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Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
CHAPTER 13:Social Influences
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social Influences
Social Perception
Social Influence
Social Relations
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social PerceptionMaking Attributions
Social Perception The processes by which we come to know
and evaluate other persons
Attribution Theory A set of theories that describe how people
explain the causes of behavior
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social Perception Kelley’s Attribution Theory
For behaviors that are consistent, people make personal attributions when consensus and distinctiveness are low.
People will make stimulus attributions when consensus and distinctiveness are high.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social Perception Fundamental Attribution Error
A tendency to overestimate the impact of personal causes of behavior and to overlook the role of situations
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social Perception Fundamental Attribution Error
A simulated quiz show gave questioners an advantage over contestants.
Observers and contestants still judged questioners as more knowledgeable.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social Perception Fundamental Attribution Error: A Western Bias?
U.S. and Indian subjects described the causes of several behaviors.
Cultural differences were not seen in young children.
With age, Americans made more personal attributions
However, Indians made more situational attributions.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social PerceptionForming ImpressionsMixed Evidence: Does it Extinguish or Reinforce First Impressions?
Participants were asked to evaluate a person’s academic potential and had high or low expectations.
Half watched videotape of person taking achievement test.
Without viewing the tape, expectations influenced evaluations.
Viewing the videotape magnified these initial expectations.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social PerceptionForming Impressions Behavioral-Confirmation Process
We use our existing beliefs to interpret new information, which affects our behavior.
This may create false support for our biases.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social PerceptionAttraction
Two important predictors of attraction are similarity and physical attractiveness.
Mere-Exposure Effect The attraction to a stimulus that results from
increased exposure to it
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social PerceptionAttraction Media Influences on the Attractiveness Stereotype
Participants watched film clips with strong or weak link between beauty and goodness.
Later they judged graduate school applications which included photo.
Those exposed to the stereotype favored the attractive applicants more.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social Influence Social Influence as “Automatic”
The Chameleon Effect
Participants worked with a “partner”.
Hidden cameras recorded behavior.
Participants mimicked their partner without realizing it.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social InfluenceConformityA Classic Case of Suggestibility Subjects in dark room
were shown a light and while alone estimated the distance the light moved.
In three group sessions, they again made distance estimations.
Subjects’ estimates converged on a common value thus establishing a group norm.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social InfluenceConformityLine-Judgment Task Used in Asch’s Study
Subjects in a group were asked which comparison line is the same length as the standard line.
Confederates in the group picked the wrong line. Subjects went along with the wrong answer on 37% of
trials.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social InfluenceConformity
Informational Influence Conformity motivated by the belief that
others are correct Seen in Sherif’s study
Normative Influence Conformity motivated by a fear of social
rejection Seen in Asch’s study
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social InfluencePrivate and Public Conformity
Under conditions of low motivation, the difficulty of the task did not influence conformity.
However, when motivated, people conform more when the task is difficult and less when it is easy.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social InfluenceGroup Size and Conformity
Conformity increases with group size up to a point.
Fifteen people had no more impact on conformity than did four people.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social InfluenceObedience to Authority
In Milgram’s studies of obedience, 65% of participants fully obeyed the experimenter and delivered 450 volts of electric shock.
Three factors influence obedience. The authority The victim The situation
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social InfluenceAttitudes and Attitude Change Persuasive Communications Involve:
The Source• Credibility
• Likability The Message
• Discrepancy
• Emotional appeal The Audience
• Motivation
• Cognitive ability
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social InfluenceAttitudes and Attitude Change
Two Routes to Persuasion
If the central route is taken, people are influenced by strong arguments and evidence.
If the peripheral route is used, people are influenced by superficial cues (e.g., the attractiveness of the source).
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social InfluenceAttitudes and Attitude Change
Cognitive Dissonance Study Behavior that conflicts with
attitudes can arouse cognitive dissonance.
Dissonance creates tension, which people are motivated to reduce.
Dissonance can be decreased by changing the attitude that conflicts with behavior.
Group paid $1 to lie about the boring task said they liked it more.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social InfluenceGroup Processes
Social Facilitation: The tendency for the presence of others to enhance performance on simple tasks and impair performance on complex tasks.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social InfluenceGroup Processes
Social Loafing People tend to exert less
effort in group tasks for which individual’s contributions are pooled.
The more people in the group, the more each individual’s effort decreases.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social InfluenceGroup ProcessesWays to Decrease Social Loafing
Separate each individual’s performance from that of the group’s effort.
Make each individual’s contribution necessary for overall group success.
Reward individual as well as group.Increase cohesiveness of group.Make tasks personally meaningful.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social InfluenceGroupthink A group decision-making
style by which group members convince themselves that they are correct
A group may over-emphasize unity when members suppress their own doubts and open dissent is stifled by other group members.
This can lead to lower-quality decisions made by the group.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social Relations Aggression
Behavior intended to inflict harm on another person who is motivated to avoid it
Aggression is influenced by:• Biology (e.g., testosterone)• Aversive stimulation (e.g., pain)• Situational Cues (e.g., weapons)• Media violence
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social Relations Aggression The Link Between Heat and Violence
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social Relations Aggression
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis The theory that frustration causes
aggression
Deindividuation A loss of individuality, often experienced in a
group, that results in a breakdown of internal restraints against deviant behavior
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social Relations Altruism
Helping behavior that is motivated primarily by a desire to benefit others, not oneself
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis The theory that an empathic response to a
person in need produces altruistic helping
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social Relations Altruism
Two Pathways to Helping
People have two reactions to someone in need: Personal distress (guilt, anxiety, and discomfort) Empathy (sympathy and compassion for the person)
Both selfish and altruistic motives can lead to helping
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social Relations The Bystander Effect
The finding that the presence of others inhibits helping in an emergency
Diffusion of Responsibility A tendency for bystanders
to assume that someone else will help
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social Relations A Model of Bystander Intervention
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Social Relations Bystander Intervention Cyberhelping
Individuals in an online chat room exhibited the bystander effect.
However,when the individual’s name was identified, the presence of others did not decrease helping as measured by the time it took people to help.
