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Money and BanksMoney and Banks
Chapter 13
Students Learning ObjectivesStudents Learning Objectives
In this chapter, you should understand the following questions: What is money? How is money created? What role do banks play in the circular flow of
income and spending?
What Is Money?What Is Money?
Without money, you would have to use barter to get items you want.
Barter is the direct exchange of one good for another, without the use of money.
The use of money in market transactions depends on sellers’ willingness to accept money as a medium of exchange.
Without money, the process of acquiring goods and services would be more difficult and time-consuming.
The Money SupplyThe Money Supply
Anything that serves all of the following purposes can be thought of as money: Medium of exchange Store of value Standard of value
Purposes of MoneyPurposes of Money
Medium of exchange – Is accepted as payment for goods and services (and debts)
Store of value – Can be held for future purchases. Standard of value
Standard of value – Serves as a measurement for the prices of goods and services.
Many Types of “Money”Many Types of “Money”
After the colonies became an independent nation, the U.S. Constitution prohibited the federal government from issuing paper money.
Money was instead issued by state chartered banks.
Between 1789 and 1863, paper bills were issued by state banks.
Many Types of “Money”Many Types of “Money”
People preferred to be paid in gold, silver, or other commodities rather than the uncertain paper currency.
The first paper money issued by the federal government was called “greenbacks” and was printed in 1861 to finance the Civil War.
The National Banking Act of 1863 gave the federal government permanent authority to issue money.
Modern ConceptsModern Concepts
Money is anything generally accepted as a medium of exchange.
The “greenbacks” we carry around today are not the only form of “money” we use.
Checking accounts can and do perform the same market functions as cash.
They must be included into our concept of money. Credit cards are another popular medium of
exchange but are not money. They are only a payment service with no store of
value in and of themselves
Diversity of Bank AccountsDiversity of Bank Accounts
There are many forms of “bank” accounts. Some bank accounts are better substitutes
for cash than others.
M1: Cash and Transactions M1: Cash and Transactions AccountsAccounts Money supply (M1): - Currency held by the
public, plus balances in transactions accounts.
M1 includes currency in circulation, transaction-account balances, and traveler’s checks.
M1: Cash and Transactions M1: Cash and Transactions AccountsAccounts A transactions account is a bank account
that permits direct payment to a third party, for example, with a check.
The distinguishing feature of transaction accounts is that they permit direct payment to a third party (by check or debit card).
Transaction-account balances are the largest component of the money supply.
M2: M1 + Savings Accounts, M2: M1 + Savings Accounts, etc.etc. M2 money supply – M1 plus balances in
most savings accounts and money market mutual funds.
Savings-account balances are almost as good a substitute for cash as transaction-account balances.
M2: M1 + Savings Accounts, M2: M1 + Savings Accounts, etc.etc. How much money is available affects
consumers’ ability to purchase goods and, services – aggregate demand.
Aggregate demand is the total quantity of output demanded at alternative price levels in a given time period, ceteris paribus.
M2: M1 + Savings Accounts, M2: M1 + Savings Accounts, etc.etc. The official measures of the money supply
(particularly M1 and M2) are fairly reliable benchmarks for gauging how much purchasing power market participants have.
Composition of the Money Composition of the Money SupplySupply
Currency in circulation ($569 billion)
Transactions-account balances ($612 billion)
Savings account balances ($3167 billion)
Money market mutual funds and deposits ($1027 billion)
Traveler’s checks ($8 billion)
M2($5383 billion)
M1 ($1189 billion)
Creation of MoneyCreation of Money
The deposit of funds into a bank does not change the size of the money supply.
It changes the composition of the money supply (transfers from cash to transaction deposits).
Deposit Creation Deposit Creation
When a bank lends someone money, it simply credits that individual’s bank account.
Deposit creation is the creation of transactions deposits by bank lending.
When a bank makes a loan, it effectively creates money because transactions-account balances are counted as part of the money supply.
Deposit Creation Deposit Creation
There are two basic principles of the money supply:
Transactions-account balances are a large portion of our money supply.
Banks can create transactions-account balances by making loans.
Bank RegulationBank Regulation
The deposit-creation activities of banks are regulated by the government.
The Federal Reserve System limits the amount of bank lending, thereby controlling the basic money supply.
A Monopoly BankA Monopoly Bank
Assume a student deposits $100 from their home bank into the monopoly bank and receives a new checking account.
When someone deposits cash or coins in a bank, they are changing the composition of the money supply, not its size.
The Initial LoanThe Initial Loan
The monopoly bank loans $100 to the Campus Radio station and issues a checking account.
This loan is accomplished by a simple bookkeeping entry.
Total bank reserves have remained unchanged. Bank reserves are assets held by a bank to fulfill its
deposit obligations. Money has been created because the checking
account is considered to be money.
Secondary DepositsSecondary Deposits
In a one bank system, when Campus Radio uses the loan, the money supply does not contract, rather ownership of deposits change.
Fractional ReservesFractional Reserves
Bank reserves are only a fraction of total transaction deposits.
The reserve ratio is the ratio of a bank's reserves to its total deposits.
Fractional ReservesFractional Reserves
The Federal Reserve System requires banks to maintain some minimum reserve ratio.
The T-account of the BankThe T-account of the Bank
The books of a bank must always balance, because all of the assets of the bank must belong to someone (its depositors or its owners).
Money CreationMoney Creation
Assets Liabilities
University Bank
+$100.00 in coins
+$100.00 in deposits
Money Supply
Cash held by the public –$100Transactions deposits
at bank +$100
Change in M 0
Money CreationMoney Creation
Assets Liabilities
University Bank
+$100.00 in coins
+$100 in loans
+$100.00 in your account
+$100.00 in borrower’s
account
Cash held by the public no changeTransactions deposits
at bank +$100
Change in M +$100
Money Supply
Required ReservesRequired Reserves
Required reserves are the minimum amount of reserves a bank is required to hold by government regulation; Equal to required reserve ratio times transactions deposits.
Required reserves = minimum reserve ratio X total deposits
Required ReservesRequired Reserves
The minimum reserve requirement directly limits deposit-creation possibilities.
A Multibank WorldA Multibank World
In reality, there is more than one bank. The ability of banks to make loans depends
on access to excess reserves.
A Multibank WorldA Multibank World
Example: If a bank is required to hold $20 in reserves but has $100 currently, it can lend out the $80 excess.
Excess ReservesExcess Reserves
Excess reserves are bank reserves in excess of required reserves.
Excess reserves = Total reserves – Required reserves
Excess ReservesExcess Reserves
So long as a bank has excess reserves, it can make loans.
Excess reserves are reserves a bank is not required to hold.
Changes in the Money Changes in the Money SupplySupply The creation of transaction deposits via new
loans is the same thing as creating money.
More Deposit CreationMore Deposit Creation
As the excess reserves are loaned out again, more deposits are created and thus more money is created.
Deposit CreationDeposit Creation
Assets Liabilities
University Bank
Required Reserves $20Excess Reserves $80
Youraccount $100
Total Assets $100
Total Liabilities $100
Assets Liabilities
Eternal Savings
Total Assets Total Liabilities
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2002Irwin/McGraw-Hill
Deposit CreationDeposit Creation
Assets Liabilities
University Bank
Required Reserves $36Excess Reserves $64Loans $80
Youraccount $100Campus Radio account $ 80
Total Assets $180
Total Liabilities $180
Assets Liabilities
Eternal Savings
Total Assets Total Liabilities
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2002Irwin/McGraw-Hill
Deposit CreationDeposit Creation
Assets Liabilities
University Bank
Required Reserves $20Excess Reserves $ 0Loans $80
Youraccount $100Campus Radio account $ 0
Total Assets $100
Total Liabilities $100
Assets Liabilities
Eternal Savings
Required Reserves $16Required Reserves $64
Atlas Antenna account $80
Total Assets $80
Total Liabilities $90
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2002Irwin/McGraw-Hill
Deposit CreationDeposit Creation
Assets Liabilities
University Bank
Required Reserves $20Excess Reserves $ 0Loans $80
Youraccount $100Campus Radio account $ 0
Total Assets $100
Total Liabilities $100
Assets Liabilities
Eternal Savings
Required Reserves $29Required Reserves $51 Loans $64
Atlas Antenna account $80Herman’sHardwareaccount $64
Total Assets $144
Total Liabilities $144
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2002Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The Money MultiplierThe Money Multiplier
In a multi-bank system, deposits created by one bank invariably end up as reserves in another bank.
This process can theoretically continue until all banks have zero excess reserves (no more loans can be made).
This is known as the money-multiplier process.
The Money MultiplierThe Money Multiplier
The money multiplier is the number of deposit (loan) dollars that the banking system can create from $1 of excess reserves.
The Money MultiplierThe Money Multiplier
When a new deposit enters the banking system, it creates both excess and required reserves.
The required reserves represent leakage from the flow of money, since they cannot be used to create new loans.
Excess reserve can be used for new loans. Once those loans are made, they typically
become transactions deposits elsewhere in the banking system.
The Money MultiplierThe Money Multiplier
Some additional leakage into required reserves occurs, and further loans are made.
The entire banking system can increase the volume of loans by the amount of excess reserves multiplied by the money multiplier.
The Money MultiplierThe Money Multiplier
The money supply can be increased through the process of deposit creation to this limit:
Potential deposit creation = Excess reserves of banking system
X Money multiplier
The Money Multiplier The Money Multiplier ProcessProcess
Required reserves
Excess reserves
Leakage into
The public
Excess Reserves as Lending Excess Reserves as Lending PowerPower Each bank may lend an amount equal to its
excess reserves and no more. The entire banking system can increase the
volume of loans by the amount of excess reserves multiplied by the money multiplier.
The Money Multiplier at The Money Multiplier at WorkWork
Original deposit = $ 100.00Bank A loans: = $ 80.00 [=0.8 x $100.00]Bank B loans = $ 64.00 [=0.8 x $80.00]Bank C loans = $ 51.20 [=0.8 x $64.00]
Total money supply = $ 500.00
Banks and the Circular FlowBanks and the Circular Flow
Banks perform two essential functions for the macro economy: Banks transfer money from savers to spenders by
lending funds (reserves) held on deposit. The banking system creates additional money by
making loans in excess of total reserves.
Banks and the Circular FlowBanks and the Circular Flow
Market participants respond to changes in the money supply by altering their spending behavior (shifting the aggregate demand curve).
Banks in the Circular FlowBanks in the Circular Flow
Loan
sLo
ans
Factor markets
Product markets
Business firms
Consumers
BANKS
Sav
ing
Investment expenditures
Sales receipts
Wages, dividends, etc.
IncomeDomestic consumption
Financing InjectionsFinancing Injections
The consumer saving is a leakage. A recessionary gap will emerge, creating
unemployment if additional spending by business firms, foreigners, or governments does not compensate for consumer saving at full employment.
Financing InjectionsFinancing Injections
A substantial portion of consumer saving is deposited in banks.
These and other bank deposits can be used to make loans, thereby returning purchasing power to the circular flow.
Financing InjectionsFinancing Injections
The banking system can create any desired level of money supply if allowed to expand or reduce loan activity at will.
Constraints on Deposit Constraints on Deposit CreationCreation There are three major constraints on deposit
creation: Deposits – Consumers must be willing to use and
accept checks rather than cash. Borrowers – Consumers must be willing to
borrow the money that banks provide. Regulation – The Federal Reserve sets the
ceiling on deposit creation.
When Banks FailWhen Banks Fail
Because of the fractional reserve system, no bank can pay off its customers if they all sought to withdraw their deposits at one time.
Bank PanicsBank Panics Occasional “runs” of depositors rushing to withdraw
their funds have created panics in the past. As word spread, it became a self-fulfilling
confirmation of a bank’s insolvency. The resulting bank closing wiped out customer
deposits, curtailed bank lending, and often pushed the economy into recession.
As their reserves dwindled, the ability of banks to create money evaporated and a chunk of money (bank deposits and loans) just disappeared.
In the early part of the Great Depression (1930-1933), 9000 banks failed.
Deposit InsuranceDeposit Insurance
In 1933-34, the FDIC and FSLIC were created by Congress to ensure depositors that their money would be safe -- thus eliminating the motivation for deposit runs.
The S & L CrisisThe S & L Crisis
The economic conditions in the 1970s saw many S&Ls stuck earning money on low-interest, long-term loans (mortgages etc.) while having to pay out short-term high-interest fees to their customers.
The S & L CrisisThe S & L Crisis
Competition from new financial institutions (e.g. money-market mutual funds) enticed deposits away from S&Ls.
Consequently, many S&Ls failed.
Bank BailoutsBank Bailouts
S&L failures cost the federal government billions – over $60 billion in 1992 alone – as the FSLIC and FDIC paid off depositors.
Bank BailoutsBank Bailouts
The Resolution Trust Corporation was created in 1989 to manage the outstanding loans of banks the federal government had to bail out.
Parts of the bailout funds were recouped from this effort.
Money and BanksMoney and Banks
End of Chapter 13
