Chapter 18: Enlightenment and Revolution

A statue of Louis XIV on horsebackoutside of the palace of Versaillesin France

Revolutionand

Enlightenment

1543Copernicus sup-ports idea of sun-centered universe

1690John Lockewrites aboutgovernment

1776Declaration ofIndependence is signed

1500 1600 1700 18001500 1600 1700 1800

1492Columbusreaches theAmericas

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655

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Chapter PreviewBy the end of the Renaissance, Europe and the rest of the

world were entering a time of rapid change. Read this chapterto find out how voyages of exploration and scientific discover-ies affected people in different parts of the world.

View the Chapter 18 video in the World History: JourneyAcross Time Video Program.

The Age of ExplorationIn the 1400s, Europeans began to explore overseas andbuild empires. Trade increased and goods, technology,and ideas were exchanged around the world.

The Scientific RevolutionScientific ideas and discoveries gave Europeans a newway to understand the universe.

The EnlightenmentDuring the 1700s, many Europeans believed that reasoncould be used to make government and society better.

The American RevolutionBritain and France established colonies in North America.Britain’s American colonies eventually rebelled againstBritain and formed a new nation, the United States.

Chapter Overview Visitjat.glencoe.com for a previewof Chapter 18.

Summarizing Information Make this foldable to help you organize andsummarize information about the Enlightenment and era of revolutions.

Reading and WritingAs you read the chapter,write information undereach appropriate tab. Besure to summarize theinformation you find bywriting only main ideasand supporting details.

Step 1 Mark themidpoint of a sideedge of one sheetof paper. Thenfold the outsideedges in to touchthe midpoint.

655

Step 2 Fold thepaper in halfagain from side to side.

Step 3 Open thepaper and cutalong the insidefold lines to formfour tabs.

Step 4 Labelas shown.

Cut along thefold lines onboth sides. American

Revolution

Enlighten-ment

Age ofExploration

ScientificRevolution

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http://jat.glencoe.com

656 Unit Title

656

Your Reading StrengthsDifferent people read differently. Some people read and

understand something quickly, while other people may need toread something several times to comprehend it fully. It is impor-tant to identify your own strengths and weaknesses as a reader.

Read the following paragraph describing the story of howNewton discovered gravity:

Monitor and Adjust

According to tradition, Newtonwas sitting in his garden one daywhen he watched an apple fall tothe ground. The apple’s fall led himto the idea of gravity, or the pull ofthe earth and other bodies onobjects at or near their surfaces.

—from pages 675–676

Depending upon what

you are reading, you

may need to slow down

or speed up. When you

study, read more slowly.

When you read for

pleasure, you can read

more quickly.

• Can you visualize this scene in your mind,almost like a movie?

• Are there any words you do not know?• What questions do you have about this passage?• What does this scene make you think of based

on what you have previously read, seen, orexperienced?

• Do you need to reread it?

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Improve Your ReadingThe paragraph below appears in Section 3. Read the

passage and answer the questions that follow.

Choose one explorer,philosopher, or scientistthat you were intro-duced to in this chapter.Write a list of questionsthat a modern talk-show host might ask ifhe or she interviewedthis person.

Read to Write

657

As you read the chapter, identify oneparagraph in each section that is diffi-cult to understand. Discuss each para-graph with a partner to improve yourunderstanding.

Peter the Great

During the 1600s and 1700s, manyEuropean thinkers favored limits ongovernment power. However, power-ful kings and queens ruled most ofEurope. This system was known asabsolutism. In this system, monarchsheld absolute, or total, power. Theyclaimed to rule by divine right, or bythe will of God. This meant that rulersdid not answer to their people, butrather to God alone.

—from page 686

Catherine the Great

• What words or sentences madeyou slow down as you read?

• Did you have to reread any parts?• What questions do you still have

after reading this passage?

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The Age ofExploration

What’s the Connection? You have learned how Italy’s cities

grew rich from trade. In the 1400s,other European states began exploringthe world in search of wealth.

Focusing on the • In the 1400s, trade, technology, and

the rise of strong kingdoms led to anew era of exploration. (page 659)

• While the Portuguese explored Africa,the Spanish, English, and Frenchexplored America. (page 661)

• To increase trade, Europeans set up colonies and created joint-stock companies. (page 666)

• Exploration and trade led to aworldwide exchange of products,people, and ideas. (page 668)

Locating PlacesStrait of Magellan (muh• JEH• luhn)Netherlands (NEH•thuhr• luhnz)Moluccas (muh•LUH•kuhz)

Meeting PeopleVasco da Gama

Christopher Columbus

Magellan (muh• JEH• luhn)John Cabot (KA•buht)Jacques Cartier

(ZHAHK kahr•TYAY)

Building Your Vocabularymercantilism

(MUHR•kuhn•TUH•LIH•zuhm)export (EHK•SPOHRT)import (IHM•POHRT)colony (KAH• luh•nee)commerce (KAH•muhrs)invest (ihn•VEHST)

Reading StrategyCause and Effect Complete adiagram like the one below showingwhy Europeans began to explore.

1420 Portugal beginsmapping Africa’scoast

1492Columbusreaches theAmericas

1520Magellan’s crew sails around the world

1588Englanddefeats theArmadaAFRICA

EUROPE

SOUTHAMERICA

NORTHAMERICA CHINA

INDIA

1400 1500 16001400 1500 1600

658 CHAPTER 18 Enlightenment and Revolution

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Europe Gets Ready to ExploreIn the 1400s, trade, technology, and

the rise of strong kingdoms led to a new era ofexploration. Reading Focus Do you like traveling to places thatyou have never been? Read to see why WesternEuropeans set off to explore the world.

In the 1400s and 1500s, nations inWestern Europe began exploring the world.They soon gained control of the Americasand parts of India and Southeast Asia aswell. Why did they begin exploring in the1400s? Many events came together to createjust the right conditions for exploration.

Trade With Asia As you have read, in theMiddle Ages, Europeans began buying vastamounts of spices, silks, and other goodsfrom Asia. In the 1400s, however, it becameharder to get those goods.

First of all, the Mongol Empire had col-lapsed. The Mongols had kept the Silk Roadrunning smoothly. When their empire col-lapsed, local rulers along the Silk Roadimposed new taxes on merchants. Thismade Asian goods more expensive.

Next, the Ottoman Turks conqueredthe Byzantine Empire and blocked Italianmerchants from entering the Black Sea.The Italians had trading posts on the coastof the Black Sea where they bought goodsfrom Asia. Now, they could no longerreach them. They had to trade with theTurks instead, and this drove prices evenhigher.

Europeans still wanted the spices andsilks of East Asia. Anyone who could find away to get them cheaply would make a lotof money. Merchants began looking for aroute to East Asia that bypassed the MiddleEast. If they could not get there by land,maybe they could get there by sea.

CHAPTER 18 Enlightenment and Revolution 659

New Technology Even though the Euro-peans wanted to go exploring, they could notdo it without the right technology. TheAtlantic Ocean was too dangerous and diffi-cult to navigate.

By the 1400s, they had the technologythey needed. From the Arabs, Europeanslearned about the astrolabe and the com-pass. The astrolabe was an ancient Greekdevice that could be used to find latitude.The compass, invented by the Chinese,helped navigators find magnetic north.

Even with these new tools, the Europeansneeded better ships. In the 1400s, they beganusing triangular sails developed by theArabs. These sails let a ship zigzag into thewind.

Early compass

Astrolabe

European explorersand traders began touse smaller, fasterships called caravels in the 1400s. Whatadvantage did tri-angular sails offer a ship?

(t)Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, MA, (c)SuperStock, (b)Michael Holford

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The rise of towns and trade helpedmake governments stronger. Kings andqueens could tax the trade in their kingdomand then use the money to build armies andnavies. Using their new power, they wereable to build strong central governments.

By the end of the 1400s, four strongkingdoms—Portugal, Spain, France, andEngland—had developed in Europe. Theyhad harbors on the Atlantic Ocean and wereanxious to find a sea route to Asia. Thequestion was where to go.

Did Maps Encourage Exploration? By the1400s, most educated people in Europe knewthe world was round, but they only hadmaps of Europe and the Mediterranean.When the Renaissance began, however, peo-ple began to study ancient maps as well asbooks written by Arab scholars.

Twelve hundred years earlier, a Greek-educated Egyptian geographer namedClaudius Ptolemy had drawn maps of theworld. His book Geography was discoveredby Europeans in 1406 and printed in 1475.

With the invention of the printingpress, books like Ptolemy’s could beprinted and sold all over Europe.Ptolemy’s ideas about cartography, or thescience of mapmaking, were very influen-tial. His basic system of longitude and lat-itude is still used today.

European cartographers also beganreading a book written by al-Idrisi, an Arabgeographer. Al-Idrisi had published a bookin 1154 showing the parts of the worldknown to Muslims. By studying the worksof al-Idrisi and Ptolemy, Europeans learnedthe geography of East Africa and the IndianOcean. If they could find a way aroundAfrica, they could get to Asia.

Summarize What were themain reasons the Europeans began exploring theworld in the 1400s?

They also began building ships with manymasts and smaller sails to make their ships gofaster. A new type of rudder made steeringeasier. In the 1400s, these inventions cametogether in a Portuguese ship called the car-avel. With ships like the caravel, Europeanscould begin exploring the world.

The Rise of Strong Nations Even withnew technology, exploration was stillexpensive and dangerous. For most of theMiddle Ages, Europe’s kingdoms wereweak and could not afford to explore. Thissituation began to change in the 1400s.

Prince Henry’s school for navigation helpedmake possible the discovery of new waterroutes and new lands. Here, Prince Henry isshown watching for the return of his ships.What types of professionals did Prince Henryinvite to his research center?

Bettmann/CORBIS

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Upper DeckSailors slept and

cooked their meals on the upper deck.

Captain’s CabinThis room served

as Columbus’s dining room, bedroom, and

study.

HoldFood, fresh water,

and supplies for the voyage filled the

ship’s hold.

Crow’s NestThe crow’s nest served as a platform for a lookout.

Santa MaríaSanta María

The Santa María, Columbus’s flagship, waslarger and slower than the other twoships on the voyage. What islands mightColumbus have explored on his firstvoyage to the Americas?

Exploring the WorldWhile the Portuguese explored Africa,

the Spanish, English, and French explored America.Reading Focus Have you ever done something daringor tried something new not knowing how it would turnout? Read to learn how European explorers took chancesand went places no Europeans had ever been before.

By the early 1400s, Europeans wereready to explore. England and France werestill fighting each other, however, and Spainwas still fighting the Muslims. This gavePortugal the chance to explore first.

Who Was Henry the Navigator? In 1419Prince Henry of Portugal, known as “Henrythe Navigator,” set up a research center in southern Portugal. He invited sailors,cartographers, and shipbuilders to comeand help him explore the world.

In 1420 Portugal began mappingAfrica’s coastline and trading with Africa’skingdoms. It also seized the Azores (AY •ZOHRZ), Madeira (muh • DIHR • uh), and CapeVerde islands. Soon after, the Portuguesediscovered sugarcane would grow on theislands.

Sugar was very valuable in Europe. To work their sugarcane fields, thePortuguese began bringing enslavedAfricans to the islands. This was the begin-ning of a slave trade that would eventuallybring millions of enslaved people to theAmericas as well.

In 1488 the Portuguese explorerBartolomeu Dias reached the southern tipof Africa. Nine years later, Vasco da Gama(VAS • koh dah GA • muh) rounded the tipof Africa, raced across the Indian Ocean,and landed on India’s coast. A water routeto East Asia had at last been found.

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N

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W E

Mercator projection2,000 km0

2,000 mi.0

Death ofMagellanApril 1521

60°W

60°E 120°E

180°120°W

0°

0°

60°N

60°S

EQUATOR

Dias 1487

Elcano (for Magellan) 1522

Elcano

Magellan

1519

Magellan 1521

Cortés 1519 Columbus 1492

Verrazano 1524

da Gama

Cabr

al 15

00

Cabral

daG

am

a 1497

Cartier 1534

Cabot

1497

Hudson 1610

Hudson 1609

nallegaM

Pizarro1531-1532

da Gama da GamaATLANTICOCEAN

INDIANOCEAN

PACIFICOCEAN

HudsonBay

CaribbeanSea

PACIFICOCEAN

Strait of Magellan

Strait ofMalacca

A S I A

AFRICA

EUROPE

AUSTRALIASOUTH

AMERICA

NORTHAMERICA

Philippines

Greenland

HispaniolaBahamasCuba

Spice Islands(Moluccas)

SPAIN

PORTUGAL

NETHERLANDSFRANCE

PERU

CHINAINDIA

JAPANMEXICO

ENGLAND

Lima

Tenochtitlán(Mexico City)

MelakaCalicutGoa

Christopher Columbus While the Port-uguese explored Africa, an Italian navigatornamed Christopher Columbus came upwith a daring plan to get to Asia. He wouldsail across the Atlantic Ocean.

Columbus needed money to make thetrip. The rulers of Portugal, England, andFrance all turned him down. Finally in 1492Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain said yes.Earlier that year, they had finally driven theMuslims out of Spain. They could nowafford to pay for exploration.

Columbus outfitted three ships: theSanta María, the Niña, and the Pinta. In 1492they left Spain and headed west. As theweeks passed, the crew grew desperate.Finally they sighted land, probably theisland of San Salvador. Columbus claimedthe land for Spain and then explored thenearby islands of Cuba and Hispaniola.

Columbus thought he was in Asia. Hemade three more voyages to the region but never realized he had arrived in theAmericas. Eventually, Europeans realizedthey had reached two huge continents.

Who Was Magellan? Many Spaniardsexplored the Americas in the 1500s, butonly Ferdinand Magellan (muh • JEH • luhn)tried to finish what Columbus had set outto do. In 1520 he left Spain and headed westto sail around the Americas and then all theway to Asia.

Magellan sailed south along SouthAmerica. Finally, he found a way around thecontinent. The passage he found is namedthe Strait of Magellan (muh • JEH • luhn).

DutchEnglishFrenchPortugueseSpanish

KEY

For more than 100 years, Europeans undertookvoyages of exploration in search of new tradeand trade routes.1. Based on this map, which continents were not

visited by European explorers?2. What general region did the English explore?Find NGS online map resources @www.nationalgeographic.com/maps

European Exploration of the World MotionIn

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http://www.nationalgeographic.com/maps


After passing through the stormy strait, hisship entered a vast sea. It was so peaceful, orpacific, that he named the sea the PacificOcean.

Magellan then headed west. His sailorsnearly starved and had to eat leather, saw-dust, and rats. Finally, after four months atsea, they reached the Philippines. After localpeople killed Magellan, his crew continuedwest across the Indian Ocean, around Africa,and back to Spain. They became the first

known people to circumnavigate (suhr•kuhm•NA •vuh • GAYT), or sail around, the world.

The First English and French ExplorersAs the news spread about Columbus’s journey, England decided to search for anorthern route to Asia. In 1497 an Englishship commanded by John Cabot (KA •buht)headed across the Atlantic.

Cabot arrived at a large island he namedNewfoundland. He then traveled south

Christopher Columbus

Voyages: 1492, 1493,1498, 1502

First European to sailwest searching for awater route to Asia

Vasco da Gama

Voyage: 1497–1499

First European tosail around thesouth of Africa and reach India

Ferdinand Magellan

Voyage: 1519–1522

Led the firstexpedition to sail

completely aroundthe world

Jacques Cartier

Voyages: 1534,1535, 1541

Explored the St.Lawrence River

Henry Hudson

Voyages: 1607, 1608,1609, 1610

Explored theHudson River and

Hudson Bay

Important European ExplorersImportant European Explorers

N

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W E

500 km0Mercator projection

500 mi.0

Cartier 1534–42

Champlain 1603–15

Verrazano 1524

Marquetteand Joliet

1673

La Salle1679–82

Hudson 1609

60°W30°N

ATLANTICOCEAN

Gulf of Mexico

Ohio R.

Mississippi R

.

Mis souri R.A

rk ansas R.

NORTHAMERICA

QuebecMontreal

Plymouth

Jamestown

French explorationDutch exploration

KEY

N

S

W E1,000 km0

Mercator projection

1,000 mi.0Balboa1513

De Soto1538–42

Ponce De

León 1513

Narváez 1528

Cabeza de Vaca 152 8–36

Coro

nado 1540–42

Cabrillo1542–43

Cortes 1519

90°W120°W 60°W

30°N

0°

ATLANTICOCEAN

PACIFIC OCEAN

Caribbean Sea

Ohio R.

Mississippi R

.

Misso uri R.

Arkans as R.

Co lorado R.

Ri o Grande

Snake R.

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

Santa Fe

St. Augustine

Tenochtitlán(Mexico City)

Spanish explorationKEY

(l)The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1900(00.18.2), (cl)Stock Montage, (c)Collection of The New-York Historical Society, (cr)Reunion des Musees Nationaux/Art Resource, NY, (r)North Wind Picture Archives

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along the coast of present-day Canada butdid not find a path through to Asia. Cabotdisappeared on his second trip and wasnever heard from again.

In 1524 France sent Giovanni daVerrazano to map America’s coast and finda route through to Asia. Verrazano mappedfrom what is today North Carolina north toNewfoundland but found no path to Asia.

Ten years later, the French tried again.This time they sent Jacques Cartier (ZHAHKkahr • TYAY). Cartier sailed past Newfound-land and entered the St. Lawrence River.Hoping he had found a passage to Asia,Cartier made two more trips to map the St.Lawrence River. After these trips, Francestopped exploring. By the mid-1500s,French Protestants and Catholics werefighting a civil war. There was no moreexploring until it was settled.

Spain Fights England After Columbus, theSpanish went on to build a vast empire inAmerica. They forced enslaved NativeAmericans to grow sugarcane and mine goldand silver. Later they brought enslavedAfricans to the region to work on their farms.

Spanish nobles called conquistadorstraveled to America in the hopes of becom-ing rich. Hernán Cortés conquered theAztec, and Francisco Pizarro conquered theInca. Soon after their victories, vastamounts of gold and silver began to flow to


Europe from Spain’s empire inAmerica.

Meanwhile, England hadbecome Spain’s enemy. As youhave read, in 1534 King HenryVIII of England broke from theCatholic Church and made hiskingdom Protestant. By the

1560s, the Dutch had become Protestant, too,even though they were part of Spain’sempire at that time. Spain was stronglyCatholic and tried to stop Protestantism inthe Netherlands (NEH • thuhr • luhnz). Whenthe Dutch people rebelled against Spain,England came to their aid.

To help the Dutch, Queen Elizabeth I ofEngland let English privateers attack Spanishships. Privateers are privately owned shipsthat have a license from the government toattack ships of other countries. People nick-named the English privateers “sea dogs.”They raided the Spanish treasure ships thatwere bringing gold back from America.

England’s raids frustrated Philip II, theking of Spain. In 1588 he sent a huge fleetknown as the Spanish Armada to invadeEngland. In July 1588, the Armada headedinto the English Channel—the narrow bodyof water between England and Europe. TheSpanish ships were large and had manyguns, but they were hard to steer. Thesmaller English ships moved much morequickly. Their attacks forced the Armada toretreat north. There a great storm arose andbroke up the Armada.

The defeat of the Spanish Armada wasan important event. The Spanish were stillstrong, but England now had the power tostand up to them. This encouraged theEnglish and Dutch to begin exploring bothNorth America and Asia.

Identify Who was the firstEuropean to sail to India? Whose crew was first tosail around the world?

To defeat the Spanish Armada, the Englishsent ships that had been set on fire towardthe Spanish warships. Why was the defeat ofthe Spanish Armada important?

National Maritime Museum, London

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ELIZABETH I1533–1603

Elizabeth I is one of the most popular British rulers—

but she was more loved by the people of England than by

her father, King Henry VIII. Elizabeth’s young life was filled

with change and sadness. She was born to Henry VIII and

his second wife, Anne Boleyn. The king was upset when

Elizabeth was born, because he wanted a boy to inherit

the throne.

When Elizabeth became queen, she surrounded herself

with intelligent advisers. Together they turned England

into a strong, prosperous country. Elizabeth supported

Protestantism in England and in the rest of Europe. She

sent aid to the French Huguenots and Protestants in Scotland

and the Netherlands. She worked well with Parliament but

called few sessions during her reign. She was a skilled writer

and speaker and won the love and support of the English

people.

Elizabeth never married, which was unusual at that time.

Many men were interested in marrying her, but she turned

down their proposals. One reason Elizabeth probably remained

single was to maintain control of the government at a time when most rulers were men.

She also used her status to the advantage of England. Many prominent men wanted to

marry her, and she sometimes threatened to marry someone’s enemy in order to get him

to do what she wanted.

Elizabeth’s personality also influenced England’s society. She loved horse riding,

dances, parties, and plays. Her support of the arts resulted in the development of new

English literature and music. Elizabeth

was so popular by the time of her

death that the date she became

queen was celebrated as a national

holiday for 200 years.

665

Queen Elizabeth I

“I have the heart andstomach of a king andof a king of England,too.”

—Elizabeth I, “Armada Speech”

Even though Queen Elizabeth I had an unhappy

childhood, she overcame it to become one of

England’s most popular leaders. Today England’s

Queen Elizabeth II has also faced sad situations.

Research her life and write a short essay

comparing her life to the life of Elizabeth I.

National Portrait Gallery, London/SuperStock

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The Commercial RevolutionTo increase trade, Europeans set up

colonies and created joint-stock companies.Reading Focus Do you know anyone who works athome? Read to learn how merchants in the 1600s gavepeople jobs at home and changed the world trade system.

While Spain built its empire in America,Portugal began building a trading empirein Asia. In 1500, shortly after Vasco daGama’s trip, the Portuguese sent 13 shipsback to India. Led by Pedro Alvares Cabral(PAY • throo AHL • vahr • ihs kuh • BRAHL), thePortuguese fought a war against theMuslim merchants in the Indian Ocean.

After defeating the Arab fleet, thePortuguese built trading posts in India,China, Japan, the Persian Gulf, and in theMoluccas (muh •LUH •kuhz), or Spice Islandsof Southeast Asia. From these bases, theycontrolled most of southern Asia’s seatrade.

What Is Mercantilism? As Europeanswatched Spain and Portugal grow wealthyfrom their empires, they tried to figure outhow they had become rich. They came upwith the idea of mercantilism (MUHR •kuhn •TUH • LIH • zuhm). Mercantilism is the idea thata country gains power by building up itssupply of gold and silver. Mercantilistsbelieve the best way to do this is to export(EHK • SPOHRT), or sell to other countries, moregoods than you import (IHM • POHRT), or buyfrom them. If you export more than youimport, more gold and silver flows in fromother countries than goes out.

Mercantilists also thought countriesshould set up colonies. A colony (KAH • luh •nee) is a settlement of people living in a new territory controlled by their home country.Colonists are supposed to produce goodstheir country does not have at home. That


way, the home country will not have toimport those goods from other countries.

Trade Empires in Asia Mercantilismencouraged Europeans to set up tradingposts and colonies in Asia and NorthAmerica. By the end of the 1500s, Spain hadset up a colony in the Philippines. TheSpanish shipped silver to the Philippinesfrom America and then used it to buy Asianspices and silk for sale in Europe.

In the 1600s, English and French mer-chants landed in India and began tradingwith the people there. In 1619 the Dutchbuilt a fort on the island of Java, in what isnow Indonesia. They slowly pushed thePortuguese out of the spice trade.

What Are Joint-Stock Companies?Trading overseas was very expensive. Inthe 1600s, however, new ways of doingbusiness developed in Europe. Historianscall this the “commercial revolution.”Commerce (KAH •muhrs) is the buying and selling of goods in large amounts over long distances.

These ships sailed for the Dutch East IndiaCompany, which carried out trade in Asia.Which European nation did the Dutch replacein the spice trade?

Reunion des Musees Nationaux/Art Resource, NY

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To trade goods long distance, merchantsneeded a lot of money. They had to buymany goods, store them in warehouses, andship them over land and sea. They had toknow what people in distant lands wantedto buy and what prices were like there.

This new business created a new type ofbusinessperson called an entrepreneur.Entrepreneurs invest (ihn • VEHST), or putmoney into a project. Their goal is to makeeven more money when the project is done.

Many projects were so large that agroup of entrepreneurs had to cometogether and form a joint-stock company. Ajoint-stock company is a business that peo-ple can invest in by buying a share of thecompany. These shares are called stocks.

What Is the Cottage Industry? To tradeover a long distance, merchants need alarge supply of goods. They also have

to buy goods at low prices so they canmake money selling them at higher priceselsewhere.

By the 1600s, merchants had become frus-trated by artisans and guilds. They chargedtoo much and could not make goods fastenough. So merchants began asking peasantsto make goods for them. In particular, theyasked the peasants to make wool cloth. The peasants were happy to make extramoney and glad to find work they could doin their homes.

This system was called the “putting out”system. Merchants would buy wool and putit out to the peasants. This system is alsosometimes called the “cottage industry,”because the small houses where peasantslived were called cottages.

Explain How did merchantsraise the money for overseas trade?


N

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W E1,000 km0Two-Point Equidistant projection

1,000 mi.0

Mekong

R.

Ganges R.

PACIFICOCEAN

INDIAN OCEAN

SouthChina

Sea

Bay ofBengal

CAMBODIA

INDIA

CHINA

THAILAND

Ceylon(Sri Lanka)

PhilippinesVIETN

AM

Java

Borneo

Sumatra

MalayPeninsula

SpiceIslands

(Moluccas)

ROTAUQE

20°N

0°

80°E 100°E 120°E

140°E

Daman

Pondicherry

Macau

Manila

Batavia(Jakarta)

Melaka

Madras

Bombay

Colombo

Goa

Calcutta

CalicutCochin

Using their advanced weapons andships, Europeans set up tradingposts in India and Southeast Asia.1. Which countries had trading

posts along the coasts of India? 2. Which country controlled the

most ports?

Port city controlled by:KEY

EnglandFranceNetherlands

PortugalSpain


European Trade in Asia c. 1700

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A Global ExchangeExploration and trade led to a world-

wide exchange of products, people, and ideas.Reading Focus Have you heard about insects fromother countries that hurt American crops? Read to learnhow the movement of goods and people betweenAmerica and the rest of the world caused great changes.

After the Age of Exploration, theeconomies of Europe, Africa, Asia, andAmerica changed. As Europe traded withthe world, a global exchange of people,goods, technology, ideas, and even diseasesbegan. We call this transfer the ColumbianExchange, after Christopher Columbus.

Two important foods—corn and pota-toes—were taken to Europe from NorthAmerica. Corn was used to feed animals.Larger, healthier animals resulted in moremeat, leather, and wool. The potato was alsoimportant. Europeans discovered that if they

planted potatoes instead of grain, about fourtimes as many people could live off the sameamount of land.

Other American foods, such as squash,beans, and tomatoes, also made their wayto Europe. Tomatoes greatly changed cook-ing in Italy, where tomato sauces becamevery popular. Chocolate was a popular foodfrom Central America. By mixing it withmilk and sugar, Europeans created a sweetthat is still popular today.

Some American foods, such as chili peppers and peanuts, were taken toEurope, but they also made their way toAsia and Africa where they became popu-lar. Both Europeans and Asians also begansmoking tobacco, an American plant.

Many European and Asian grains, suchas wheat, oats, barley, rye, and rice, wereplanted in the Americas. Coffee and tropi-cal fruits, such as bananas, were brought toAmerica as well. Eventually, coffee and

N

S

W E

1,000 km0Mercator projection

1,000 mi.0

60°W 30°W

0°

30°N

ATLANTICOCEAN

SquashQuinine

SweetPotatoes

Avocados

PineapplesPeppers

Turkeys

Corn

Pumpkins

CassavaPeanuts

Potatoes

TomatoesTobacco

CocoaBeans

Beans

Vanilla

CoffeeBeans

Onions Olives

CitrusFruits

Bananas

Grapes

Turnips Peaches &Pears

Sugarcane

Grains

Livestock

Honeybees

Disease- Wheat- Rice- Barley- Oats

- Cattle- Sheep- Pigs- Horses

AMERICAS TO EUROPE, ASIA, AND AFRICA

EUROPE, AFRICA, AND ASIA TO AMERICAS

Disease

EUROPE

AFRICA

NORTHAMERICA

The Columbian Exchange

Many food items were exchangedbetween the Americas and Europe,Africa, and Asia.1. Which grains made their way to

the Americas from Europe?2. What, besides food, was part of

the Columbian Exchange?668 CHAPTER 18 Enlightenment and Revolution

MotionIn

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Reading SummaryReview the • Rising prices of Asian goods, strong

central governments, and new sail-ing technology led to Europeanexploration of the world.

• Portugal found a route to Indiawhile Spain, England, and Franceexplored America.

• Europeans used joint-stock com-panies to build colonies and trad-ing posts in Asia following theideas of mercantilism.

• European exploration and tradebrought about a global exchangeof goods, technology, and disease.

1. What was a caravel, and whywas it important?

2. Describe the accomplishmentsof Ferdinand Magellan.

Critical Thinking3. Organize Information Draw

a chart like the one below. Useit to name the explorers dis-cussed in this section, thecountry they sailed for, and theplaces they explored.

4. Summarize Describe thedevelopment of the Africanslave trade.

5. Understand Cause andEffect Why did merchantscreate joint-stock companiesand use cottage industries?

6. Analyze How did foodsimported from the Americasbenefit Europe? Identify someof those foods.

7. Monitor andAdjust Write a 10-questionmultiple choice test to helpyou review the importantinformation in this section.Exchange tests with a classmate.

What Did You Learn?

Study CentralTM Need help with the material in this section? Visit jat.glencoe.com


banana farms employed thousands ofworkers in Central and South America.

New animals such as pigs, sheep, cattle,chickens, and horses were also brought toAmerica. Chickens changed the diet ofmany people in Central and South America,while horses changed the lives of NativeAmericans on the Great Plains. Horses pro-vided a faster way to move from place toplace. As a result, Native Americans beganhunting buffalo as their main food source.

A huge movement of people also tookplace after Europeans obtained sugarcanefrom Asia and began growing it in theCaribbean. To plant and harvest the sugar-cane, they enslaved millions of Africansand moved them to the Americas.

Europeans also changed Asian society.With their guns and powerful ships, theEuropeans easily defeated Arab fleets and

Indian princes. Across Asia, the Europeansforced local rulers to let them set up tradingposts. Within a short time, the East IndiaCompany of England had built an empirein India, and the Dutch East IndiaCompany had built an empire in Indonesia.

The arrival of the Europeans in Japanalso changed that society. Using guns andcannons imported from Europe, a newshogun was finally able to defeat the feudallords, the daimyo, and reunite Japan.

Not everything exchanged betweenEurope and America was good. WhenEuropeans arrived in America, they were carrying germs that could kill NativeAmericans. Many diseases, including small-pox, measles, and malaria, swept across theAmericas killing millions of people.

Describe Describe theColumbian Exchange.

Explorer CountrySailed for

AreaExplored

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The Scientific Revolution

What’s the Connection? One result of the Renaissance

was a new interest in science. Duringthe 1600s, people began to observe,experiment, and reason to find newknowledge.

Focusing on the • The thinkers of the ancient world

developed early forms of science and passed this knowledge to later civilizations. (page 671)

• European interest in astronomy ledto new discoveries and ideas aboutthe universe and Earth’s place in it.(page 673)

• The Scientific Revolution led to newdiscoveries in physics, medicine,and chemistry. (page 675)

• Using the scientific method,Europeans of the 1600s and 1700sdeveloped new ideas about societybased on reason. (page 678)

Meeting PeoplePtolemy (TAH• luh•mee)Copernicus (koh•PUHR•nih•kuhs)Kepler (KEH•pluhr)Galileo (GA• luh•LEE•oh)Newton (NOO•tuhn)Descartes (day•KAHRT)

Building Your Vocabularytheory (THEE•uh•ree)rationalism (RASH•nuh•LIH•zuhm)scientific method

hypothesis (hy•PAH•thuh•suhs)

Reading StrategyCompare and Contrast Use adiagram like the one below to showthe similarities and differences in theviews of Ptolemy and Copernicus.


1543Copernicus supports

sun-centered solar system

1632Galileo publisheswork supporting

Copernicus’s ideas

1687Isaac Newton

states laws aboutmotion and gravity

Rome

Florence

Paris

London

1500 1600 17001500 1600 1700

Ptolemy Copernicus

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The Scientific RevolutionThe thinkers of the ancient world

developed early forms of science and passed thisknowledge to later civilizations. Reading Focus Have you ever taught a skill or passedon an idea to a younger brother or sister? Read in thischapter how the scientific ideas of early thinkers werepassed on to later generations.

From earliest times, people have beencurious about the world around them.Thousands of years ago, people began touse numbers, study the stars and planets,and watch the growth of plants and ani-mals. These activities were the beginningsof science. Science is any organized study ofthe natural world and how it works.

Early Scientists Early civilizations devel-oped different kinds of science to solve prac-tical problems. Among the first scienceswere mathematics, astronomy, and medi-cine. Mathematics was used for record keep-ing and building projects. Astronomyhelped people keep time and figure outwhen to plant and harvest crops. Early civ-ilizations also developed medical practices,such as surgery, acupuncture, and the useof herbs, for treating illnesses.

The ancient Greeks left behind a largeamount of scientific knowledge. Theybelieved that reason was the only way tounderstand nature. As they studied theworld, they developed theories. A theory(THEE •uh • ree) is an explanation of how orwhy something happens. A theory is basedon what you can observe about something.It may not be correct, but it seems to fit thefacts.

In ancient Greece, the Greek philoso-pher Aristotle observed nature and col-lected vast amounts of information aboutplants and animals. He then took the facts


This model shows the universe according tothe ideas of the Polish astronomer NicolausCopernicus, with the sun at the universe’scenter. What did Ptolemy’s geocentrictheory state?

he gathered and classified them, orarranged them into groups, based on theirsimilarities and differences.

The Greeks made many important scientific advances, but their approach toscience had some problems. For example,they did not experiment, or test, new ideasto see if they were true. Many of their con-clusions were false because they were basedon “common sense” instead of experiments.

For example, in the A.D. 100s, theEgyptian-born astronomer Ptolemy (TAH •luh •mee) stated that the sun and the planetsmoved around the earth in circular paths.After all, it did seem like the earth was thecenter of the universe. Astronomers inEurope accepted Ptolemy’s geocentric, orearth-centered, theory for more than 1,400years.

Science During the Middle Ages InRoman times, most people continued toaccept the scientific knowledge of theGreeks. After the fall of Rome, during theMiddle Ages, most people were more

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interested in theology, the study of God,than in the study of nature. For scientificknowledge, they relied on Greek andRoman writings and saw no need to checktheir facts or to make their own observa-tions. Many of these ancient works, how-ever, were either lost or poorly preserved.In the writings that survived, errors wereadded as copies were made.

Meanwhile, Arabs and Jews in theIslamic Empire preserved much of the sci-ence of the Greeks and Romans. They care-fully copied many Greek and Roman worksinto the Arabic language. They also cameinto contact with the science of the Persiansand the Indian system of mathematics.

Arabic and Jewish scientists madeadvances of their own in areas such as

mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.However, in spite of these achievements,scientists in the Islamic world did notexperiment or develop the instruments necessary to advance their scientific knowledge.

During the 1100s, European thinkersbecame interested in science again as aresult of their contacts with the Islamicworld. Major Islamic scientific works werebrought to Europe and translated intoLatin. The Hindu-Arabic system of num-bers also spread to Europe, where it eventu-ally replaced Roman numerals. Christianthinkers, such as Thomas Aquinas, tried to show that Christianity and reason couldgo together. During the 1100s, Europeansbegan building new universities. They

A New View of the UniverseA New View of the Universe

The astronomical theory of Ptolemy (left) placedEarth at the center of the universe (above). Histheory was accepted for more than a thousandyears. According to the diagram, how manyplanets besides Earth were known at the time ofPtolemy?

Sun

Mercury

Venus

EarthMoon

Mars

Jupiter

Saturn

Fixed Stars

Prime Mover

Ptolemaic UniversePtolemaic Universe

Louv

re,

Par

is/B

ridge

man

Art

Lib

rary

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would play an important role in the growthof science.

Beginning in the 1400s, voyages ofexploration further added to Europe’s sci-entific knowledge. Better charts, maps, andnavigational instruments helped voyagersreach different parts of the world. Throughexploration, the size of oceans and conti-nents became better known. Scientists gath-ered and classified new knowledge aboutplants, animals, and diseases in differentparts of the world.

As scientific knowledge grew, the stagewas set for a new understanding of the natural world that would shake Europe toits foundations.

Describe Describe scien-tific knowledge during the Middle Ages.


A Revolution in AstronomyEuropean interest in astronomy led to

new discoveries and ideas about the universe andEarth’s place in it.Reading Focus What would people on Earth think iflife were discovered on other planets? Read to see howEuropeans reacted to new discoveries about the universe.

During the 1500s, European thinkersbegan to break with the old scientific ideas.They increasingly understood that advancesin science could only come through mathe-matics and experimentation. This new wayof thinking led to a revolution, or sweepingchange, in the way Europeans understoodscience and the search for knowledge.Astronomy was the first science affected by

Nicolaus Copernicus (right), a Polishmathematician, believed that the sun was at thecenter of the universe. His model (above) placedEarth and the other planets in orbits around thesun. Why did Europeans again become interested inscience in the 1100s?

SunMercury

VenusEarth

MoonMars

Jupiter

Saturn

Fixed Stars

Copernican UniverseCopernican Universe

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Today, telescopes are large,complex, and powerful. The Hubble

Space Telescope has been in orbit 380 miles above the earth’s surface

since 1990. It can see great distancesbecause it is outside the atmosphere.

Why is astronomy important today?

Telescopes

Galileo’s first telescope was made of twolenses inside a tube. Kepler improved the telescopeby including an outward curving eyepiece, whichincreased the magnification and field ofview. In 1663 James Gregory published adescription of a reflecting telescope thatwould use a mirror to gather and focuslight. It was not built until 1668.

Galileo’s telescope

The Hubble Space Telescope


the Scientific Revolution. New discoveriesbrought changes in the way Europeans sawthe universe. They challenged traditionalthinking that God had made the earth as thecenter of the universe.

Who Was Copernicus? Leading theScientific Revolution was a Polish mathe-matician named Nicolaus Copernicus (koh•PUHR•nih•kuhs). In 1543 Copernicus wrote abook called On the Revolutions of the HeavenlySpheres. He disagreed with Ptolemy’s viewthat the earth was the center of the universe.Copernicus believed that Ptolemy’s theory

was too complicated. Instead, he developeda simpler heliocentric, or sun-centered, the-ory of the universe. Copernicus’s theorystated that the Sun, not Earth, was the cen-ter of the universe. The planets moved incircular paths around the Sun.

Kepler’s Revolution The next step in themarch of science was taken by a Germanastronomer named Johannes Kepler (KEH •pluhr). He supported Copernicus’s theory butalso made corrections to it. Kepler added theidea that the planets move in ellipses (ih •LIHP• SEEZ), or oval paths, rather than circular

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ones. His theory made it easier to explain themovements of the planets. It also marked thebeginning of modern astronomy.

Who Was Galileo? An Italian scientistnamed Galileo Galilei made the third greatbreakthrough in the Scientific Revolution.Galileo (GA • luh • LEE • oh) believed that newknowledge could come through experi-ments that were carefully carried out. Forexample, Galileo challenged Aristotle’s ideathat the heavier the object is, the faster it fallsto the ground. Galileo’s experiments provedthat Aristotle was wrong. Objects fall at thesame speed regardless of their weight.

Galileo also realized that scientific instru-ments could help humans better explore thenatural world. He improved instruments,such as the clock and telescope. With the tel-escope, Galileo found clear evidence sup-porting Copernicus’s view that Earthrevolves around the Sun.

Galileo also played an important role inthe development of new scientific instru-ments. In 1593 he invented a water ther-mometer that, for the first time, allowedtemperature changes to be measured.Galileo’s assistant, Evangelista Torricelli,then used the element called mercury tobuild the first barometer, an instrument thatmeasures air pressure.

When Galileo published his ideas in 1632,his work was condemned by the RomanCatholic Church. The Catholic Church held tothe geocentric, or earth-centered, view of theuniverse, believing that it was taught in theBible. The pope ordered Galileo to come toRome to be tried for heresy. Church threatsfinally forced Galileo to withdraw many ofhis statements. Even so, Galileo’s ideasspread throughout Europe and changed peo-ple’s views about the universe.

Explain How did Galileoprove Copernicus’s theory?


In this painting, Galileo presents hisastronomical findings to the Catholic clergy.How did Galileo respond to the Church’scondemnation of his work in astronomy?

New Scientific DiscoveriesThe Scientific Revolution led to new

discoveries in physics, medicine, and chemistry. Reading Focus Think about all the facts you knowabout medicine. For example, you know your heart pumpsblood, your lungs breathe air, and your body is made ofcells. Read to learn how scientists of the 1600s and1700s made discoveries we often take for granted today.

Throughout the 1600s and 1700s, theScientific Revolution continued to spread.Many new discoveries were made inphysics, medicine, and chemistry.

Who Is Isaac Newton? Despite continuingscientific breakthroughs, the ideas ofCopernicus, Kepler, and Galileo needed to bebrought together as one system. This feat wasaccomplished by an English mathematiciannamed Isaac Newton (NOO• tuhn).

According to tradition, Newton was sit-ting in his garden one day when hewatched an apple fall to the ground. The

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apple’s fall led him to the idea of gravity, orthe pull of the earth and other bodies onobjects at or near their surfaces.

In a book called Principia, published in1687, Newton stated his laws, or well-testedtheories, about the motion of objects inspace and on Earth. The most importantwas the universal law of gravitation. Itexplains that the force of gravity holds theentire solar system together by keeping thesun and the planets in their orbits.Newton’s ideas led to the rise of modernphysics, or the study of physical propertiessuch as matter and energy.

Medicine and Chemistry Sweeping changeswere made in medicine in the 1500s and1600s. Since Roman times, European doc-tors had relied on the teachings of the Greek

physician Galen. Galen wanted to study thehuman body, but he was only allowed todissect, or cut open, animals.

In the 1500s, however, a Flemish doctornamed Andreas Vesalius began dissectingdead human bodies for research. In 1543Vesalius published On the Structure of theHuman Body. In this work, Vesalius pre-sented a detailed account of the humanbody that replaced many of Galen’s ideas.

Other breakthroughs in medicine tookplace. In the early 1600s, William Harvey,

an English doctor, proved that bloodflowed through the human body. In themid-1600s, an English scientist namedRobert Hooke began using a micro-scope, and he soon discovered cells, thesmallest structures of living material.

Beginning in the 1600s, Europeanscientists developed new ideas inchemistry. Chemistry is the study ofnatural substances and how theychange. In the mid-1600s, Robert Boyle,an Irish scientist, proved that all sub-stances are made up of basic elementsthat cannot be broken down.

European scientists of the 1700s also developed ways to study gases.They discovered hydrogen, carbondioxide, and oxygen. By 1777, AntoineLavoisier (AN • twahn luhv • WAH • zee •AY) of France had proven that materialsneed oxygen to burn. Marie Lavoisier,also a scientist, contributed to her hus-band’s work.

Identify According toNewton, what force held the planets in orbit?

Nation DiscoveriesScientist

Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794)

France

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)

Poland Earth orbits the Sun; Earth rotates on its axis

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)

William Harvey (1578–1657)

Robert Hooke (1635–1703)Robert Boyle (1627–1691)

Isaac Newton (1642–1727)

Italy

Germany

England

England

Ireland

England

other planets have moons planets have elliptical orbits

heart pumps blood

cells

air is made of gases

gravity; laws of motion; calculus

how materials burn

The Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution

During the Scientific Revolution, scientistsmade discoveries in many fields, such asastronomy and medicine.1. What did William Harvey discover? 2. Identify Which scientists’ discoveries dealt

with chemistry?

Web Activity Visit jat.glencoe.com and clickon Chapter 18—Student Web Activity to learn more about early scientific discoveries.


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SIR ISAAC NEWTON1642–1727

Isaac Newton was born into a farming family on

December 25, 1642, in Woolsthorpe, England. His father died

before Newton was born. His mother remarried when he was

three years old. His new stepfather did not want the boy to

live with them, so Newton was raised by his grandmother.

Newton earned a degree from Trinity College, part of

Cambridge University, in 1664. He planned to work for the

university, but from 1664 to 1666, it closed because of the

plague. Newton spent the next two years in his hometown.

While there, he made some of his most important

discoveries. He developed his theory of gravity, invented a new

kind of mathematics called calculus, and discovered that white

light is made up of all of the different colors of light.

Newton returned to Cambridge, earned a master’s

degree, and was appointed to several positions there. His

life was very stressful because many scientists questioned

his calculations. These criticisms made Newton reluctant

to publish his discoveries, but eventually he did. His book

Principia is considered one of the greatest scientific books

ever written. In it Newton describes his three laws of

motion and his ideas about gravity.During his life, Newton won many awards for

his discoveries. In 1705 he became the first

scientist ever to be knighted by the English king.

677

Newton’s findings were criticized by some

scientists of his time. Do research to find a

scientific discovery made in the last 50 years

that others have questioned or criticized.

Describe your findings to the class.

Trinity College today

Newton analyzing light rays

“If I have seen farther, it is by standing upon the shoulders of giants.”

—Isaac Newton, in a letter to Robert Hooke

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Specimenholder

Focusingscrew

Light source

Lenses

Eyepiece

The MicroscopeThe Microscope

Although Robert Hooke did not invent the microscope,his improvements were important. Hooke’s bookMicrographia used detailed drawings to show a micro-

scopic world that few people hadeven imagined. What did Hookediscover about the structure ofliving material?

The Triumph of ReasonUsing the scientific method, Europeans

of the 1600s and 1700s developed new ideas aboutsociety based on reason. Reading Focus What do modern scientists do in their laboratories? Read to understand how methods ofscientific research changed Europeans’ understandingof human society in the 1600s and 1700s.

As scientists made new discoveries,European thinkers began to apply science tosociety. For these thinkers, science had proventhat the physical universe followed naturallaws. By using their reason, people couldlearn how the universe worked. Using thisknowledge, people also could solve existinghuman problems and make life better.

Descartes and Reason One of the mostimportant scientific thinkers was theFrenchman René Descartes (day •KAHRT). In1637 he wrote a book called Discourse on

Method. In this book, Descartes began withthe problem of knowing what is true. Tofind truth, he decided to put aside every-thing that he had learned and make a freshstart. To Descartes, one fact seemed to bebeyond doubt—his own existence.Descartes summarized this idea by thephrase, “I think, therefore I am.”

In his work, Descartes claimed thatmathematics was the source of all scientifictruth. In mathematics, he said, the answerswere always true. This was because mathe-matics began with simple, obvious princi-ples and then used logic to move graduallyto other truths. Today, Descartes is viewedas the founder of modern rationalism (RASH •nuh • LIH • zuhm). This is the belief thatreason is the chief source of knowledge.

What Is the Scientific Method?Scientific thought was also influenced byEnglish thinker Francis Bacon, who livedfrom 1561 to 1626. Bacon believed that

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ideas based on traditionshould be put aside. Hedeveloped the scientificmethod, an orderly wayof collecting and analyz-ing evidence. It is stillthe process used in sci-entific research today.

The scientific methodis made up of severalsteps. First a scientistbegins with careful observation of factsand then tries to find a hypothesis(hy • PAH • thuh • suhs), or explanation of thefacts. Through experiments, the scientisttests the hypothesis under all possible con-ditions to see if it is true. Finally, if repeated,experiments show that the hypothesis is true,and then it is considered a scientific law.

Explain What is the scientific method?

Test your predictions throughexperiments and observation.

Predict something based on yourhypothesis.

Observe some aspect of the universe.

Modify hypothesis in light of results.

Hypothesize about what you observed.

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

Ideas FromScientific Revolution

Reading SummaryReview the • The thinkers of the ancient world

developed early forms of scienceand passed this knowledge tolater generations.

• European interest in science ledto new discoveries and ideasabout the universe and Earth’splace in it.

• The Scientific Revolution led tonew discoveries in physics,medicine, and chemistry.

• Descartes invented rationalism,and Bacon developed the scien-tific method.

1. Who was Copernicus, and whatwas the heliocentric theory?

2. Describe Francis Bacon’s beliefsabout scientific reasoning.

Critical Thinking3. Summarize Draw a diagram

like the one below. Add detailsto show some of the new ideasdeveloped during the ScientificRevolution.

4. Drawing Conclusions Whatdo you think Descartes meantwhen he said, “I think, thereforeI am”?

5. Science Link Explain Kepler’sview of the solar system.

6. Analyze Why did the Churchcondemn Galileo’s astronomi-cal findings?

7. Writing Questions Imaginethat you could interviewGalileo about his work and hislife. Write five questions youwould like to ask him. Includepossible answers with yourquestions.

What Did You Learn?


The scientific method is still important today.1. What is the next step after predictions are

tested through experiments and observation?2. Conclude Why is the scientific method

necessary to create scientific law?

Ideas FromScientific Revolution

Francis Bacon

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TheEnlightenment

What’s the Connection?As you have read, the Scientific

Revolution led to new discoveries.Atthe same time, it also led to many newideas about government and society.

Focusing on the • During the 1700s, many Europeans

believed that reason could be used tomake government and society better.(page 681)

• The Enlightenment was centered inFrance, where thinkers wrote aboutchanging their society and met todiscuss their ideas. (page 684)

• Many of Europe’s monarchs, whoclaimed to rule by the will of God,tried to model their countries onEnlightenment ideas. (page 686)

Locating PlacesPrussia (PRUH•shuh)Austria (AWS•tree•uh)St. Petersburg (PEE•tuhrz•BUHRG)

Meeting PeopleThomas Hobbes (HAHBZ)John Locke

Montesquieu (MAHN•tuhs•KYOO)Voltaire (vohl•TAR)

Building Your Vocabularynatural law

social contract

separation of powers

deism (DEE• IH•zuhm)absolutism (AB•suh•LOO•TIH•zuhm)

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Completea table like the one below showing themajor ideas of Enlightenment thinkers.


1643 Louis XIVbecomes kingof France

1690John Lockewrites aboutgovernment

1792Mary Wollstonecraftcalls for women’srightsParis Vienna

BerlinLondon

St. Petersburg

Moscow

1600 1700 18001600 1700 1800

Thinkers Ideas

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New Ideas About PoliticsDuring the 1700s, many Europeans

believed that reason could be used to make govern-ment and society better.Reading Focus What makes people get along witheach other? Do they need rules, a strong leader, or tolearn to work together? Read to learn how thinkers inEurope answered these questions.

During the 1700s, European thinkerswere impressed by scientific discoveries inthe natural world. They believed that rea-son could also uncover the scientific lawsthat governed human life. Once these lawswere known, thinkers said, people coulduse the laws to make society better.

As the Scientific Revolution advanced,many educated Europeans came to believethat reason was a much better guide thanfaith or tradition. To them, reason was a“light” that revealed error and showed theway to truth. As result, the 1700s becameknown as the Age of Enlightenment.

During the Enlightenment, politicalthinkers tried to apply reason and scientificideas to government. They claimed thatthere was a natural law, or a law thatapplied to everyone and could be under-stood by reason. This law was the key tounderstanding government. As early as the 1600s, two English thinkers—ThomasHobbes and John Locke—used natural lawto develop very different ideas about howgovernment should work.

Who Was Thomas Hobbes? ThomasHobbes (HAHBZ) wrote about English gov-ernment and society. During his life,England was torn apart by civil war.Supporters of King Charles I fought thosewho backed Parliament. Charles I wantedto have absolute, or total, power as king.Parliament claimed to represent the people


This illustration is from the title page ofHobbes’s Leviathan. What sort of governmentdid Hobbes support in Leviathan?

and demanded a greater voice in runningEngland. The fighting finally led toCharles’s execution. This event shockedThomas Hobbes, who was a strong sup-porter of the monarchy.

In 1651 Hobbes wrote a book calledLeviathan. In this work, Hobbes argued thatnatural law made absolute monarchy thebest form of government.

According to Hobbes, humans were nat-urally selfish and violent. They could not betrusted to make decisions on their own. Leftto themselves, people would make life“nasty, brutish, and short.” Therefore,Hobbes said, they needed to obey a govern-ment that had the power of a leviathan, orsea monster. To Hobbes, this meant the ruleof a king, because only a strong ruler couldgive people direction.

Why Is John Locke Important? AnotherEnglish thinker John Locke thought differ-ently. He used natural law to affirm citizens’ rights and to make governmentanswerable to the people.

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by jury and to freedom from cruel punish-ment for a crime.

In 1690 John Locke explained many ofthe ideas of the Glorious Revolution in abook called Two Treatises of Government.Locke stated that government should be

based on natural law. This law, saidLocke, gave all people from their birthcertain natural rights. Among themwere the right to life, the right to liberty,and the right to own property.

Locke believed that the purpose of government is to protect these rights.All governments, he said, were basedon a social contract, or an agreementbetween rulers and the people. If aruler took away people’s natural

rights, the people had a right to revolt andset up a new government.

Who Was Montesquieu? England’s govern-ment after the Glorious Revolution wasadmired by thinkers in France. They liked itbetter than their own absolute monarchy. In1748 Baron Montesquieu (MAHN•tuhs•KYOO),a French thinker, published a book called TheSpirit of Laws.

In this book, Montesquieu said thatEngland’s government was the bestbecause it had a separation of powers.Separation of powers means that powershould be equally divided among thebranches of government: executive, legisla-tive, and judicial. The legislative branchwould make the laws while the executivebranch would enforce them. The judicialbranch would interpret the laws and judgewhen they were broken. By separatingthese powers, government could notbecome too powerful and threaten people’srights.

Explain According toMontesquieu, how should government be organized?

The Law of Nations

Montesquieu’s beliefs about government are still influential today.“Again, there is no lib-erty, if the judiciarypower be not separatedfrom the legislative andexecutive. Were it joinedwith the legislative, thelife and liberty of thesubject would beexposed to arbitrarycontrol; for the judgewould be then the legis-lator. Were it joined tothe executive power, thejudge might behave with violence and oppression.”

—Montesquieu,The Spirit of Laws

According to Montesquieu, why shouldjudges be independent?

During Locke’s life, another Englishking, James II, wanted to set up an absolutemonarchy against Parliament’s wishes. In1688 war threatened, and James fled thecountry. Parliament then asked Mary,James’s daughter, and her husband,William, to take the throne. This event cameto be called the “Glorious Revolution.”

In return for the English throne, Williamand Mary agreed to a Bill of Rights. In thisdocument, they agreed to obey Parliament’slaws. The document also guaranteed allEnglish people basic rights, like those theMagna Carta had given to the nobles. Forexample, people had the right to a fair trial

Montesquieu

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JOHN LOCKE1632–1704

John Locke was born in Somerset, England. His father

was a lawyer but also served as a cavalry soldier. Using his

military connections, he arranged for his son John to get

a good education. Locke studied classical languages,

grammar, philosophy, and geometry at Oxford

University. To Locke, the courses were not exciting, so

he turned to his true interests—science and medicine.

After graduating, Locke went to work for governments

in Europe. He continued to study science and philosophy.

He particularly liked the work of Descartes. In 1671 Locke

began recording his own ideas about how people know

things. Nineteen years later, he published his ideas in

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. In this book,

Locke argued that people’s minds are blank when they

are born and that society shapes what people think and

believe. This idea meant that if people could make society

better, it would also make people better.In 1683 Locke

fled to Holland

after the English government began to think his

political ideas were dangerous. During that time,

he was declared a traitor and was not able to

return until after the Glorious Revolution of

1688. It was at that time that he wrote his

famous Two Treatises of Government. Soon

afterward, Locke retired to Essex. There he

enjoyed frequent visits from Sir Isaac Newton

and other friends until his death in 1704.

683

William and Mary being crownedfollowing the Glorious Revolution

“Law is not to abolish orrestrain, but to preserveand enlarge freedom.”

—John Locke, Two Treatises of Government

John Locke

Give examples of how Locke’s ideas have

influenced our lives and ideas.

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The French PhilosophesThe Enlightenment was centered in

France, where thinkers wrote about changing theirsociety and met to discuss their ideas.Reading Focus What role do writers play in theUnited States today? Read on to find out what effectwriters had on Europe during the Enlightenment.

During the 1700s, France became themajor center of the Enlightenment. As theEnlightenment spread, thinkers in Franceand elsewhere became known by theFrench name philosophe (FEE • luh • ZAWF),which means “philosopher.” Most phi-losophes were writers, teachers, journalists,and observers of society.

The philosophes wanted to use reasonto change society. They attacked supersti-tion, or unreasoned beliefs. They also dis-agreed with Church leaders who opposednew scientific discoveries. The philosophesbelieved in both freedom of speech and theindividual’s right to liberty. They used theirskills as writers to spread their ideas acrossEurope.

Who Was Voltaire? The greatest thinker ofthe Enlightenment was François-MarieArouet, known simply as Voltaire (vohl•TAR).Born in a middle-class family, Voltaire wrotemany novels, plays, letters, and essays thatbrought him fame and wealth.

Voltaire became known for his strongdislike of the Roman Catholic Church. He blamed Church leaders for keeping

Voltaire

During the Enlightenment, upper-class nobles held gatherings ofwriters, artists, government officials, and other nobles in theirhomes to discuss and debate new ideas. How did the philosophesspread their ideas?

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knowledge from people in order to maintainthe Church’s power. Voltaire also opposedthe government supporting one religionand forbidding others. He thought peopleshould be free to choose their own beliefs.

Throughout his life, Voltairewas a supporter of deism (DEE•IH• zuhm), a religious belief basedon reason. According to the fol-lowers of deism, God createdthe world and set it in motion.He then allowed it to run itselfby natural law.

Who Was Diderot? DenisDiderot was the French philo-sophe who did the most tospread Enlightenment ideas.With the help of friends, Diderotpublished a large, 28-volume encyclopedia.His project, which began in the 1750s, tookabout 20 years to complete.

The Encyclopedia included a wide rangeof topics, such as science, religion, govern-ment, and the arts. It became an importantweapon in the philosophes’ fight againsttraditional ways. Many articles attackedsuperstition and supported freedom of reli-gion. Others called for changes that wouldmake society more just and caring.

The Enlightenment and Women TheEnlightenment raised questions about therole of women in society. Previously, manymale thinkers claimed that women wereless important than men and had to be con-trolled and protected. By the 1700s, how-ever, women thinkers began calling forwomen’s rights. The most powerful sup-porter of women’s rights was the Englishwriter Mary Wollstonecraft. Many peopletoday see her as the founder of the modernmovement for women’s rights.


Natural Rights of Women

Mary Wollstonecraft argued that the naturalrights of the Enlightenment should extend towomen as well as men.

“In short, in whatever light I view the subject, reason andexperience convince me thatthe only method of leadingwomen to fulfill their peculiar[specific] duties is to freethem from all restraint byallowing them to participatein the inherent rights ofmankind. Make them free, andthey will quickly become wiseand virtuous, as men becomemore so, for the improvementmust be mutual.”

—Mary Wollstonecraft,A Vindication of the Rights

of Woman: With Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects

What did Wollstonecraft believe wouldhappen if women were allowed rights?

In 1792 Mary Wollstonecraft wrote abook called A Vindication of the Rights ofWoman. In this work, she claimed that allhumans have reason. Because women havereason, they should have the same rights asmen. Women, Wollstonecraft said, shouldhave equal rights in education, the work-place, and in political life.

Rousseau’s Social Contract By the late1700s, some European thinkers were start-ing to criticize Enlightenment ideas. One ofthese thinkers was Jean-Jacques Rousseau(zhahn zhahk ru • SOH).

MaryWollstonecraft

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Music of the Enlightenment The 1700s was one of the greatest musical periods inhistory. Before this time, almost all music was religious in nature and was limited tochurch performances. During the Enlightenment, music was played in theaters for thefirst time, and some of the new pieces were not religious.

Many types of music existed in the 1700s.Sonatas were performed with one instrumentand a piano, and string quartets were played withfour instruments. Concertos and symphonieswere longer and involved an orchestra. Operaswere full-scale theatrical performances usingvocal and instrumental music.

Baroque music emphasized drama and emotion.Johann Sebastian Bach and George FrederickHandel composed baroque music. Bach composed

A string quartet

Rousseau claimed that supporters ofthe Enlightenment relied too much on rea-son. Instead, people should pay moreattention to their feelings. According to Rousseau, human beings were natu-rally good, but civilized life corruptedthem. To improve themselves, he thoughtpeople should live simpler lives closer to nature.

In 1762 Rousseau published a bookcalled The Social Contract. In this work,Rousseau presented his political ideas. A workable government, he said, shouldbe based on a social contract. This is an agreement in which everyone in a society agrees to be governed by the general will, or what society as a wholewants.

Describe Who were thephilosophes?

The Age of Absolutism Many of Europe’s monarchs, who

claimed to rule by the will of God, tried to modeltheir countries on Enlightenment ideas. Reading Focus If you were given the chance to be aleader, how would you treat the people you ruled? Asyou read, think about the power of Europe’s kings andqueens during the 1600s and 1700s.

During the 1600s and 1700s, manyEuropean thinkers favored limits on govern-ment power. However, powerful kings andqueens ruled most of Europe. This systemwas known as absolutism (AB• suh• LOO• TIH•zuhm). In this system, monarchs heldabsolute, or total, power. They claimed torule by divine right, or by the will of God.This meant that rulers did not answer totheir people, but rather to God alone.

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Connecting to the Past1. What is the difference in tone between baroque and

classical music?

2. What factors allowed music to thrive during the 1700s?

many pieces of music that are still popular today. Handel wrotemany operas, but he is best known for Messiah, an oratorio, orreligious composition that mixes voices, orchestra, and organ.

Classical music emerged in the mid-1700s. Classicalcomposers, inspired by the ancient Greeks and Romans,emphasized balance, harmony, and stability. Franz JosephHaydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote classicalmusic. Haydn’s use of instruments made thesymphony more popular. Mozart composed a largenumber of musical pieces that remain popular today.

However, as the Enlightenment spread,many of Europe’s absolute rulers turned tophilosophes for help in making their gov-ernments work better. At the same time,however, they did not want to lose any oftheir power. Historians used to call theserulers enlightened despots. Despots arerulers who hold total power.

Louis XIV: France’s Sun King During the1600s, France was one of Europe’s strongestnations. In 1643 Louis XIV came to thethrone. As king, Louis XIV was the most celebrated absolute monarch. His reign of72 years—the longest in European his-tory—set the style for Europe’s kings andqueens. Louis was known as the Sun King,the source of light for his people and forEurope’s nobles and rulers.

Louis relied on a bureaucracy, but he wasthe source of all political authority in France.He is said to have boasted, “I am the State.”

Louis’s army fought and won wars to expandFrance’s territory, but these conflicts werecostly in money and soldiers to France. Theking’s constant wars and excessive spendingweakened France and the monarchy.

Frederick the Great During the 1600s and1700s, Germany was a collection of over 300separate states. Of these states, two—Prussia (PRUH • shuh) and Austria (AWS •tree • uh)—became great European powers.

The most famous Prussian ruler wasFrederick II, also called Frederick the Great.He ruled from 1740 to 1786. As Prussia’sking, Frederick strengthened the army andfought wars to gain new territory forPrussia. He also tried to be an “enlightenedruler.” He supported the arts and learningand tried to carry out enlightened reforms.He permitted his people to speak and pub-lish more freely. He also allowed greaterreligious toleration.

687

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Growth of Prussia and Austria c. 1525–1720

By the 1700s, Prussia and Austriahad emerged as the most powerfulGerman states.1. Which state did Prussia acquire

between 1700 and 1720?2. During which of the periods

shown on the map did Austriaexpand its territory the most?

Austria’s Hapsburg Rulers By the 1700s,the other powerful German state—Austria—ruled a large empire of many different peo-ples, languages, and cultures. This vastAustrian empire spread over much of cen-tral and southeastern Europe. It was ruledby a family known as the Hapsburgs.

In 1740 a young Hapsburg princessnamed Maria Theresa became Austria’sruler. Clever and talented, Maria Theresaworked hard to improve the lot of Austria’sserfs, who worked for the nobles. She alsotried to make government work better.

After Maria Theresa died in 1780, herson, Joseph II, became ruler. Joseph IIadmired Enlightenment ideas. He freed theserfs, made land taxes equal for nobles and

farmers, and allowed books to be publishedfreely. Most of Joseph’s reforms failed, however. The nobles opposed Joseph’schanges, and he was forced to back down.However, the former serfs, now farmers,were allowed to keep their freedom.

Russia’s Peter I and Catherine II To theeast of Austria stretched the vast empire ofRussia. As you read previously, Russia wasruled by all-powerful rulers known asczars. One of the most powerful czars wasPeter I, also known as Peter the Great.During his reign from 1689 to 1725, Petertried to make Russia into a strong and up-to-date European power. He began reforms tomake the government work more smoothly.

Frederick the Great

Joseph II

Austrian Hapsburg lands, 1525Land added, 1526–1699Land added, 1700–1720

KEYEast Prussia and possessions, 1618Land added, 1619–1699Land added, 1700–1720

KEY

MotionIn

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Reading SummaryReview the • In the 1700s, many Europeans

thought reason could make government and society better.Hobbes, Locke, and Montesquieudeveloped ideas about how toimprove government.

• Enlightenment thinkers, such asVoltaire, Diderot, and Rousseau,described ways to make societybetter.

• By the 1700s, most of Europe’srulers were absolute monarchs.Some, however, tried to creategovernments based onEnlightenment ideas.

1. Who were the Frenchphilosophes?

2. What was the Encyclopedia,and what message did it attemptto deliver to its readers?

Critical Thinking3. Organizing Information

Draw a chart to list the rulers of the Enlightenment,their countries, and theiraccomplishments.

4. Cause and Effect How didcivil war in England affectHobbes?

5. Explain Do you think enlightened despots werereally enlightened?

6. Conclude Which of theEnlightenment thinkers discussed in this section do you think had the most impact on modern society?Explain your answer.

7. Civics Link Describe howbeliefs about people and government during theEnlightenment are reflected in our government today.

What Did You Learn?



Peter also improved Russia’s militaryand expanded Russia’s territory westwardto the Baltic Sea. In 1703 he founded a citycalled St. Petersburg (PEE • tuhrz • BUHRG) inthis area. A few years later, Russia’s capitalwas moved to St. Petersburg from Moscow.

After Peter died, conflict erupted amongRussia’s nobles. Then, in 1762 a Germanprincess named Catherine came to thethrone of Russia. Early in her reign,Catherine was devoted to Enlightenmentideas. She studied about and wrote lettersto the philosophes. She even thought aboutfreeing the serfs, but a serf uprisingchanged her mind. In the end, she allowedthe nobles to treat the serfs as they pleased.

Under Catherine, Russia gained evenmore land and increased its power inEurope. As a result, Catherine becameknown as “the Great.” However, by 1796,

the year Catherine died, the ideas of libertyand equality had spread across Europe.These ideas seriously threatened the rule ofpowerful kings and queens.

Explain How did the ideasof absolute monarchs conflict with the ideas ofEnlightenment thinkers?

Russia grew more powerfulduring the reigns of Peter theGreat (above) and Catherinethe Great (right). How didPeter try to make Russia aEuropean power?

CountryRuler Accomplishments

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The American Revolution

What’s the Connection? Between the 1500s and 1700s,

Europeans set up colonies in NorthAmerica. In the British colonies, Englishtraditions and the Enlightenment gavecolonists a strong sense of their rights.

Focusing on the • European colonies in North America

developed differently from eachother and from Europe. (page 691)

• Great Britain faced problems inNorth America, because the Americancolonists objected to new British laws.(page 695)

• The American colonies formed a newnation, the United States of America.(page 698)

Locating PlacesQuebec (kwih•BEHK)Jamestown

Boston

Philadelphia

Meeting PeoplePilgrim

George Washington

Tom Paine

Thomas Jefferson

Building Your Vocabularyrepresentative government

constitution

popular sovereignty(SAH•vuh•ruhn•tee)

limited government

Reading StrategyCause and Effect Complete a cause-and-effect diagram showing why theBritish colonies declared independence.


1620 Pilgrims foundcolony inMassachusetts

1776Declaration ofIndependence is signed

1789U.S. Constitutionis adopted

Saratoga

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Settling North AmericaEuropean colonies in North America

developed differently from each other and fromEurope. Reading Focus What would make you want to moveto a new place? In this chapter, you will learn whyEuropeans settled in North America from the 1500s tothe 1700s.

Previously, you learned that Spain and Portugal built colonies in theAmericas in the 1500s. Beginning in the1600s, the French, English, and otherEuropeans began setting up their owncolonies in the Americas. While most ofSpain’s colonies were in the Caribbean,Mexico, and South America, most ofFrance and England’s colonies were inNorth America.

The Spanish in North America TheSpanish did not ignore the lands north ofMexico and the Caribbean. In the 1500s,Spanish conquistadors explored the south-eastern corner of North America and thelands north of Mexico. They had hoped tofind wealthy empires like those of the Aztecand Inca. Instead, they found only smallvillages of Native Americans. As a result,Spain remained much more interested in its colonies in Mexico, Peru, and theCaribbean, because they provided largeamounts of silver and gold.

The Spanish did not completely ignorethe rest of North America. They built settle-ments and forts along the northern edge oftheir territory. These settlements, such as St.Augustine in Florida and Santa Fe in NewMexico, were intended to keep otherEuropeans out of Spanish territory.


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Europeans in North America 1750

By the 1700s, Britain, France, and Spainclaimed much of the territory of NorthAmerica.1. Which country controlled the area of

the Mississippi River? 2. What physical feature may have

prevented expansion farther to thewest?

BritishFrenchSpanishDisputed

KEY

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Spanish priests also headed north. Theyset up missions, or religious communities,to teach Christianity and European ways tothe Native Americans. Missions were set upin California, New Mexico, Florida, andother areas of North America.

France Settles North America TheFrench came to North America to makemoney from fur trading. By the 1600s,beaver fur had become very popular inEurope. In 1608 French merchants hiredexplorer Samuel de Champlain (sham •PLAYN) to help them. Champlain set up atrading post named Quebec (kwih •BEHK) inwhat is now Canada. Quebec became thecapital of the colony of New France.

From Quebec, French fur trappers,explorers, and missionaries moved intoother parts of North America. In 1673 theexplorers Louis Joliet and JacquesMarquette found the Mississippi River.Then in 1682 a French explorer named LaSalle followed the Mississippi all the way tothe Gulf of Mexico. He named the region


Louisiana in honor of King LouisXIV. The French settlers in south-ern Louisiana also began bringingin enslaved Africans to grow sug-arcane, rice, and tobacco.

The English Settle in AmericaEnglish settlers came to NorthAmerica for many reasons. Whilemerchants set up some Englishcolonies to make money, otherswere set up by people whowanted religious freedom.England’s colonies grew rapidlybecause of economic problems inEngland. Many people in Englandwanted to move to Americabecause their landlords hadevicted them from their farms. In

America, they had a chance to own land forthemselves. Still others came because theywere unemployed and needed work.

By 1600, England’s rulers had acceptedthe ideas of mercantilism. Colonies andtrading posts in Asia and America weremaking Europe’s kingdoms wealthy. TheEnglish government believed colonies wereneeded to keep England strong.

In 1607 the Virginia Company, anEnglish joint-stock company, set up the firstpermanent English settlement in NorthAmerica. The settlers named it Jamestownafter King James I. Jamestown was the firsttown of a new colony called Virginia.

Life in Virginia was very hard. Thecolonists could barely find enough to eat.Many settlers died from starvation and thecold winters, and others were killed inclashes with Native Americans.

During those first years, the colony madeno money for the merchants who hadinvested in it. It might have collapsed hadnot one of the settlers, John Rolfe, discoveredthat tobacco could grow in Virginia’s soil.

This painting shows what the original settlement atJamestown may have looked like in 1607. What preventedthe Jamestown settlement from collapsing?

Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities

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The Pilgrims governed themselves accord-ing to this document.“Having undertaken for the Glory of God, andAdvancement of the Christian Faith, and theHonour of our King and Country, a Voyage toplant the first colony in the northern Parts ofVirginia; Do . . . covenant [agree] and combineourselves together into a civil Body Politick[political group], for our better Ordering andPreservation. . . . And by Virtue hereof do enact,constitute, and frame, such just and equalLaws, . . . and Offices, from time to time, asshall be thought most meet and convenient forthe general Good of the Colony; unto which wepromise all due Submission and Obedience.”

—Mayflower Compact, November 21, 1620

To what do the Pilgrims promisesubmission and obedience?

The Mayflower Compact

The Pilgrims sign the Mayflower Compact.

Tobacco was popular in Europe in the1600s. Soon the colonists in Virginia weregrowing it in large amounts and selling it fora lot of money. Tobacco became the first cashcrop of the English colonies. A cash crop isgrown in large quantities to sell for profit.

Eventually, tobacco was grown on largefarms called plantations. Because planta-tions need many workers, the English beganbringing in enslaved Africans to work theland. The success of Virginia encouraged theEnglish government to set up more coloniesin America to grow cash crops. The colonyof South Carolina, for example, began grow-ing rice and indigo. The English also begansetting up colonies in the Caribbean to growsugarcane.

Not all English settlers came to NorthAmerica in search of wealth. Some came tofind religious freedom. As you read in the lastchapter, many Protestants in England werePuritans. Puritans wanted to rid the Anglican

Church of Catholic rituals and allow eachcongregation to choose its own leaders. KingJames I and his son King Charles I bothbelieved Puritans were a threat to theirauthority and persecuted them.

In 1620 a group of Puritans known asthe Pilgrims decided to go to America sothat they could worship freely. In 1620 theyboarded a ship called the Mayflower and setout for North America. They landed justnorth of Cape Cod in what is today the stateof Massachusetts. They named their settle-ment Plymouth.

The success of the Pilgrims encouragedother Puritans to begin leaving Englandfor America. Led by John Winthrop, agroup of Puritans landed in America andfounded the colony of Massachusetts.Others soon followed. By 1643, more than20,000 Puritans had moved to America.They founded Rhode Island, Connecticut,and New Hampshire.

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Other people seeking religious freedomset up colonies as well. English Catholicsfounded Maryland in 1634. The Quakers,another religious group that had been per-secuted in England, founded Pennsylvaniain 1680.

By the early 1700s, the Englishhad created 13 colonies along thecoast of North America. Thesecolonies had different economies andsocieties, but they had one thing incommon: they wanted to governthemselves.

Self-Government in America Thetradition of self-government beganearly in the English colonies. Toattract more settlers, the head of theVirginia Company gave the colonistsin Virginia the right to elect burgesses,or representatives, from among themen who owned land. The firstHouse of Burgesses met in 1619. Itwas patterned after the EnglishParliament and voted on laws for theVirginia colony.

The House of Burgesses set anexample for representative govern-ment, or a government in which peo-ple elect representatives to make lawsand conduct government. It was notlong before other colonies set up theirown legislatures as well.

A year after the Virginia House ofBurgesses met, the Pilgrims arrivedin North America and began theirown tradition of self-government.Before going ashore, the Pilgrims

signed an agreement called the MayflowerCompact. They agreed to rule themselvesby choosing their own leaders and makingtheir own laws.

Over the years, most of the Englishcolonies began drawing up constitutions,or written plans of government. These doc-uments let the colonists elect assembliesand protected their rights.

Compare and ContrastHow was the founding of Jamestown differentfrom the founding of Plymouth?

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Trouble in the ColoniesGreat Britain faced problems in North

America, because the American colonists objectedto new British laws. Reading Focus Do you like to make your owndecisions, without someone else telling you what to do? Read to find out why the American colonies wanted to make decisions without Britishinterference.

During the early 1700s, there weremany changes in England and its overseascolonies. In 1707 England united with

Scotland and became the United King-dom of Great Britain. The term British cameto mean both the English and the Scots.

By 1750, Great Britain had become the world’s most powerful tradingempire. It had 13 prosperous coloniesalong the Atlantic coast of America andothers in India and the Caribbean. Foryears, Britain and its American coloniesseemed to get along well. This relation-ship changed, however, when the Britishtried to control trade and impose taxes on the colonies. These efforts angeredcolonists.

Colonial Trade Routes c. 1750

Colonial exportsBritish exportsImports from CaribbeanRoute of slave traders

KEY

Colonies shipped raw materials to Britain andreceived manufactured goods in return.1. What was shipped from the colonies to West

Africa? From West Africa to the colonies? 2. Which area do you think benefited most from

the trade pattern shown here? The least? Why?

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Colonial Government and Trade For manyyears, Great Britain had allowed theAmerican colonies the freedom to run theirlocal affairs. In each colony, men whoowned property elected representatives to alegislature. Colonial legislatures passedlaws and could tax the people. However, thegovernor of a colony could veto laws passedby the legislature. The king appointed thegovernor in most colonies.

Great Britain controlled the colonies’trade according to the ideas of mercantil-ism. The American colonies produced rawmaterials, such as tobacco, rice, indigo,wheat, lumber, fur, deerskin leather, fish,and whale products. These were thenshipped to Great Britain and traded for man-ufactured goods such as clothing, furniture,and goods from Asia, such as tea or spices.

To control this trade, Britain passed aseries of laws called the Navigation Acts in

the 1600s. Under these laws the colonistshad to sell their raw materials to Britaineven if they could get a better price else-where. Any goods bought by the coloniesfrom other countries in Europe had to go toEngland first and be taxed before theycould be sent to the Americas. The tradelaws also said that all trade goods had to becarried on ships built in Britain or thecolonies and that the crews had to be Britishas well.

The colonists at first accepted the tradelaws because it guaranteed them a place tosell their raw materials. Later, the colonistscame to resent British restrictions. Withpopulation in the colonies growing, thecolonists wanted to make their own manu-factured goods. They also wanted to selltheir products elsewhere if they could gethigher prices. Many colonial merchantsbegan smuggling, or shipping goods in and


King George III

The BostonMassacre

Riots against the Stamp Act brokeout in many American cities.Why was the Stamp Actunpopular in the colonies?

The Road to RevolutionThe Road to Revolution

(c)The Royal Collection, ©Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, (others)The Library of Congress

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stating that the colonies could not be taxedexcept by their own assemblies. The Britishbacked down for a while, but they stillneeded money. In 1767 Parliament placedtaxes on glass, lead, paper, paint, and tea.

Tax Protests Lead to Revolt TheAmerican colonists grumbled about thenew taxes. They bullied the tax collectors,and journalists drew ugly cartoons of KingGeorge III. Worried, the British sent moretroops to Boston, Massachusetts, where thelargest protests had taken place.

In March 1770, violence broke out. Acrowd of colonists began insulting Britishsoldiers and throwing snowballs at them.The soldiers fired into the crowd. Five peo-ple were killed. This event came to be calledthe Boston Massacre. Shortly thereafter, allof the taxes were repealed, or canceled,except the one on tea.

In 1773 Parliament passed the Tea Act. Itallowed a British trading company to shiptea to the colonies without paying the taxescolonial tea merchants had to pay. Thisallowed the company to sell its tea verycheaply and threatened to drive the colonialtea merchants out of business.

In Massachusetts, angry colonistsdecided to take action. A group of protest-ers dressed as Native Americans boardedseveral British ships in Boston Harbor anddumped their cargoes of tea into the water.This event is known as the Boston Tea Party.

To punish the colonists, Parliament in1774 passed laws that closed down BostonHarbor and put the government ofMassachusetts under military rule. It alsosaid that British troops should be quartered,or given a place to live, in colonists’ homes.The colonists called these laws theIntolerable Acts, or laws they could not bear.

The Intolerable Acts made the colonistsmore determined to fight for their liberties.

out of the country without paying taxes orgetting government permission.

Why Did the British Tax the Colonies?Between 1756 and 1763, the French andBritish fought for control of North America.The British won, gaining nearly all ofFrance’s North American empire. The warwas very costly, however, and left theBritish government deep in debt. Desperatefor money, the British made plans to tax thecolonists and tighten trade rules.

In 1765 Parliament passed the Stamp Act,which taxed newspapers and other printedmaterial. All of these items had to bear astamp showing that the tax was paid. Thecolonists were outraged. They responded byboycotting, or refusing to buy, British goods.

Finally, delegates from nine coloniesmet in New York to discuss the Stamp Act.They sent a letter to the British government


During the Boston Tea Party, a group ofcolonists, some dressed as Native Americans,dumped chests of tea into Boston Harbor.Many more colonists cheered them on fromshore. What was Britain’s response to thisevent?

North Wind Picture Archives

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On July 4, 1776, Congress approved theDeclaration of Independence. The preamble—the first part of the document—explainsCongress’s reason for issuing the declaration:“When in the Course of human events,it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another. . . . they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

The document also explained that people have certain basic rights:“We hold these truths to be self-evident,that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit ofHappiness.”

—Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776

Why do you think the Congress thought they had to issue a written declaration ofindependence?

The Declaration of Independence

The War of IndependenceThe American colonies formed a new

nation, the United States of America.Reading Focus What causes people to go to war? Readto find out how the war between Great Britain and theAmericans shaped the course of world history.

Before the colonists could decide what todo, fighting broke out in Massachusetts. TheBritish set out to destroy a store of weaponsat Concord. On April 19, 1775, they metcolonial troops at Lexington and fought thefirst battle of the American Revolution.


In September 1774, delegates from 12colonies met in Philadelphia. They calledthemselves the First Continental Congress.The Congress spoke out against theIntolerable Acts and called for their repeal.

Colonial leaders, however, were dividedabout what to do. Some, like GeorgeWashington of Virginia, hoped to settle thedifferences with Great Britain. Others, likeSamuel Adams of Massachusetts andPatrick Henry of Virginia, wanted thecolonies to become independent.

Identify What was theBoston Tea Party?

Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, andThomas Jefferson, shown left to right,worked together to write the Declarationof Independence.

©Virginia Historical Society. All Rights Reserved

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In May 1775, the Second ContinentalCongress met in Philadelphia. GeorgeWashington was named head of a new colo-nial army. The Congress then tried again tosettle their differences with Great Britain.They appealed to King George III, whorefused to listen.

More and more Americans began tothink that independence was the onlyanswer. In January 1776, a writer namedTom Paine made up many minds when hewrote a pamphlet called Common Sense.Paine used strong words to condemn theking and urged the colonists to separatefrom Great Britain.

The Declaration of Independence OnJuly 4, 1776, the Congress issued theDeclaration of Independence. Written byThomas Jefferson of Virginia, theDeclaration stated that the colonies wereseparating from Great Britain and forming anew nation, the United States of America.

In the Declaration, Jefferson explainedwhy the colonists were founding a newnation. To do this, Jefferson borrowed theideas of John Locke. In Section 3, youlearned about Locke’s idea that people havethe right to overthrow governments thatviolate their rights. The Declaration statedthat “all men are created equal” and havecertain God-given rights. It said that King

George III had violated colonists’ rights, andso they had the right to rebel.

The Declaration also drew from earlierEnglish documents, such as the MagnaCarta and the English Bill of Rights. Bothdocuments established the idea that govern-ments are not all-powerful and that rulershad to obey the laws and treat citizens fairly.

How Did the Americans Win the War?After the Declaration was made, the warbetween the British and Americans draggedon. The first important American victorycame in 1777 at the Battle of Saratoga inNew York. This battle marked a turningpoint in the war. France, Great Britain’s oldenemy, realized that the United States mightactually win. In 1778 France agreed to helpthe Americans.

The French were very important in thefinal victory. This came in 1781 at the Battleof Yorktown on the coast of Virginia. TheFrench navy blocked the British from escap-ing by sea, while American and Frenchforces surrounded and trapped the Britishinside Yorktown. Realizing they could notwin, the British laid down their weapons.Peace negotiations began, and two yearslater, the Treaty of Paris ended the war.

The United States Constitution In 1783Great Britain recognized American

The American leaders who met in Philadelphia in 1787 and wrote the UnitedStates Constitution were some of the nation’s greatest political minds.What sort of system of government did the Constitution create?

Frances Tavern Museum, New York, NY

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Reading SummaryReview the • In North America, the French

settled in Canada and along theMississippi River, while the Britishsettled along the Atlantic coast.

• Americans protested when theBritish government attempted to impose more control andmore taxes on the colonies.

• The Americans defeated theBritish in the American Revolutionand set up a republican form ofgovernment with powers dividedamong three branches.

1. When and where was the firstbattle of the AmericanRevolution fought?

2. What is the Bill of Rights?

Critical Thinking3. Sequence Information

Draw a time line like the onebelow. Fill in events related tothe American Revolution.

4. Analyze Why did England’scolonies in America growquickly?

5. Civics Link Which of JohnLocke’s ideas appeared in theDeclaration of Independence?

6. Explain How did the searchfor religious freedom affect the founding of colonies inAmerica?

7. Persuasive Writing Writetwo letters to the editor at acolonial newspaper. Oneshould support British involve-ment in its American colonies.The other should support the colonists’ arguments forindependence.

What Did You Learn?



independence. At first the United Stateswas a confederation, or a loose union ofindependent states. Its plan of governmentwas a document called the Articles ofConfederation. The Articles created anational government, but the states heldmost powers. It soon became clear that theArticles were too weak to deal with the newnation’s problems.

In 1787, 55 delegates met in Philadelphiato change the Articles. Instead, they decidedto write a constitution for an entirely newnational government. The new UnitedStates Constitution set up a federal system,in which powers were divided between thenational government and the states.Following the ideas of Montesquieu, powerin the national government was dividedbetween executive, legislative, and judicialbranches. A system called checks and bal-ances enabled each branch to limit the pow-ers of the other branches.

Under the Constitution, the UnitedStates was a republic with an elected presi-dent instead of a king. Elections held in1789 made George Washington the firstpresident of the United States. That sameyear, a Bill of Rights was added to the U.S.Constitution. The Bill of Rights set out cer-tain rights the government could not vio-late. These rights included freedom ofreligion, speech, and press, and the right totrial by jury.

The U.S. Constitution was also shapedby Enlightenment principles. One of these ispopular sovereignty (SAH•vuh• ruhn• tee), orthe idea that government receives its powersfrom the people. Another is limited government, or the idea that a governmentmay use only those powers given to it by thepeople.

Explain Why did thecolonists decide to separate from Great Britainand create a new nation?

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The Enlightenment

The American Revolution

The Scientific Revolution

The Age of Exploration

Section

Section

Section

Section

Vocabularymercantilismexportimportcolonycommerceinvest

Vocabularytheoryrationalismscientific methodhypothesis

Vocabularynatural lawsocial contractseparation of

powersdeismabsolutism

Vocabularyrepresentative

governmentconstitutionpopular sovereigntylimited government

Focusing on the • In the 1400s, trade, technology, and the rise of strong kingdoms

led to a new era of exploration. (page 659)• While the Portuguese explored Africa, the Spanish, English, and

French explored America. (page 661)• To increase trade, Europeans set up colonies and created

joint-stock companies. (page 666)• Exploration and trade led to a worldwide exchange of

products, people, and ideas. (page 668)

Focusing on the • The thinkers of the ancient world developed early forms of science and passed

this knowledge to later civilizations. (page 671)• European interest in astronomy led to new discoveries and ideas about the uni-

verse and Earth’s place in it. (page 673)• The Scientific Revolution led to new discoveries in physics, medicine, and

chemistry. (page 675)• Using the scientific method, Europeans of the 1600s and 1700s developed new

ideas about society based on reason. (page 678)

Focusing on the • During the 1700s, many Europeans believed that reason could be used to make

government and society better. (page 681)• The Enlightenment was centered in France, where thinkers wrote about changing

their society and met to discuss their ideas. (page 684)• Many of Europe’s monarchs, who claimed to rule by the will of God, tried to model

their countries on Enlightenment ideas. (page 686)

Focusing on the • European colonies in North America developed differently from each other and

from Europe. (page 691)• Great Britain faced problems in North America, because the American colonists

objected to new British laws. (page 695)• The American colonies formed a new nation, the United States of America.

(page 698)


Early astrolabe

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Monitor and Adjust Your Reading Strengths16. Write five questions you would ask to

help you better understand the informa-tion in the following paragraph.

To help the Dutch, Queen ElizabethI of England let English privateersattack Spanish ships. Privateers are

privately owned ships that have alicense from the government to attackships of other countries. People nick-named the English privateers “seadogs.” They raided the Spanish treasureships bringing gold back from America.

To review this skill, see pages 656–657.

8. How were joint-stock companies related tooverseas trade?

Section 2 • The Scientific Revolution9. Describe the scientific discoveries of

Newton and Galileo.10. What was the importance of the scientific

method?Section 3 • The Enlightenment11. How did the Enlightenment affect

Europe’s rulers? 12. How did the ideas of Thomas Hobbes

and John Locke about government differ?

Section 4 • The American Revolution13. Why did the American colonists want

independence from Britain?14. How did the new government of America

reflect ideas developed during theEnlightenment?

Critical Thinking 15. Economics Link How are the ideas of

mercantilism reflected in our economytoday?

Review VocabularyWrite the key term that completes each sentence.

a. constitutionb. scientific methodc. separation of powersd. mercantilisme. commercef. absolutism

1. According to the idea of ___, a countrygains power by gathering gold and settingup colonies.

2. A(n) ___ is a written plan for government.3. Francis Bacon developed the ___. 4. The system in which monarchs held total

power was called ___.5. Montesquieu believed that a(n) ___ was

needed for good government.6. The buying and selling of goods in large

amounts over long distances is called ___.

Review Main IdeasSection 1 • The Age of Exploration

7. What led to the European era of exploration?


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N

S

WE

Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection300 km0

300 mi.0

40°N

50°N

10°E 20°E0°

10°W

20°W

ATLANTICOCEAN

Mediterranean Sea

NorthSea

Baltic

Sea

SWEDEN1726

FINLAND1735

HUNGARY1654

BELGIUM1566

from Chile

1580

from Peru 1565

1625

Dublin

Madrid

Paris

Lyon1600 Milan

Rome1566

Venice

Frankfurt1580

London

BudapestVienna1580

Wroclaw1708

1599


Spread of the Potato

AnalyzePortuguese official Duarte Barbosadescribed the way his country dealtwith African kingdoms.“The king of this city [Mombasa] refusedto obey the commands of the King ourLord, and through this arrogance he lost it,and our Portuguese took it from him byforce. He fled away, and they slew [killed]many of his people and also took captivemany, both men and women, in such sortthat it was left ruined and plundered andburned.”

—Duarte Barbosa, “The East Coast of Africa”

24. What did the king of Mombasa do that angered the Portuguese?

25. How did the Portuguese handle theconflict?

Geography SkillsStudy the map below and answer the followingquestions.17. Place Which city in Europe was the first

to receive the potato as part of theColumbian Exchange?

18. Movement Why do you think so muchtime passed before the potato was intro-duced in Sweden and Finland?

19. Movement Does it appear from the mapthat trade between nations followed a strictpattern?

Read to Write20. Descriptive Writing Write a brief essay

describing Montesquieu’s beliefs aboutgovernment and explaining how they arereflected in the U.S. Constitution.

21. Using Your Work with a fewclassmates to create a question and answergame using the information in your fold-ables. Questions should cover the ScientificRevolution, Enlightenment, Age ofExploration, and American Revolution.Switch groups to play the games.

Using Technology22. Researching Use the Internet and your

local library to research present-day explo-ration in space and in the depths of theocean. Find out about the technologiesused, how these explorations are funded,and their impact on our knowledge of theuniverse. Write a report on how present-day explorers and their voyages are similarto and different from those of Europe inthe Age of Exploration.

Linking Past and Present23. Analyzing The music, art, and literature

of the Enlightenment reflected people’sviews during that time. Write a descriptionof how present-day music, art, and litera-ture reflect how people currently feel aboutsociety. Give examples to support youropinion.

Self-Check Quiz To help you prepare forthe Chapter Test, visit jat.glencoe.com

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Comparing EarlyModern Civilizations

Where did thesecivilizationsdevelop?

• North America

• Central America

• Caribbean islands

• South America

• Europe • Western Europe

• North America

• Africa

• South Asia

• Southeast Asia

• Pachacuti, ruled A.D. 1438–1471

• Montezuma II, ruled A.D. 1502–1520

• Atahualpa, ruled A.D. 1525–1533

• Leonardo da Vinci A.D. 1452–1519

• Martin Luther A.D. 1483–1546

• Queen Isabella (Spain),ruled A.D. 1474–1504

• Christopher ColumbusA.D. 1451–1506

• Queen Elizabeth I(England), ruled A.D. 1558–1603

• Galileo Galilei A.D. 1564–1642

• City-states (Italy)

• Commercial cities(London, Paris)

• Farming villages

• Port cities (Lisbon,Amsterdam)

• Overseas settlementsand plantations

Who were someimportantpeople in thesecivilizations?

Where did mostof the peoplelive?

• TraditionalNativeAmericanreligions

• Northern Europe:Protestant

• Southern Europe: RomanCatholic

• Jewish communities

• Europeans spreadChristianity overseas

• Rise of Deism in Europeand America

What werethese people’sbeliefs?

704

TheAmericas

TheAmericas Renaissance and

ReformationRenaissance and

Reformation

Ch ap ter 16 Chap te r 17

Enlightenmentand RevolutionEnlightenmentand Revolution

Cha pt e r 18

Compare early modern civil-izations by reviewing the infor-mation below. Can you see howthe people of these civilizationshad lives that were very muchlike yours?

• Hunter-gatherers

• Farming villages

• Cities (Tenochtitlán and Cuzco)

Chapter 16Chapter 17Chapter 18

(t)Vatican Museums & Galleries, Rome/Canali PhotoBank, (b)Boltin Picture Library

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What was theirlanguage andwriting like?

What was theirgovernmentlike?

How do thesechanges affectme? Can youadd any?

Whatcontributionsdid they make?

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TheAmericas

Renaissance andReformation

Renaissance andReformation

Ch ap ter 16 Chap te r 17

Enlightenmentand RevolutionEnlightenmentand Revolution

Cha pt e r 18

• Local groups ruled bychiefs and councils

• Powerful emperors orkings (Maya, Aztec,and Inca)

• Italian city-states ruledby wealthy families

• Most European areasruled by kings, princes,and nobles

• English king’s powers arelimited, representativegovernment spreads

• United States founded as a republic

• Native Americans spokehundreds of languages

• Mayan and Azteclanguages written inhieroglyphics

• Inca had no writtenlanguage

• Printed books helped spread knowledge

• Vernacular used inProtestant worship

• Latin remains language of Catholic Church

• Meeting of cultures meant spread ofknowledge aboutlanguages

• European languagesbrought by settlers tooverseas colonies

• Developed tradenetworks and methods of farming and building • Furthered education

• Created lifelike art

• Different religionsexisted side by side

• Reason seen as a way to truth

• General rules developedfor scientific study

• Beginning of modern democracy

• Native Americans passed on foods (corn,chocolate, potatoes)

• Many place names in theAmericas are based onNative American words(Chicago, Mississippi)

• Renaissance andReformation Europeanspassed on practice ofprinting books

• School subjects (history,language) are rooted inRenaissance learning

• Supported rights (freespeech, religion, press)that we enjoy today

• Scientific tools(microscope, telescope)and vaccines for diseasedeveloped

(tl)Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY, (tc)Scala/Art Resource, NY, (tr)Betmann/CORBIS, (bl)Michel Zabe/Art Resource, NY, (bc)The Pierpont Morgan Library/Art Resource, NY, (br)©Virginia Historical Society. All RightsReserved

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Documents

Chapter 18: Enlightenment and Revolution