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Chapter 16
Improving Your Memory
+Tips for Selecting Passwords
Use a transformation of some memorable cue involving a mix
of letters and symbols
Keep a record of all passwords in a place to which only you
have access (e.g. a safe deposit box)
It is easier to recall the location of a hidden object when the location
is likely than when it is unexpected
2
+Popular Mnemonic Aids
Harris (1980) surveyed housewives and students on their
mnemonic use:
Both groups used largely similar techniques; however,
Students were more likely to write on their hands
Housewives were more likely to write on calendars
External aids (e.g. diaries, calendars, lists, and timers) were
especially popular
…Today we have laptops, PDAs, and mobile telephones
Very few internal mnemonics were reported
These are especially useful in situations that ban external aids
3
+Memory Experts
A Russian with an amazing memory
A former journalist who never took notes but could repeat back quotes verbatim
Had seemingly limitless memory for:
Digits (100+)
Nonsense syllables
Foreign-language poetry
Complex figures
Complex scientific formulae
His memory relied heavily on imagery and synesthesia:
The tendency for one sense modality to evoke another
His apparent inability to forget, and his synesthesia, caused great complications and struggle for him
Shereshevskii
The Mind of a Mnemonist by Luria
4
+Wilding and Valentine (1994)
Innately gifted
Possess a close relative who
exhibits a comparable level of
memory ability
Highly practiced in certain
mnemonic techniques
Naturals Strategists
Naturals vs. Strategists
Tested both kinds of mnemonists at the World Memory Championships on two types of tasks:
Strategic Tasks
e.g. recalling the names of faces
Nonstrategic Tasks
e.g. recognition of snow crystals
Based on data in Wilding and Valentine (1994).
5
+Spatial Navigation and Memory
During learning, superior memorizers:
Tended to have more activity in areas of the brain involved in spatial
memorization and navigation
This was likely related to their use of the method of loci
Involves visualizing to-be-remembered information at various
points along a known route
Uses spatial memory
Maguire et al.’s (2003) Neuroimaging Experiment
6
+Ranjan Mahadevan
Held the world record for memorizing the most digits of pi
Various strategies contributed to this ability
Thompson et al. (1991) found that he had a digit span:
59 visually presented digits
63 for heard digits
Chunked digits into strings of 10–15 digits, not the typical 3–4
This initially indicated a natural enhancement of his basic memory capacity
Arguing against his natural superiority, he has an average:
Symbol span
Ability to remember the position and orientation of various objects
Memory for word lists and stories
It turns out that he uses various associations and patterns to group digits
A Natural Mnemonist?
7
+Mnemonics
Method of Loci – place items in a location, then take a mental walk.
Peg-word System – use peg words as a structure and associate a list of items with them using visualization.
Story telling – a series of unrelated words is linked together within the context of a story.
Requires training to do.
+“This Old Man” Song
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCZoEqJbizo
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3cYf9vkW_xU
http://www.totlol.com/watch/5d-6Q5V79CM/This-Old-Man/0/
+Pegword System
1 – bun
2 – shoe
3 – tree
4 – door
5 – hive
6 – sticks
7 – heaven
8 – gate
9 – wine
10 -- hen
+Visual Mnemonic Techniques
Goes back to classical times
To-be-remembered items are
associated with the locations
(e.g. places along a walk)
Effectiveness can be
diminished by introducing an
interfering spatial task
Kondo et al. (2004) found that
learning with this method
differentially activates:
Right inferior frontal gyrus
Middle frontal gyrus
Limitations of the technique:
Difficult to remember an item
out of order
Harder to deal with abstract
words or ideas
Makes it less useful in the
real world
Works better for orally than
visually presented material
Likely because visual
presentation interferes with
visual imagery
Method of Loci
11
+Visual Mnemonic Techniques
Memorize a list of words that
rhyme with digits one to ten
One = Bun
Two = Shoe
Three = Tree …
Now imagine each to-be-
remembered item interacting
with one pegword
e.g. for “battleship,” imagine
a battleship sailing into a
floating bun
Limitations of the technique:
Requires extensive training
Easier to use with concrete
materials
It may not be very useful in
everyday life
Pegword System
12
+Visual Mnemonic Techniques
Imagery Technique:
Come up with an imageable substitute for the name
e.g. Eysenck = “ice sink”
Come up with a prominent facial feature of the person
e.g. a nose
Link the two
e.g. The nose could be the sink’s faucet
Unfortunately, this can be too time-consuming for real life
Expanded Retrieval Practice:
Retrieve the name at increasing intervals after first hearing them
Morris et al. (2005) found that in a naturalistic setting:
Expanded retrieval practice procedure led to 50% better recall than no strategy
Having no strategy was actually better than using the imagery technique!
Remembering Names
13
+Verbal Mnemonics
Offered up rhymes to help remember 2000+ dates and facts
Presented a system for converting a number sequence into a
word to help remember dates and the likes
Vowels were inserted where needed
Could be useful for remembering PIN numbers
e.g. 1914 (World War I begins) = CTBS CAT BASE
Reverend Brayshaw’s (1849) Metrical Mnemonics
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 00
B D G J L M P R T W St
C F H K N Q V X
S Z
14
+Other Verbal Mnemonics
Take the first letter of each word you want to remember in sequence and construct a sentence with those initial letters
Helpful for recalling the order of items, assuming that the words themselves can be reliably recalled when cued with the first letters
e.g. the colors of the rainbow
Story Method:
Links together a series of unrelated words in the correct order within the context of a story
Limitations:
Takes a while to construct
Hard to retrieve items out of order
Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet
R O Y G B I V
Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain
15
+Mnemonics and Existing Knowledge
Mnemonics work when they make use of our current knowledge
Kalakoski and Saariluoma (2001)
Participants:
Helsinki taxi drivers
Students
Task:
Remember 15 Helsinki street names, either
Connected streets presented in their real, spatial ordering
Connected streets presented in random order
Unconnected streets presented in random order
Results:
The drivers outperformed students when connected streets were used
When unconnected streets were used, the groups performed equally
Conclusion:
The drivers’ existing spatial knowledge was an asset only when the materials fit neatly into that structure
16
+Principles for a Better Memory
Requirement Description
Encoding Principle Information should be processed
meaningfully, relating it to preexisting
knowledge
Retrieval Structure Principle Cues should be stored with the information
to aid subsequent retrieval
Speed-Up Principle Extensive practice increases the speed of
encoding and retrieval
Ericsson (1988)
17
+From Normal to Mnemonist
Had a university student (SF) practice the digit span task for 1 hour per
day for 2 years
Over this time, his span increased from about 7 items to 80 items
Encoding and retrieval principles in action:
He increased his span to 18 items by relating numbers to known
running times (e.g. 3594 = “Bannister’s time for the mile”)
He further increased his span by organizing those chunks into a
hierarchical structure
Speed-up principle in action:
He became much faster at chunking and organizing the numbers with
extensive practice
However, his newfound ability did NOT generalize to other memory tasks
He maintained average letter and word spans
Ericsson and Chase (1982)
18
+Learning Styles
Learning Style Emphasis Predicts
Surface • Rote learning of ideas and facts
• Little focus on content
• Little motivation to study
• Similar to shallow level of processing
Poor examination
performance
Deep • Learning to understand
• Relating ideas to evidence and
integrating information
• High motivation to understand
• Similar to deep level of processing
Good examination
performance
Strategic • Seeking the study techniques to get
the best grades
• Motivated to be efficient
Great examination
performance
Biggs’ (1987) Study Process Questionnaire
The questionnaire assesses students’ dominant approach to
learning
19
+Morris’s (1979) SQ3R Approach
Stage Goals
S Survey • Figuring out how the reading is organized
• Read the summary or scan the piece
Q Question • Thinking of relevant questions to which each section should
answer
• Do this for chunks of text of 3000 words or less
R1 Read • Reading through each chunk in order to:
• Answer the questions formulated above
• Integrate information to pre-existing knowledge
R2 Recite • Trying to remember the key ideas of each chunk
• If forgotten, repeat the Read stage
R3 Review • Remembering the key ideas from the chapter and
combining the chunks after finishing the entire piece
• Return to Read stage, if necessary
Five Stages of Effective Reading
20
+Morris’s (1979) SQ3R Approach
Benefits of the SQ3R approach:
Avoids the student’s illusion
The false confidence students get as they skim through a chapter,
finding that the material seems familiar (i.e. they’d be able to
recognize it)
However, the actual test is likely to be:
More anxiety-provoking
Asking them to recall (rather than recognize) the information
Five Stages of Effective Reading
21
+Testing Effect
Testing Effect:
The finding that long-term retention is best when the information is repeatedly tested during learning
Task:
Students were asked to memorize a prose passage through either
Repeated Study (SSSS):
Passage was read four times without a test
Single Test (SSST):
Passage was read three times, followed be a recall test
Repeated Test (STTT):
Passage was read once, followed by three recall tests
22
Karpicke and Roediger (2006a)
Results:
Repeated study is most effective at the short retention interval
At learning, this group expected the best long-term memory
Considered the least effortful/demanding condition
Repeated testing is most effective at the long retention interval
i.e. the testing effect
+Explaining the Testing Effect
Storage Strength:
Relative permanence of a memory trace
Retrieval Strength:
The accessibility of a given memory trace
Easy retrieval does not increase storage strength
Difficult retrieval increases storage strength and leads to long-
term memory performance
Working hard to give yourself recall tests during studying is highly
beneficial to long-term retention
Bjork and Bjork (1992)
23
+Testing with Feedback
Task:
Learn Luganda–English translations
Some participants got corrective feedback on incorrect test trials during study
Others did not receive feedback
Tested 1 week later on the vocabulary
Results:
Recall for the words they had gotten wrong a week before was about five times better if they had received feedback then
Conclusion:
Testing yourself with feedback is best for long-term retention
Tip: Use flashcards; don’t just re-read your notes!
Pashler et al. (2005)
24
+Mind Maps
Mind Map:
A note-taking/brainstorming
strategy consisting of a
diagram, including:
A central idea
Related ideas
More closely related
concepts are located
closer to the central
concept
Links connecting them
Buzan and Buzan (1993)
25
+Benefits of Mind Maps
Encourage active learning
More natural than linear note taking
Ideas are distilled to their core,
leaving out unimportant details
Visual images may be easier to
remember
Color coding can be used to indicate
category relations
Farrand, Hussaine, and Hennessy (2002)
Task:
Learn the material by:
Mind mapping
Usual study techniques
Tested 1 week later
Results:
Mind-mapping group recalled 10% more
Even though mind mappers had less motivation for their technique
Budd (2004) suggested that students favoring a “doing” learning style are more motivated to use mind maps than people with a “thinking” learning style
Presumed Benefits Empirical Benefits
26
+Vocabulary Learning
Keyword Technique
Form an association between the new word and an English word/phrase sounding like it
The sound-alike word becomes the keyword
Create a mental image with the keyword linking the two
Example:
Word:
zvonok (pronounced zvah-oak; means “bell” in Russian)
Keyword:
“Oak”
Image:
An oak tree covered with bells
Keyword Technique
27
+Keyword Technique
Receptive Vocabulary Learning
e.g. producing the appropriate
English word to a foreign word
Productive Vocabulary Learning
e.g. producing the right foreign
word to an English word
Results:
Providing noun keywords yields better memory than other strategies in receptive learning
Productive learning does not seem to benefit from keywords
Conclusion:
In productive learning, retrieving the keyword when presented with the English word didn’t provide enough information to recall the foreign word
Follow-Ups:
Keywords can benefit productive learning with enough practice
Ellis and Beaton (1993)
Adapted from Ellis and Beaton (1993).
28
+Learning Verbatim
Noice and Noice (1996)
Actors start the process of memorizing lines by focusing on the
needs and motivations of the characters
This lays down the structure for and helps deeply encode the
material
Allows them to understand why certain words were chosen for a
particular character
This is associated with better gist recall; however, actors are
surprisingly good in their verbatim recall as well
Actors use contextual information (e.g. gestures, stage moves, and
facial expressions of other actors, as well as their own physical
positions) to facilitate recall of the lines
Actors Learning Lines
29
+Attention, Interest, and Knowledge
Information on any given topic will be remembered better by
individuals who have great interest in it than those who don’t
e.g. the Swazi’s of South Africa superior memory for information
about cows (Bartlett, 1932)
Interest in a topic is positively associated with pre-existing
knowledge and schemas into which new information can be
integrated
e.g. existing soccer knowledge correlates highly with the ability to
remember made-up soccer scores (Morris et al., 1981)
30
+Motivation
Assumptions:
Conscious goals have a
major impact on people’s
motivation and behavior
Self-assigning more difficult
goals is associated with
better performance
It is important to be fully
committed to the goal
Goals should be SMART:
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Relevant
Time-framed
The theory holds up when there
is a single, specific task without
distraction
However, real-life goals are
much more complicated …
Locke’s (1968) Goal-Setting Theory
31
+Motivation
Implementation Intentions:
Objectives explicitly
specifying in detail how,
when, and where individuals
are going to achieve the
goals they have set
themselves
Creates an “instant habit”
Reliably triggered by
relevant cues
Offer an improvement over
goal-setting theory for real-
world intentions
Implementation instructions
Can reduce susceptibility to distraction
Especially if they aim to ignore distractions rather than increase focus on the task of interest
e.g. saying, “Whenever the distraction arises, I will ignore it!”
Can enhance the chances of people achieving their goals
e.g. Gollwitzer and Brandstätter’s (1997) Christmas homework
Gollwitzer’s (1999) Implementation Intentions
32