Chapter 14Chapter 14New Directions in Thought New Directions in Thought and Culture in the 16and Culture in the 16thth and and 1717thth Century CenturyMrs. TuckerMrs. TuckerAP European HistoryAP European HistoryVictor Valley High SchoolVictor Valley High School

Main PointsMain Points

The astronomical theories of The astronomical theories of Copernicus, Brahe, Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo and Newton.Kepler, Galileo and Newton.

The emergence of new The emergence of new scientific institutions.scientific institutions.

The role of The role of womenwomen in early science. in early science.

The relationship between The relationship between science and religion.science and religion.

New directions in New directions in philosophyphilosophy and political and political science.science.

Witch-huntsWitch-hunts in the early modern era in the early modern era

Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution

What we now call "science" – the What we now call "science" – the process of understanding the process of understanding the natural world through observation, natural world through observation, analysis, and, most important, analysis, and, most important, repeatable experimentation – repeatable experimentation – emerged as a field of inquiry in the emerged as a field of inquiry in the 17th century. 17th century.

At the time it was called "natural At the time it was called "natural philosophy." philosophy."

New observations and theories in New observations and theories in astronomy challenged scholarship astronomy challenged scholarship that went back to Ptolemy and that went back to Ptolemy and Aristotle. Aristotle.

Copernicus, hoping to simplify the Copernicus, hoping to simplify the mathematics and modeling mathematics and modeling involved in predicting planetary involved in predicting planetary motion in the Ptolemey's geocentric motion in the Ptolemey's geocentric system, had tentatively proposed in system, had tentatively proposed in the 16th century that the sun might the 16th century that the sun might be the center of circular planetary be the center of circular planetary motion. motion.

http://www.crystalinks.com/copernicus.jpg

Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution

Brahe disagreed strongly, and Brahe disagreed strongly, and performed extensive observations performed extensive observations attempting to support the geocentric attempting to support the geocentric model.model.

Brahe's assistant Kepler used Brahe's Brahe's assistant Kepler used Brahe's data to propose, in a 1609 book, that data to propose, in a 1609 book, that the sun was at the center of elliptical the sun was at the center of elliptical planetary orbits. planetary orbits.

Also in 1609, Galileo was the first to Also in 1609, Galileo was the first to study astronomy through a telescope. study astronomy through a telescope.

Galileo became a strong advocate for Galileo became a strong advocate for the heliocentric universe and – just as the heliocentric universe and – just as important – popularized the idea that important – popularized the idea that the universe is rational and subject to the universe is rational and subject to the laws of mathematics.the laws of mathematics.

Finally, Newton combined Finally, Newton combined mathematical modeling and scientific mathematical modeling and scientific observation to derive his famous laws observation to derive his famous laws of motion and theory of universal of motion and theory of universal gravitation.gravitation.

http://www.crystalinks.com/copernicus.jpg

PhilosophyPhilosophy

Scientists of the 17th Scientists of the 17th century were called century were called natural philosophers, natural philosophers, and there was some and there was some overlap between overlap between philosophers and natural philosophers and natural philosophers.philosophers.

For this reason, and For this reason, and because of the because of the challenges to traditional challenges to traditional thinking posed by thinking posed by scientific work in this scientific work in this period, were profoundly period, were profoundly influenced by the influenced by the Scientific Revolution. Scientific Revolution.

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-15jTilpn7No/TZeA1R5SEaI/AAAAAAAAAAM/Ih4gY0jEv38/s1600/800PX-%257E1.JPG

PhilosophyPhilosophy

Galileo's mathematical Galileo's mathematical modeling of the physical modeling of the physical world translated into a world translated into a mechanistic worldview mechanistic worldview that was widespread that was widespread among philosophers. among philosophers.

Bacon, Descartes, Bacon, Descartes, Hobbes, and Locke all Hobbes, and Locke all articulated philosophies articulated philosophies that took aspects of the that took aspects of the new science into new science into account and also had account and also had implications for social implications for social and political and political organization.organization.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Descartes3.jpg/220px-Descartes3.jpg

New InstitutionsNew Institutions

Through the Reformation, Through the Reformation, most intellectuals had most intellectuals had believed that their task was believed that their task was to recover and elaborate on to recover and elaborate on knowledge from the knowledge from the Classical/Biblical period. Classical/Biblical period.

The expansion of natural The expansion of natural knowledge changed knowledge changed universities and existing universities and existing centers of learning, and led centers of learning, and led to the creation of new to the creation of new "institutions of sharing." "institutions of sharing."

Scientific societies Scientific societies encouraged new kinds of encouraged new kinds of social mingling, and the social mingling, and the cross-fertilization of ideas.cross-fertilization of ideas.

http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/images/RASci.JPG

WomenWomen

European universities had offered European universities had offered little room for scholarship by little room for scholarship by women; the institutions of science women; the institutions of science soon turned out to be even more soon turned out to be even more exclusionary. exclusionary.

Not only were women prevented Not only were women prevented from becoming members of from becoming members of scientific societies and discouraged scientific societies and discouraged from practicing science on their from practicing science on their own, but also women became own, but also women became objects of study and description – objects of study and description – under the assumption that they under the assumption that they were inferior beings! were inferior beings!

Two categories of women were Two categories of women were occasionally able to work around occasionally able to work around these constraints, noblewomen and these constraints, noblewomen and female artisans. female artisans.

Women did write important Women did write important scientific works and popularizations.scientific works and popularizations.http://janisfreegard.files.wordpress.com/

2010/11/200px-margaret_cavendish_portrait.jpg

Science and Religious Science and Religious FaithFaith

The new science challenged religion in The new science challenged religion in three ways: some scientific three ways: some scientific observations contradicted biblical observations contradicted biblical descriptions (e.g., of the heavens); it descriptions (e.g., of the heavens); it was unclear who should resolve any was unclear who should resolve any potential conflicts between science potential conflicts between science and religion, natural philosophers or and religion, natural philosophers or church authorities; and the new church authorities; and the new philosophy's materialism seemed to philosophy's materialism seemed to some to preclude spirituality. some to preclude spirituality.

Most natural philosophers worked hard Most natural philosophers worked hard to reconcile their work with religious to reconcile their work with religious views, and they were generally views, and they were generally successful. successful.

Galileo's condemnation by the church, Galileo's condemnation by the church, however, was a dramatic – and long-however, was a dramatic – and long-remembered! – exception to the remembered! – exception to the general rule of accommodation general rule of accommodation between the science and religion.between the science and religion.

http://payingattentiontothesky.files.wordpress.com/2010/03/galileo_trial.jpg

SuperstitionSuperstition

Through the 17th century, Through the 17th century, most Europeans believed in most Europeans believed in some form of magic and in the some form of magic and in the power of demons. power of demons.

"Magic," in the form of "Magic," in the form of transubstantiation, was transubstantiation, was indeed at the heart of indeed at the heart of Christian ritual. Christian ritual.

Though these beliefs had Though these beliefs had been present for centuries, been present for centuries, witch-hunts and panics soared witch-hunts and panics soared in the late 16th and early 17th in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. centuries.

Most of the victims were Most of the victims were women.women.

http://s4.hubimg.com/u/29163_f520.jpg

SuperstitionSuperstition

Possible explanations for Possible explanations for this phenomenon include this phenomenon include misogyny, the impact of misogyny, the impact of wars and upheaval, wars and upheaval, spiritual insecurity in the spiritual insecurity in the aftermath of the aftermath of the Reformation, women's Reformation, women's roles as midwives (in roles as midwives (in which they were which they were intimately involved in life-intimately involved in life-and-death situations), and and-death situations), and villagers' sublimated villagers' sublimated hostility towards urban hostility towards urban leaders. leaders.

There are also a variety of There are also a variety of possible explanations for possible explanations for why witch-hunts petered why witch-hunts petered out in the 17th century.out in the 17th century.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Eucharius_Rößlin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg/220px-Eucharius_Rößlin_Rosgarten_Childbirth.jpg

Concluding FactsConcluding Facts

Scientists ("natural Scientists ("natural philosophers") and philosophers") and philosophers in the late 16th philosophers in the late 16th and 17th centuries developed and 17th centuries developed theories about the natural theories about the natural world and socio-political world and socio-political organization that, over the organization that, over the following centuries, slowly following centuries, slowly transformed the world. transformed the world.

European culture was the European culture was the first to be challenged by first to be challenged by these developments; the new these developments; the new astronomy "discovered" a astronomy "discovered" a physical universe that was physical universe that was incompatible with the incompatible with the heavens described in the heavens described in the bible.bible.

http://prodos.com/graphics/historyreligionscience220X220.jpg

Concluding FactsConcluding Facts

Scientific observations Scientific observations challenged church teachings challenged church teachings on other levels as well, on other levels as well, though the natural though the natural philosophers and philosophers and contemporary writers of contemporary writers of philosophy did their best to philosophy did their best to reconcile some form of reconcile some form of Christian faith with a Christian faith with a mechanistic world. mechanistic world.

This tension is probably at This tension is probably at least part of the explanation least part of the explanation for the witch-hunts that for the witch-hunts that claimed tens of thousands claimed tens of thousands of lives – mostly of female of lives – mostly of female villagers – between 1400 villagers – between 1400 and 1700.and 1700. http://www.historyguide.org/images/heliocentricity.gif