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Chapter 13
The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves
Functions of the nervous system
• Sensory (input):– Light– Sound – Touch– Temperature– Taste– Smell– Internal Chemical– Pressure– Stretch
Functions of the nervous system (cont’d)
• Integration:– Integration means making sense of
sensory input. Analyzing stimuli based on experience, learning, emotion & instinct and reacting in a useful way (you hope).
• Motor (output):– The response to the sensory input
and subsequent integration. Sending signals to the muscles and other organs of the body instructing them how to respond to the stimuli.
Nervous System Organization
Overview of Ch 13 & Ch 14
The Spinal Cord & Nerves
• The spinal cord is part of the Central Nervous System.
• The spinal nerves are part of the Peripheral Nervous System.
• The lowest level of integration occurs in the spinal cord and peripheral ganglia.
Spinal cord: gross
anatomy
Spinal cord anatomy:
the meninges
Spinal cord and
associated structures
Functional arrangement of the spinal cord tissues
Cross section of the spinal cord
White Matter in the Spinal Cord
• Fibers run in three directions – ascending, descending, and transversely
• Divided into three funiculi (columns) – posterior, lateral, and anterior
• Each funiculus contains several fiber tracks– Fiber tract names reveal their origin
and destination– Fiber tracts are composed of axons with
similar functions
Spinal nerves• Thirty-one pairs of mixed nerves
arise from the spinal cord and supply all parts of the body except the head
• They are named according to their point of issue– 8 cervical (C1-C8)
– 12 thoracic (T1-T12)
– 5 Lumbar (L1-L5)
– 5 Sacral (S1-S5)
– 1 Coccygeal (C0)
Spinal nerve
structure
Spinal Nerve structure• Each axon is also called a “nerve
fiber”– These are covered by an endoneurium– The endoneurium is made of areolar c.t.
• Fibers are bundled into “fascicles”– These are covered by perineurium– This is an extension of the outer layer of
collagen fibers
• Nerves are bundles of fascicles– Each nerve is covered by dense
irregular tissue of collagen fibers
Components of the Peripheral Nervous
System• Motor pathways
– Leave the spinal cord via the ventral nerve roots.
– Have multipolar cell bodies found in the gray matter.
– Carry motor impulses to skeletal muscle (somatic pathways) and to glands, smooth muscle, the heart, organs, etc (autonomic pathways).
– Are also called efferent pathways.
Motor pathways
Components of the PNS • Sensory Pathways
– Enter the cord via the dorsal roots.– Have unipolar cell bodies found in the
dorsal root ganglia.– Carry sensory inputs into the CNS via the
central processes of their axons. They begin at the general sensory receptors of the skin (somatic sensory) and internal organs (visceral sensory).
– Are also known as afferent pathways.– Special sense will be covered in Chapter
17
Sensory pathways
What’s a damn
dermatome?
Nerve plexuses
Nerve plexuses
• Fibers travel to the periphery via several different routes
• Each muscle receives a nerve supply from more than one spinal nerve
• Damage to one spinal segment cannot completely paralyze a muscle
Cervical plexus
Table 13-1
Summary: Cervical Plexus
Brachial plexus
Fig. 13.13a
The brachial plexus
Some common injuries to the brachial plexus
Study question: Which nerves are affected here?
Table 13–2 (1 of 2)
Summary: Brachial Plexus
Table 13–2 (2 of 2)
Summary: Brachial Plexus
Lumbar and sacral
plexuses
Table 13-3 (1 of 2)
Summary: Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses
Table 13-3 (2 of 2)
Summary: Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses
Lumbar & sacral plexus
nerves
Neural circuits
Neural Circuits• Divergent – spread information from
one source to several destinations.– Examples: visual input being processed
at a conscious level (the horizon is tilting) and a subconscious level (I adjust my body so that I don’t fall over).
• Convergent – multiple sources of input into one neuron. – Examples: conscious – I contract my
rectus femoris to step over a pile of dog poop. Unconscious – my rectus femoris automatically contracts as the bus moves
Neural Circuits• Serial – a series of neurons in a
sequence.– Example: Pain pathways
• Parallel – Divergence followed by serial.– Example – reflexes that result in a complex
series of responses simultaneously
• Reverberation – positive feedback loops– Examples – many of the complex processes
of the brain.
Reflexes
• Rapid, automatic responses to stimuli.
• Can be visceral (e.g. swallowing) or somatic (“knee-jerk”).
• Have little variability
Components of a reflex arc
1. Stimulus activates a receptor.2. Impulse travels along a sensory
pathway.3. Integration occurs in an
integration center (most often in the CNS)
4. Impulse then travels by a motor pathway.
5. An effector responds.
4 Classifications of Reflexes
1. By early development2. By type of motor response3. By complexity of neural circuit4. By site of information
processing
Development• How reflex was developed:
– innate reflexes:•basic neural reflexes •formed before birth
– acquired reflexes:•rapid, automatic•learned motor patterns
Response• Nature of resulting motor response:
– somatic reflexes:• involuntary control of nervous system
– superficial reflexes of skin, mucous membranes
– stretch reflexes (deep tendon reflexes) e.g., patellar reflex
– visceral reflexes (autonomic reflexes):• control systems other than muscular system
e.g., glands smooth muscle and cardiac muscle
Complexity
• Complexity of neural circuit:– monosynaptic reflex:
•sensory neuron synapses directly onto motor neuron
– polysynaptic reflex:•at least 1 interneuron between
sensory neuron and motor neuron
Processing
• Site of information processing:– spinal reflexes:
•occurs in spinal cord– cranial reflexes:
•occurs in brain
Monosynaptic: Stretch reflex
Monosynaptic Reflexes
• Have least delay between sensory input and motor output:– e.g., stretch reflex (such as patellar
reflex)
• Completed in 20–40 msec
Muscle Spindles
• The receptors in stretch reflexes• Bundles of small, specialized intrafusal
muscle fibers:– innervated by sensory and motor neurons
• Surrounded by extrafusal muscle fibers: – which maintain tone and contract muscle
Muscle spindles
Postural Reflexes
• Postural reflexes:– stretch reflexes– maintain normal upright posture
• Stretched muscle responds by contracting:– automatically maintain balance
Polysynaptic Reflexes
• More complicated than monosynaptic reflexes
• Interneurons control more than 1 muscle group
• Produce either EPSPs or IPSPs
Polysynaptic: Flexor
The Tendon Reflex
• Prevents skeletal muscles from:– developing too much tension– tearing or breaking tendons
• Sensory receptors unlike muscle spindles or proprioceptors
Withdrawal Reflexes• Move body part away from
stimulus (pain or pressure):– e.g., flexor reflex:
•pulls hand away from hot stove
• Strength and extent of response:– depends on intensity and
location of stimulus
Reflex Arcs
• Ipsilateral reflex arcs:– occur on same side of body as
stimulus– stretch, tendon, and withdrawal
reflexes
• Crossed extensor reflexes:– involves a contralateral reflex
arc– occurs on side opposite stimulus
Figure 13–18
The Crossed Extensor Reflex
5 General Characteristics of Polysynaptic Reflexes
1. Involve pools of neurons2. Are intersegmental in distribution3. Involve reciprocal inhibition4. Have reverberating circuits:
– which prolong reflexive motor response
5. Several reflexes cooperate:– to produce coordinated, controlled
response
Figure 13–19
The Babinski Reflexes
• Normal in infants• May indicate CNS damage in adults
Spinal Cord Trauma: Paralysis
• Paralysis – loss of motor function• Flaccid paralysis – severe damage
to the ventral root or anterior horn cells– Lower motor neurons are damaged
and impulses do not reach muscles– There is no voluntary or involuntary
control of muscles
Spinal Cord Trauma: Paralysis
• Spastic paralysis – only upper motor neurons of the primary motor cortex are damaged– Spinal neurons remain intact and
muscles are stimulated irregularly– There is no voluntary control of
muscles
Spinal Cord Trauma: Transection
• Cross sectioning of the spinal cord at any level results in total motor and sensory loss in regions inferior to the cut
• Paraplegia – transection between T1 and L1
• Quadriplegia – transection in the cervical region
Spinal cord transection
Poliomyelitis
• Destruction of the anterior horn motor neurons by the poliovirus
• Early symptoms – fever, headache, muscle pain and weakness, and loss of somatic reflexes
• Vaccines are available and can prevent infection
Some effects of Polio
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
• Lou Gehrig’s disease – neuromuscular condition involving destruction of anterior horn motor neurons and fibers of the pyramidal tract
• Symptoms – loss of the ability to speak, swallow, and breathe
• Death often occurs within five years• Linked to malfunctioning genes for
glutamate transporter and/or superoxide dismutase
Some Famous Victims of ALSLou Gehrig
Steven Hawking,renowned physicist
Axonal degeneration of motor neurons evident in lateral corticospinal (pyramidal) pathways, especially
in the loss of
myelinated fibers of the corticospinal tracts
SUMMARY (1 of 7)
• General organization of nervous system: – CNS, PNS
• Gross anatomy of spinal cord:– enlargements, dorsal and ventral
roots, filum terminale, conus medullaris
SUMMARY (2 of 7)
• Afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) fibers
• Structures and functions of spinal meninges
• Gray matter and horns of spinal cord
SUMMARY (3 of 7)
• White matter and columns (tracts) of spinal cord
• 3 layers in spinal nerves• Distribution (rami) of spinal nerves:
– white, gray, dorsal, ventral
SUMMARY (4 of 7)
• 4 major nerve plexuses:– cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral
• Neuronal pools and neural circuit patterns:– divergence, convergence, serial,
parallel, reverberation
SUMMARY (5 of 7)
• Reflexes and reflex arcs• Classifications of reflexes:
– innate vs. acquired– somatic vs. visceral– cranial vs. spinal– monosynaptic, polysynaptic, or
intersegmental
SUMMARY (6 of 7)
• Characteristics of monosynaptic reflexes:– stretch reflex, postural reflex, muscle
spindles
• Characteristics of polysynaptic reflexes:– tendon, withdrawal, flexor, and
crossed extensor reflexes
End
Chapter 13