into 4 zones by Eng, Fr, US, USSR for administration of surrender. When it became clear Soviets were keeping theirs, other 3 combined into Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and rebuilt as a moderate democracy. US poured $$ into redevelopment- and they rebounded, within 20 years econ was better than ever.

Soviets create Democratic Republic of Germany (East Germany) hard line communism, industry stripped

Berlin Airlift: 1948-49. USSR tried to cut off West Berlin to push allies out. We respond with 277,000 flights to deliver $2 million tons of aide

NATO vs Warsaw Pact

New enemies require new friends North Atlantic Treaty Organization: 1949

mutual defense treaty signed between 12 nations: US, Eng, France, Italy, Portugal, Denmark, Iceland, Canada, Luxembourg, Belgium, Netherlands, Norway. Collective security. Other nations joined over time

Warsaw Pact: Soviet version- mutual defense with their satellites- showing NATO they don’t stand alone either (Mutual Assured Destruction hallmark of the cold war era) USSR, Poland, East Ger, Czech, Romania, Bulgaria

USSR explodes their 1st atomic bomb Sept 1949

China becomes Communist

China had been in the middle of a civil war between communists and Nationalists when the Japanese attacked- agreed to pause an deal with the outside threat

War resumed in 1945- and in 1949 Mao Zedong pushed Chang Kai Shek out (to Taiwan) US refuses to recognize People’s Republic of China from 1949-72

Really pushes US to maintain military and pursue a “global crusade against communism”

Hydrogen Bomb

US exploded 1st Hydrogen bomb in 1952. 10x more powerful- an

atomic bomb can destroy a city- a few Hydrogen bombs could destroy and entire nation or region

Soviets exploded in 1953 For the 1st time in history-

mankind has the power to destroy civilization

Korean War 1950-53 Cold war started in Europe- got “hot” in Asia Korea had been a territory of Japan, had been

divided at 38th parallel by US/USSR at end of war, US sets up a democratic gov’t, USSR a communist satellite state

1950: North Korea invades South. UN, (with leadership of US) moved to step in and support S. Korea. A big test- can it DO something (unlike League and their “condemnations”) Able to go b/c People’s Republic of China not yet “recognized” and USSR is temp. boycotting UN because it won’t recognize

Conflict is a tie- 38th parallel still border today. 33K Americans die, 1 million Korean soldiers and 2 million Korean Civilians

Limited War

Douglas MacArthur (Supreme Allied commander in Pacific WWII) was in command of Us forces in Korea.- as we push North Korea back over their line, he argues to not only invade the North, but to attack China as well (push the Communists out, reinstall nationalists) - expanding the war significantly.

Truman says no, and MacArthur makes a series of public statement criticizing the President and his ability to handle the fighting. Truman removes him from Command.

Superpowers have global ability to fight- and deliberately choose NOT to use their most extreme weapons- or to allow conflict to spread, but to limit the conflict to the region at hand.

Threat of WWIII and nuclear annihilation hung over all participants- there is now a type of war where NO ONE wins

Decolonialization

Europe can no longer hold their empires- they have been through too much, lost too many resources.

Period from 1945-1960 dozens of new nations are created- sometimes peacefully, sometimes with struggle/revolution. US made Philippine independent in 1946

Europe tries to direct what happens to colonies as they become nations, which can either solve problems or create them, depending on who you ask. Also- we still had a really loose definition of what we called “democracy” to make you part of “free world” (ex. South Africa)

The Cold war and Freedom Whatever Moscow stood for was the opposite of

freedom- including anything with the world “socialized” attached (which is curious in an era of big government)

Also impacted the emerging idea of human rights (1st defined at Nuremberg trials- crimes against humanity) The idea is that a nation’s treatment of its own citizens can be subject to international scrutiny. UN Charter on Human Rights (Eleanor Roosevelt) defines human rights as: freedom of speech, religious toleration, protection against arbitrary gov’t, right to make an adequate living, access to housing, education and medical care. This can be tricky- who has the right to enforce the rights being violated?

The Truman Presidency

Needed to transition from a wartime to peacetime economy. 12 million men needed to be “demobilized” (by 1946, 9 million of them were civilians and GI Bill offered lots of new pathways)

A return to many of the ideas of New Deal- but without the crisis. Truman called it the Fair Deal: Focusing on improving the social safety net and raising the standard of living for ordinary Americans. Called on Congress to increase the minimum wage, create national health insurance (didn’t happen) and expand public housing.

22nd Amendment 1951 “Anti- FDR” Amendment- a

response to 17 years of Democratic control of the White House, and to limit some executive power

Limited president to two terms- a max of 10 years if a VP assumed presidency due to death/departure of previous leader.

Postwar Strike Wave

During war- government had supported labor- but limited their power- b/c they needed production. Unions had been gaining members, and in 1946 there was a wave of strikes to increase their numbers and their power

Nearly 5 million workers in steel, auto, coal and other industries were on strike at various times throughout the year- closest thing to a general strike we have ever had. Truman did fact finding – recommended wage increases

Concerns about labor issues created 1st widespread Republican congressional victories since 1929. They turned aside aspects of Fair deal, and created tax cuts for wealthy Americans (over veto) and passed “right to work” laws prohibiting compulsory union membership.

Truman and Civil Rights

Truman was MUCH more active than FDR had been- specifically reaching out to the NAACP and Black community in general. Voter registration increased in the upper south, and law enforcement officials took lynching seriously. Integrated military through executive order

1947- Brooklyn Dodgers and Jackie Robinson 1948 Truman presented a civil rights bill to congress-

calling for a permanent commission, national laws against lynching and poll tax, and action of ensure equal access to jobs and education.

That’s about all the southern wing of the new deal coalition can take- and the election of 1948 is about to get messy

Election of 1948

Truman was not afraid to make tough choices (which gets him a good rating) but doing what you think is right is not going to make a politician

popular … and Truman was often the subject of bitter debate. 1948 when Truman ran against

Thomas Dewey (gov of NY) Democrats beginning to split over civil rights- and

that took votes from Truman, south walked out convention and created Dixiecrat party which ran Strom Thurman, and last elements of the progressives who ran George Wallace. Last campaign before tv and commercials get involved- where ideology is the determining factor

It looked like Truman was going down, Chicago Tribune even printed headline…But Truman pulled out a narrow victory

Red Scare- Alger Hiss “Fear” an undercurrent of cold war society.

Fear of communism leading to another war, fear of nuclear attack, fear of another depression….

Demagogue politicians played on and exploited those fears for electoral gain and political power. Sharp line between “patriotic Americans” and the “disloyal”

Alger Hiss (undersecretary of State) accused of passing documents to the Soviets, which was not proven, but jury gave him 5 years for perjury.

Richard Nixon led prosecution- gained national recognition and a VP nomination.

McCarthyism The 1950s is an age where “different” is pretty

synonymous with “dangerous”….and dangerous means communist.

1949 House UnAmerican Activities Committee created to address concerns about “communist influences”, specifically in the arts- esp Hollywood.

Screenwriters, Actors, Directors etc questioned and required to testify. Walt Disney, Gary Cooper, and Ronald Regan all famous for testifying that Hollywood was full of communists. Those who refused (Hollywood 10) were jailed for contempt, over 200 “blacklisted” as communist sympathizers.

J Edgar Hoover (director of FBI) complied “files” on thousands of Americans- esp political dissenters, or those with alternative lifestyles

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg Members of the American

Communist party- accused of passing scientific information to the Soviets which had led them to successful development of the Atomic bomb.

“Evidence” in the case was top secret documents- never shown to the court (or the defense attorneys)- but though they were not convicted of espionage they were convicted of conspiracy and executed. Truth of the case still unknown.

McCarthy Trials

Senator Joe McCarthy of Wisconsin emerged as the head of the anti communist crusade 1950n announced that he had a list of communists

who worked for the state department. Senate hearings started (committee on government operations) which became a witch hunt platform for McCarthy to search for “Reds” and “Pinkos”.

Made unsubstantiated accusations for 4 years about federal employees, members of the armed forces, university professors- eventually questioned Eisenhower’s patriotism (after soviet summit)

Eventually hearings became televised, which is what brought McCarthy down- everyone could see his bullying. Unfortunately for many of the “accused” the damage was already done

Congress v. Truman

Anti- communist crusade filled politics. After their unexpected defeat in 1948- Republicans in congress used charges of “subversion” to block Truman’s policies- and enact their own

McCarran Internal Security Bill: (passed over veto) Required all “subversive” groups to register with the gov’t, denied passports to members, and allowed deportation

McCarran-Walter Act : (also passed over veto) New immigration law (Truman had called for end of the quota system) Kept Quotas, authorized deportation of immigrants from communist countries- even if citizens

Operation Wetback: (really????) rounding up and deporting illegal aliens from Mexico

Expanding Welfare

Truman did manage to add self-employed and domestic workers to social security (as long as they and/or their employer registered) But expansion of gov’t run welfare state Truman had called for in Fair Deal (and that becomes common in Europe) doesn’t really happen

Instead- benefits are private. Unions fight hard to make health insurance, paid vacations and pensions typical (and while fighting accusations of socialism- Taft Hartley Act said all union leaders had to swear they weren’t communist) They have a lot of success- but your benefits are determined by where you work, not an entitlement for all citizens