Chapter 11Chapter 11Helping Students Construct Helping Students Construct

Usable KnowledgeUsable Knowledge

Helping Students ConstructHelping Students Construct Usable Knowledge Usable Knowledge

Constructivists believe students build Constructivists believe students build knowledge by making connections knowledge by making connections between new information and previously between new information and previously acquired knowledge. acquired knowledge.

They believe new knowledge will remain They believe new knowledge will remain “Inert” (non-usable) unless connections to “Inert” (non-usable) unless connections to prior learning are made.prior learning are made.

For knowledge to be “Generative” For knowledge to be “Generative” (applicable to new situations) that (applicable to new situations) that knowledge must become part of a knowledge must become part of a student’s newly-organized thinkingstudent’s newly-organized thinking

Constructivist PrinciplesConstructivist Principles

An orientation toward learning rather An orientation toward learning rather than teachingthan teaching

– Learners construct their own unique Learners construct their own unique representations of knowledgerepresentations of knowledge

– Learners make sense of new knowledge Learners make sense of new knowledge by relating it to their prior knowledgeby relating it to their prior knowledge

– Learners can develop new learning by Learners can develop new learning by restructuring existing knowledge or restructuring existing knowledge or viewing key concepts differentlyviewing key concepts differently

Constructivist Principles (Cont.)Constructivist Principles (Cont.)

Constructivists emphasize the need for Constructivists emphasize the need for teachers to go beyond transmission of teachers to go beyond transmission of facts to students (Transmission View)facts to students (Transmission View)

Constructivists believe teachers should Constructivists believe teachers should structure reflective discussions, about the structure reflective discussions, about the meaning of contentmeaning of content

Constructivists believe teachers should Constructivists believe teachers should create opportunities for students to use create opportunities for students to use content in inquiry and problem-solvingcontent in inquiry and problem-solving

(Social Construction View)(Social Construction View)

Note: See p. 341 for comparisonNote: See p. 341 for comparison

Role of Prior KnowledgeRole of Prior Knowledge Networks of prior knowledge (Schemas) Networks of prior knowledge (Schemas)

provide contexts for interpreting new provide contexts for interpreting new knowledgeknowledge

Schemas help students fill in conceptual Schemas help students fill in conceptual gaps and anticipate how new knowledge gaps and anticipate how new knowledge can be appliedcan be applied

Activation (waking up) of students’ Activation (waking up) of students’ schemas is a beginning stage of schemas is a beginning stage of Constructivist teachingConstructivist teaching

Knowledge Restructuring and Knowledge Restructuring and Conceptual ChangeConceptual Change

Students’ schemas must be accurate or Students’ schemas must be accurate or misconceptions will interfere with misconceptions will interfere with development of sound conceptsdevelopment of sound concepts

Teachers must monitor students schemas Teachers must monitor students schemas for accuracy and help students make for accuracy and help students make adjustments to schemas that are incorrectadjustments to schemas that are incorrect

(Don’t assume they know it, or have it (Don’t assume they know it, or have it right!)right!)

Social Constructivist ViewsSocial Constructivist Views(Lev Vygotsky 1978)(Lev Vygotsky 1978)

Children begin to connect thought and Children begin to connect thought and language in preschool yearslanguage in preschool years

Language (conversations with parents, Language (conversations with parents, teachers and other children) is the basis teachers and other children) is the basis through which much cultural knowledge is through which much cultural knowledge is transmitted and schemas are developedtransmitted and schemas are developed

““Zone of Proximal Development” is the Zone of Proximal Development” is the range in which students can learn range in which students can learn concepts they do not know -- if they are concepts they do not know -- if they are provided help (supporting language) from provided help (supporting language) from a teacher.a teacher.

Social Constructivist Views (Cont.)Social Constructivist Views (Cont.)

Students can learn things below their Students can learn things below their Zone of Proximal Development easily Zone of Proximal Development easily without support.without support.

Students cannot learn things above Students cannot learn things above their Zone of Proximal Development their Zone of Proximal Development without support.without support.

Readiness Readiness vs. vs.

Zone of Proximal DevelopmentZone of Proximal Development “ “Readiness” theorists believe teachers Readiness” theorists believe teachers

must wait until students have developed must wait until students have developed to the appropriate stage before the to the appropriate stage before the students can manage a set of new students can manage a set of new knowledge or concepts.knowledge or concepts.

““Zone of Proximal Development” theorists Zone of Proximal Development” theorists propose that teachers can move students propose that teachers can move students to new knowledge and concepts by to new knowledge and concepts by recognizing students’ “zone” and recognizing students’ “zone” and supplying appropriate “Scaffolding” or supplying appropriate “Scaffolding” or support. support.

Comparison of the Comparison of the Transmission view of Transmission view of

information processing information processing with the Construction view of with the Construction view of

information processinginformation processing

See Chart P. 341See Chart P. 341Good and Brophy Good and Brophy

Sociocultural View of Teaching and LearningSociocultural View of Teaching and Learning

Socioculturalists view learning as Socioculturalists view learning as “cognitive apprentiships” under the “cognitive apprentiships” under the supervision of one or more mentors.supervision of one or more mentors.

They believe learning should take They believe learning should take place in “communities of practice” in place in “communities of practice” in which novices begin learning by which novices begin learning by participating in beginning levels of participating in beginning levels of activities with “expert” supervision activities with “expert” supervision and direction.and direction.

Sociocultural View of Teaching and Learning Sociocultural View of Teaching and Learning (Cont.)(Cont.)

Socioculturalists emphasize the Socioculturalists emphasize the importance of learning taking place in importance of learning taking place in authentic, natural settings.authentic, natural settings.

Such settings afford easier conceptual Such settings afford easier conceptual transference to “real world settings.”transference to “real world settings.”

To apply these ideas in school settings, To apply these ideas in school settings, teachers must consider how learning will teachers must consider how learning will be applied and how classroom instruction be applied and how classroom instruction can model that application.can model that application.

Scaffolding – What Teacher Can DoScaffolding – What Teacher Can Do

Develop student interest (Preview goal)Develop student interest (Preview goal)

Cognitive modeling – (Think out loud)Cognitive modeling – (Think out loud)

Ideal version – (Model correct action)Ideal version – (Model correct action)

Simplify task – (Break task down and reduce the Simplify task – (Break task down and reduce the number of required steps)number of required steps)

Prompts or cues – (Give hints to help students Prompts or cues – (Give hints to help students who are temporarily “stuck”)who are temporarily “stuck”)

Scaffolding – What Teacher Can Do (Cont.)Scaffolding – What Teacher Can Do (Cont.)

Control frustration and risk – (Provide Control frustration and risk – (Provide tasks within students’ “zone”)tasks within students’ “zone”)

Provide critical feedback (Identify Provide critical feedback (Identify discrepancies between student discrepancies between student performance and ideal performance)performance and ideal performance)

Attend to student motivation and goal Attend to student motivation and goal achievement (Monitor effort and achievement (Monitor effort and achievement carefully)achievement carefully)

Transfer responsibility for learning Transfer responsibility for learning (Gradually transfer management of (Gradually transfer management of learning to the students)learning to the students)

A Note of CautionA Note of Caution Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)

Fifty years of research indicates that Fifty years of research indicates that minimally guided instruction is less minimally guided instruction is less effective than instruction in which the effective than instruction in which the teacher structures and scaffolds student teacher structures and scaffolds student learning.learning.

Minimally guided learning is effectively Minimally guided learning is effectively ONLY ONLY when students have enough prior when students have enough prior knowledge to allow them to self-regulate knowledge to allow them to self-regulate their learning.their learning.

Subject-Specific Examples of Subject-Specific Examples of Constructivist TeachingConstructivist Teaching

NOTE: See Pages 347-349 (Good and NOTE: See Pages 347-349 (Good and Brophy) for specific examples of Brophy) for specific examples of subject-specific examples of teaching subject-specific examples of teaching the following subjects:the following subjects:

– ReadingReading– WritingWriting– MathematicsMathematics– ScienceScience– Social Studies Social Studies

Important Considerations Related to Important Considerations Related to

Constructivist TeachingConstructivist Teaching When teachers engage students in When teachers engage students in

discussions or project learning, they discussions or project learning, they must provide emphasis on:must provide emphasis on:

– learning goalslearning goals– purpose of the learningpurpose of the learning– connections between lesson segmentsconnections between lesson segments– appropriate social interaction in groupsappropriate social interaction in groups

Important Considerations Related to Important Considerations Related to Constructivist Teaching (Cont.)Constructivist Teaching (Cont.)

According to Nuthall (2002) when using According to Nuthall (2002) when using constructivist techniques teachers must:constructivist techniques teachers must:

– Guard against misinformation from students’ Guard against misinformation from students’ peerspeers

– Provide 3-4 high quality exposures to new Provide 3-4 high quality exposures to new concepts, no more than 2 days apart for it to concepts, no more than 2 days apart for it to “take”“take”

Important Considerations Related to Important Considerations Related to Constructivist Teaching (Cont.)Constructivist Teaching (Cont.)

– Focus discussions on students’ shared Focus discussions on students’ shared experiences during learning (group experiences during learning (group work)work)

– Use small group learning more than Use small group learning more than whole groupwhole group

– Place limits on independent student Place limits on independent student workwork

Important Considerations Related to Important Considerations Related to Constructivist Teaching (Cont.)Constructivist Teaching (Cont.)

Constructivist learning appears most Constructivist learning appears most appropriate when the teacher wishes to appropriate when the teacher wishes to establish establish Knowledge NetworksKnowledge Networks or wants to or wants to emphasize emphasize Higher Order Thinking.Higher Order Thinking.

Young children or Limited English Learners Young children or Limited English Learners may not have the language skills may not have the language skills necessary for constructivist learning.necessary for constructivist learning.

Learners of any age may not have the Learners of any age may not have the prior knowledge necessary for effective prior knowledge necessary for effective constructivist learning.constructivist learning.

Final Notes on Constructivist Final Notes on Constructivist TeachingTeaching

Effective teaching blends instructional Effective teaching blends instructional approaches based on student approaches based on student characteristics and the learning goals.characteristics and the learning goals.

Well-rounded instructional programs Well-rounded instructional programs incorporate a range of curricular and incorporate a range of curricular and instructional elementsinstructional elements

All teaching approaches should attend to All teaching approaches should attend to the process of transferring responsibility the process of transferring responsibility for leaning from the teacher to the for leaning from the teacher to the student, regardless of instructional student, regardless of instructional methodmethod

Final Notes on Constructivist Final Notes on Constructivist TeachingTeaching

Decisions about which teaching approach Decisions about which teaching approach to use for specific learning goals, and for to use for specific learning goals, and for unique student needs, ultimately are the unique student needs, ultimately are the choice of the trained professional in the choice of the trained professional in the classroom.classroom.

When teachers skillfully apply theories When teachers skillfully apply theories about teaching and learning to real-world about teaching and learning to real-world classrooms, they are demonstrating: classrooms, they are demonstrating:

The ART OF TEACHING! The ART OF TEACHING!