Chapter 10: The Federal Bureaucracy · bureaucracy. Article II, Section 2, ... The 15 cabinet departments are a major ... 1. CHAPTER 10: THE FEDERAL BUREAUCRACY

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They Have Your Number As anAmerican citizen you deal with several government bureaus and agencies. How isthe federal bureaucracy organized to serveyou and millions of other people? This chapter will help you answer that question.

To find out how the federal bureaucracy operates to help

Americans, view the Democracy in ActionChapter 10 video lesson:

The Federal Bureaucracy

Chapter Overview Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web siteat gov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter10—Overview to preview chapter information.

GOVERNMENT

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http://www.gov.glencoe.com

Bureaucratic OrganizationS e c t i o n 1S e c t i o n 1

Hundreds of agencies like the FBI help tomake up the federal bureaucracy. Mostof these departments and agencies arepart of the executive branch that carries

out the laws passed by Congress. The people whowork for these organizations are called bureau-crats, or civil servants.

The federal bureaucracy is organized into de-partments, agencies, boards, commissions, corpo-rations, and advisory committees. Most of theseorganizations are responsible to the president, al-though some of them report to Congress. Acts ofCongress created almost all of them.

The Constitution provides indirectly for thebureaucracy. Article II, Section 2, states that:

“He [the president] may require the Opin-ion, in writing, of the principal Officer ineach of the executive Departments, uponany subject relating to the Duties of theirrespective Offices, . . .”—The Constitution

Article II also gives the president the powerto appoint the heads of those departments.

Thus, the Founders anticipated the need for creating federal agencies that would carry on the day-to-day business of government. Atthe same time they would probably be shockedby the size the federal bureaucracy has grown to today.

In the early years of the Republic, the feder-al bureaucracy was quite small. When Jeffersonbecame president in 1801, the federal govern-ment employed only 2,120 people. These employees were mainly commissioners of Na-tive American affairs, postmasters, customscollectors, tax collectors, marshalls, and clerks.

Today, nearly 3 million civilians work forthe federal government. Federal agencies are located in more than 440,000 buildingsscattered across the nation and around theworld.

Plans to Investigate FBI WASHINGTON, D.C., JUNE 20, 2001

Two senators—Charles

Schumer, a Demo-

crat from New York, and

Orrin Hatch, a Republi-

can from Utah—intro-

duced legislation calling

for a thorough review of

the FBI by a commission

of law enforcement ex-

perts. They identified

record-keeping and data

retrieval as important areas to be examined. Less than

an hour later, U.S. Attorney General John Ashcroft

called for a thorough investigation. The probe is an

effort to respond to increasing criticism of the FBI

surrounding several investigations, raids, and internal

problems.

Aerial view of Washington, D.C.▲

Reader’s Guide

Key Termsbureaucrat, embassy, government corporation,deregulate, procurement

Find Out■ What is the general organizational structure of

the 15 cabinet level departments?■ How are independent government agencies

different from regulatory commissions?

Understanding Concepts Public Policy How does government bureaucracyserve the executive branch in carrying out the willof the people’s representatives?

FBI Seal

CHAPTER 10: THE FEDERAL BUREAUCRACY 275

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The Cabinet DepartmentsThe 15 cabinet departments are a majorpart of the federal bureaucracy. One of

President Washington’s first acts in 1789 was to askCongress to create the Departments of Treasury,State, and War and the office of attorney general.Since 1789, 11 additional departments have beencreated. A secretary who is a member of the presi-dent’s cabinet heads each of the departments in theexecutive branch. Departments usually have a sec-ond in command, called the deputy secretary orunder secretary. In addition, departments have as-sistant secretaries. The president appoints all theseofficials.

The next level under these top officials in-cludes the directors of the major units that makeup the cabinet department, along with their assis-tants. These units have various names, includingbureau, agency, office, administration, or division.

The top officials in each department—the secre-taries, agency directors, deputy directors, and theirassistants—set overall department policy. Thesetop leaders rely on ideas and information from ca-reer officials who are specialists and business man-agers in the department. Often, these careerworkers, who frequently have many years of expe-rience, do the research to provide the alternativesfrom which the top leaders choose.

Department of State The secretary of state isone of the president’s most trusted advisers. TheDepartment of State is responsible for the overallforeign policy of the United States. The agency alsoprotects the rights of United States citizens travel-ing in foreign countries. It staffs embassies, or of-fices of ambassadors in foreign countries, analyzesdata about American interests in other countries,and speaks for the United States in the United Nations.

276 CHAPTER 10: THE FEDERAL BUREAUCRACY

Critical Thinking Presidents throughout American history have given their cabinet members varying degrees of authority. Why might the president call on the secretary of transportation to deal with drug smuggling along the Pacific Coast?

Departments Year Established

The Cabinet DepartmentsThe Cabinet Departments

Defense Department

State Department

Treasury Department

Interior Department

Agriculture Department

Justice Department

Commerce Department

Labor Department

Housing and Urban Development Department

Transportation Department

Energy Department

Health and Human Services Department

Education Department

Veterans Affairs Department

Department of Homeland Security

1789

1789

1789

1849

1862

1870

1903

1913

1965

1966

1977

1979

1979

1989

2002

Originally the Department of War, it became the Defense Department in 1949

Originally named the Department of Foreign Affairs

Before 1870 the attorney general was a cabinet officer but not head of the department

These became separate departments in 1979. They were established in 1953 as the Health, Education, and Welfare Department.

Originally a bureau within the Department of Commerce

Source: thomas.loc.gov.

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Department of the Treasury Managing the monetary resources of the United States is the primary responsibility of the Department ofthe Treasury. The Bureau of the Mint manufac-tures coins. The Bureau of Engraving and Printingproduces paper money. The Treasury Departmentalso oversees a variety of other duties. Onebranch—the Internal Revenue Service—is thelargest bureau in the Treasury Department. TheIRS is responsible for operating the nation’s taxcode and collecting those taxes each year.The Bureau of Public Debt is responsible for borrowing the additional money needed to operate the federal government.

Department of the Interior To protect public lands and natural resources throughoutthe nation and to oversee relations with NativeAmericans,Congress established the Departmentof the Interior in 1849. The Bureau of Mineshelps oversee the mining of natural resources.The National Park Service manages nationalmonuments, historic sites, and national parks.

Department of Agriculture Created tohelp farmers improve their incomes and expandtheir markets, the Department of Agriculture develops conservation programs and provides financial credit to farmers. It also safeguards the nation’s food supply.

Department of Justice Congress establishedthe office of attorney general in 1789 to oversee thenation’s legal affairs. The Department of Justicewas created in 1870.Among its well-known agenciesare the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), theU.S. Marshals Service, and the Drug EnforcementAdministration (DEA). The Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice enforces antitrustlaws. The Civil Rights Division helps enforce civilrights legislation.

Department of Commerce To promote andprotect the industrial and commercial segmentsof the American economy, the Department ofCommerce was founded in 1903. Three agenciesof this department carry out constitutional direc-tives. The Bureau of the Census counts the peopleevery 10 years. Census figures are used to redrawcongressional district boundaries. The Patent

and Trademark Office issues patents for newinventions and registers trademarks. The NationalInstitute of Standards and Technology providesuniform standards for weights and measurements.

Department of Labor Congress created theDepartment of Labor in 1913. Charged with pro-tecting American workers, the department ensuressafe working conditions, safeguards a minimumwage, and protects pension rights. The Bureau ofLabor Statistics analyzes data on employment,wages, and compensation. The Office of the Amer-ican Workplace encourages cooperation betweenlabor and management.

Department of Defense First called the De-partment of War and then the United States Mili-tary Establishment until 1949, the Department ofDefense protects the nation’s security. Through theJoint Chiefs of Staff—the leaders of the Army, Navy,Marines, and Air Force—it oversees the armedforces. The government cut back the Defense bud-get after the Cold War ended, but budgets have sinceincreased due to the war on terrorism.

Neither Rain, Nor Sleet . . . Nor Meteors Since the U.S. Postal Servicewas established in 1777, it has tried to delivermail as rapidly as possible, using stagecoach,steamboat, automobile, airplane . . . and rocket!On June 8, 1959, a guided missile delivered3,000 letters from the navy submarine U.S.S.Barbero to a U.S. naval station in Mayport,Florida. Included in the mail was a letter writtenby President Dwight Eisenhower. The postmastergeneral at the time, Arthur E. Summerfield, said,“Before man reaches the moon, mail will bedelivered within hours from New York toCalifornia, to Britain, to India or Australia byguided missiles.” Needless to say, Summerfield’sprediction didn’t come true.

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helps senior citizens and less fortunate Americansthrough the Social Security Administration. Per-haps the most visible part of the Department ofHealth and Human Services—particularly since theoutbreak of the AIDS epidemic in the early 1980s—


Critical Thinking Each department in the cabinet is responsible for carrying out its duties as mandated by Congress. The Department of Homeland Security, established in 2002, coordinates many government agencies that work collectively to protect the nation from terrorism. What division within the Department of Homeland Security is responsible for patrolling the nation's waterways?

Sources: Homeland Security Act of 2002; Department of Homeland Security Reorganization Plan. This chart includes the major divisions of the Department of Homeland Security as described in the above sources.

Metropolitan MedicalResponse System

Office of Emergency Preparedness

Domestic EmergencySupport Teams

U.S. Customs

Transportation Security Administration

Bureau of Border Security

Office for DomesticPreparedness

Information Analysis

Infrastructure Protection

Information Analysis andInfrastructure Protection

Homeland SecurityAdvanced Research Projects Agency

Office for NationalLaboratories

Science and Technology

Bureau of Citizenshipand Immigration

Deputy Secretary

SECRETARY

Chief of Immigration

Management

Statistics

Shared Services

Chief Financial Officer

Inspector General

Chief Information Officer

Privacy Officer

Counter-Narcotics Officer

Chief Human Capital Officer

Office of National CapitalRegion Coordination

Secret Service

Coast Guard

Office of International Affairs

Office for State and Local Government Coordination

Office for Civil Rightsand Civil Liberties

General Counsel

Border and Transportation Security

Emergency Preparedness and Response

Federal EmergencyManagement Agency

Nuclear IncidentResponse Team

Strategic NationalStockpile

National DisasterMedical System

The Department of Homeland SecurityThe Department of Homeland Security

Department of Health and Human ServicesDirecting programs concerned with the health andsocial services needs of the American people is theresponsibility of this department. It also managesthe federal Medicare and Medicaid programs and

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has been the Public Health Service. This agencyhelps implement a national health policy, conductsmedical research, and ensures the safety of food anddrugs. The Food and Drug Administration inspectsfood and drug processing plants and approves newdrugs for treatment of diseases.

Department of Housing and Urban Development This department was created in1965 to preserve the nation’s communities and ensureAmericans of equal housing opportunities. The Gov-ernment National Mortgage Association helps makemortgage money available for people to buy homes.

Department of Transportation The Depar-tment of Transportation is divided into separateagencies to help it regulate all aspects of Americantransportation needs, policy development, andplanning. The Federal Aviation Administrationregulates air travel. The Federal Railroad Adminis-tration oversees the nation’s railroads. The highwaysthat crisscross the country are regulated by theFederal Highway Administration, and the FederalTransit Administration is responsible for thenation’s mass transit.

Department of Energy Created in 1977 in re-sponse to an energy shortage, the Department ofEnergy gathered together many separate policygroups. Some of these groups sprang from theManhattan Project, which developed and testedthe nation’s first atomic bomb. The Department ofEnergy plans energy policy and researches and de-velops energy technology.

Department of Education An educatedpopulation of informed citizens is an essential fea-ture of a democratic government. In 1979 Congresscreated the Department of Education to coordinatefederal assistance programs for public and privateschools. Today the department oversees programsto help students with limited English proficiency aswell as programs for physically challenged students.

Department of Veterans Affairs Foundedin 1989, this department was formerly known as theVeterans Administration. It administers several hos-pitals as well as educational and other programs de-signed to benefit veterans and their families.

Department of Homeland Security Theterrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, led to the

Independent AgenciesThe federal bureaucracy also contains over100 independent organizations that are not

part of these departments. The president appointsthe heads of these agencies.

A few of these agencies are almost as large andwell known as cabinet departments. One example isthe National Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA). Most independent agencies have fewemployees, small budgets, and little publicity. Oneexample of this type of agency is the American BattleMonuments Commission.

Federal Assistance The Department ofEducation helps schools meet the specialneeds of students who are disadvantaged orhave disabilities. What might be a nationalgoal of the Department of Education?

creation of this department in 2002. It controls theCoast Guard, the Border Patrol, the Immigrationand Naturalization Service, the Customs Service,the Federal Emergency Management Agency, andmany other agencies. It also analyzes informationcollected by the FBI and the CIA.

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Assisting the Executive Branch Some in-dependent agencies perform services for the exec-utive branch. The General Services Administration(GSA) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)are two examples. The General Services Adminis-tration is responsible for constructing and main-taining all government buildings. It also suppliesequipment for federal offices. The NationalArchives and Records Administration maintainsgovernment records and publishes all rules apply-ing to various federal agencies.

The Central Intelligence Agency provides avery different kind of service. The CIA gathers in-formation about what is going on in other coun-tries, evaluates it, and passes it on to the presidentand other foreign-policy decision makers. The CIAuses its own secret agents, paid informers, foreignnews sources, and friendly governments to collectsuch information.

Government Corporations Some indepen-dent agencies, such as the Small Business Adminis-tration, directly serve the public. Many of themajor agencies are government corporations, orbusinesses the federal government runs.

Today, the executive branch has at least 60 government corporations. The Tennessee ValleyAuthority (TVA) is one. The TVA has built damsand supplies electric power for an eight-state area.

The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation(FDIC) is also a government corporation. It in-sures bank accounts up to a certain amount. Ifa bank fails, the FDIC takes it over and repays the depositors.

The best known of the government corpora-tions is the U.S. Postal Service (USPS). Originallyan executive department called the Post Office De-partment, the USPS became a government corpo-ration in 1970. As an executive department, thepost office consistently lost money. Since becom-ing a corporation, the USPS has done a better jobof balancing its budget. This is, in part, becauseCongress passed legislation giving the USPS “theexclusive right, with certain limited exceptions,to carry letters for others.” Only the USPS may deliver first-class mail.

Government corporations are organizedsomewhat like private businesses. Each has a boardof directors and executive officers who direct theday-to-day operations. Government corporationsare supposed to be more flexible than regular gov-ernment agencies. They are more likely to takerisks and to find innovative solutions to the chal-lenges they are confronting. Most of the corpora-tions earn money that is put back into the“business.” Unlike private businesses, however,money from Congress—not funds from privateinvestors—supports government corporations.


A Bureaucratic CelebrityNASA, an independent agency,gained further recognition by inaugurating a new era in spaceexploration with the MarsPathfinder. The Pathfinderspacecraft landed on Mars onJuly 4, 1997, and became thefirst mobile explorer of anotherplanet. It also sent back toEarth the first high-resolutioncolor images of Mars. Analyzewhy achievements such asNASA’s mission to Mars areimportant to the continuedexistence of federal agencies.

Finding A New Path

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Regulatory CommissionsRegulatory commissions occupy a specialplace in the federal bureaucracy. They are

independent of all three branches of the nationalgovernment. To keep the regulatory commissionsimpartial, Congress has been careful to protectthem from political pressure. Each commissionhas from 5 to 11 commissioners whom the presi-dent appoints with Senate consent. The terms ofoffice of these board members are long—in somecases, as long as 14 years—and the starting dates ofthe terms are staggered. Unlike other bureaucrats,these commissioners do not report to the presi-dent, nor can the president fire them.

Purpose of the Commissions The inde-pendent regulatory commissions were created tomake rules for large industries and businesses thataffect the interests of the public. Commissions also regulate the conduct of these businesses andindustries. The regulatory agencies decide suchquestions as who will receive a license to operate a radio station or to build a natural gas pipeline to serve a large city. The commissions may also act as courts. They may investigate a business for breaking one of the commission’s rules. The

commission may hold hearings, collect evidence,and set penalties for any business that violates the rules.

Some Problems Decisions of regulatory com-missions can involve millions of dollars and great-ly affect businesses. As a result, these agencies areoften under intense pressure from lobbyists.Lawyers for industries that the commissions regu-late have sometimes tried to go in the “back door”to argue their clients’ cases in private with agencyofficials.

Critics of the commissions also charge that thecommissions and the industries they are supposedto regulate sometimes have a “revolving door” re-lationship. Commissioners often are former exec-utives in a regulated industry and sometimes leavethe commission for high-paying jobs in the sameindustry. As a result, critics charge, some commis-sioners have seemed more interested in protectingregulated industries than in making sure that theyserve the public interest.

Others point out that most agencies have hada good record of protecting the public interest. TheSecurities and Exchange Commission, for exam-ple, has protected investors in the stock marketfrom fraud.

281

Social Security

I f you have a part-time job, 6.2 percent of yourpay is probably being deducted for Social Secu-rity taxes. The programs funded by such deduc-

tions provide important benefits for workers andtheir families.

Eligibility for Social Security benefits depends on how much you earn and how long you contribute to the Social Security system. Forexample, to receive monthly payments when youretire, you must accumulate at least 40 work credits. You can receive up to 4 credits a year,based on your earnings. Currently, Social Securityretirement benefits provide about 42 percent of a worker’s salary.

In addition, statistics show that you haveabout a 3-in-10 chance of becoming unable to

work before you reachage 65. If you are dis-abled for a year or more,Social Security will paymonthly benefits to helpmake up for your loss ofincome. In many cases,minor children of dis-abled, deceased, or re-tired workers are also eligible for benefits.

An Informed Citizen How might the fact that people are living much longer after retirementaffect Social Security benefits in the future?

A C T I V I T YA C T I V I T Yarticipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T articipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T

Contributing taxes to Social Security

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282 The lower half of the chart represents the federal bureaucracy, one of the most powerful forces in the government. How do government corporations differ from private businesses?Critical Thinking

CONSTITUTION

President

Congress Supreme Court

THE CABINET

LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

EXECUTIVE BRANCH

JUDICIAL BRANCH

SELECTED INDEPENDENT ESTABLISHMENTS AND GOVERNMENT CORPORATIONS

Agriculture

Commerce

Defense

Education

Energy

Health and Human Services

Homeland Security

Housing and Urban Development

Interior

Justice

Labor

State

Transportation

Treasury

Veterans’ Affairs

Executive Office of the President

Senate

House

Architect of the Capitol

U.S. Botanic Garden

General Accounting Office

Government Printing Office

Library of Congress

Congressional Budget Office

National Economic Council National AIDS Policy

White House Office Vice President

Management and Budget

U.S. Trade Representative

Council of Economic Advisers

Council on Environmental Quality

National SecurityCouncil

Science and Technology Policy

National DrugControl Policy Administration

GlobalCommunications

National Science and Technology Council

Domestic PolicyCouncil USA Freedom Corps

U.S. Courts of Appeals

U.S. District Courts

U.S. Court of International Trade

U.S. Bankruptcy Courts

U.S. Court of Appeals for theArmed Forces

U.S. Court of Appeals forVeterans’ Claims

Administrative Office of theU.S. Courts

U.S. Sentencing Commission

U.S. Court of Federal Claims

U.S. Tax Court

Federal Judicial Center

African Development Foundation

Central Intelligence Agency

Commission on Civil Rights

Consumer Product Safety Commission

Environmental Protection Agency

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

Export–Import Bank of the U.S.

Farm Credit Administration

Federal Communications Commission

Federal Election Commission

Federal Housing Finance Board

Federal Maritime Commission

Federal Reserve System

Federal Trade Commission

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

National Archives andRecords Administration

National Endowment forthe Arts

National Labor Relations Board

National Science Foundation

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Office of Government Ethics

Office of Personnel Management

Office of Special Counsel

Peace Corps

Securities and Exchange Commission

Selective Service System

Small Business Administration

Social Security Administration

Source: www.firstgov.gov.

The Government of the United StatesThe Government of the United States

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Deregulation In a 1976 campaign speech, pres-idential candidate Jimmy Carter called for a reduc-tion in the number of federal agencies. He cited theincreasing difficulty of tracking the effectiveness ofexisting programs in an overregulated society. Ac-cording to Carter:

“We need increased program evaluation.Many programs fail to define with anyspecificity what they intend to accomplish.Without that specification, evaluation byobjective is impossible. . . .”—Jimmy Carter, 1976

In recent years Congress has responded tocomplaints of overregulation by taking steps toderegulate, or reduce the powers of regulatoryagencies. In 1978, for example, Congress orderedthe Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) to simplify itsprocedures and cut back on regulation of the air-lines. Congress also set a deadline that specified thatthe CAB was to go out of business in the year 1985.

Deregulation was a major issue in the 1980s and1990s. As Republicans pushed for regulatory reform,President Clinton proposed to “reinvent govern-ment.” He signed an executive order that requiredfederal regulations to avoid imposing undue eco-nomic burdens on businesses without assessing theircosts and benefits. In addition, Congress passedderegulation laws dealing with paperwork reduction,risk assessment, and private-property rights.

Cutting the Federal Workforce One wayto cut costs was to reduce the number of workersin federal agencies. After a study by Vice PresidentAl Gore, the administration proposed a reductionof the federal workforce by 252,000 in 6 years.Congress passed a bill requiring the reductionsand provided cash incentives for workers to resign.It wrote into law a bill that would reduce the size ofthe Department of Agriculture, cutting 7,500 jobsby 1999.

In 1994 Congress eliminated much of the fed-eral regulation of the trucking industry and cutback the role of the Interstate Commerce Com-mission (ICC). Then, before the end of 1995, itpassed a bill eliminating the ICC altogether. Someemployees were transferred to the TransportationDepartment. The ICC was the oldest federal regu-latory agency, founded in 1887.

Promoting Competition Both the presidentand Congress seemed to agree on the need to pro-mote competition in traditionally regulated indus-tries. Sweeping legislation rewrote the rules fortelecommunications in 1996 as the president andCongress worked together in an effort to make theregulatory agencies themselves more efficient. Con-gress passed legislation streamlining regulation ofthe securities industry. Following a 1994 study, Con-gress also streamlined federal purchasing by repeal-ing 300 laws that had made procurement, orpurchasing of materials, complicated.

Sect ion 1 Re v iewSect ion 1 Re v iewSect ion 1 AssessmentSect ion 1 Assessment

Public Policy Imagine that you are on a presi-dential commission looking into the establish-ment of a new executive department. Decide on an important issue facing the country today.Think of a new executive department to deal with this issue. Present your suggestion, with rea-sons, as an oral presentation to the commission.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Using a Venn diagram like the one

to the right, analyze how regulatory commissions and independent agencies are alike and how they are different.

2. Define bureaucrat, embassy, government corporation, deregulate, procurement.

3. Identify Department of State, Department of the Treasury.

4. How are cabinet departments organized?

Critical Thinking5. Making Inferences Why is it important that

regulatory commissions be free from politicalpressures?


RegulatoryCommissions

IndependentAgenciesboth

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Many people think of a federal bureau-crat as a pencil pusher shuffling pa-pers in Washington, D.C. This image,however, is not accurate for two rea-

sons. First, only 11 percent of all federal govern-ment employees work in Washington, D.C. Therest of them work in regional and local offices scat-tered across the United States and the world. Sec-ond, FBI agents, forest rangers, and air-trafficcontrollers are as much a part of the federal bu-reaucracy as are secretaries and file clerks. Theiractivities have little to do with bureaucratic paper-work.

Federal government employees play a vital rolein assuring the smooth functioning of the UnitedStates government. President Eisenhower ad-dressed this role when he said:

“The government of the United States hasbecome too big, too complex, and too per-vasive in its influence on all our lives forone individual to pretend to direct the de-tails of its important and critical program-ming. Competent assistants aremandatory.” —Dwight D. Eisenhower

Who are the people who work for the manydepartments and agencies that make up the fed-eral bureaucracy? The typical man or woman inthe federal service is more than 40 years old andhas worked for the government for about 15years. The majority of federal civilian employeesearn between $25,000 and $50,000 per year.

About 30 percent of federal workers aremembers of minority groups, compared withabout 22 percent in the private workforce.Women make up about 44 percent of federalworkers, roughly the same percentage ofwomen as in the total labor force. A recent survey found that 30 percent of all federal employees had family members who alsoworked for the government.

The Civil Service SystemS e c t i o n 2S e c t i o n 2

Mail Scandal Spurs Reform

WASHINGTON, D.C., 1881

President James

Garfield has re-

leased the results of

an investigation into

allegations against

western mail carri-

ers. The New York

Times had charged

the carriers with

billing the govern-

ment unjustified

thousands of dollars for mail delivery. The mail

carriers claim that delivering to remote areas is very

expensive. However, the investigation verified the

Times claim that many of these highly paid carriers

are friends of government officials, and that some

deliver mail to places on their routes only three times

a year. These revelations have outraged many people

and strengthened calls for civil service reform.

19th-century mail carrier


Reader’s Guide

Key Termsspoils system, civil service system

Find Out■ How did the civil service system attempt to

reform the spoils system? ■ What is the difference between a civil servant

and a political appointee?

Understanding ConceptsCivic Participation How does the civil service system provide access to government jobs?

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Federal workers hold agreat variety of jobs. Abouthalf of the federal employeesare administrative and cleri-cal workers. The govern-ment also employs doctors,veterinarians, lawyers, car-tographers, scientists, engi-neers, accountants, andmany other professionals.

OriginsToday almost all fed-eral jobs are filled

through the competitive civilservice system. This system,however, was not in placewhen our government was established.

The Spoils SystemGeorge Washington declaredthat he appointed govern-ment officials according to“fitness of character.” At thesame time, however, he did favor members of the Federalist Party.

When Thomas Jefferson entered the WhiteHouse, he found most federal workers opposedhim and his political ideas. Consequently, Jeffersonfired hundreds of workers who were Federalists. Hereplaced these workers with people from his ownpolitical party, the Democratic-Republican Party.

By the time Andrew Jackson became presi-dent in 1829, the federal government had begun togrow. Jackson fired about 1,000 federal workersand gave their jobs to his own political supporters.Jackson defended his actions by arguing that it wasmore democratic to have rotation in office. Longservice in the same jobs by any group of workers,he claimed, would only promote tyranny.

A New York senator at the time put it anotherway. He defended Jackson’s actions by stating, “Tothe victor belong the spoils.” The spoils systemcame to be the phrase that was used for Jackson’smethod of appointing federal workers. Today, theterm spoils system describes the practice of victo-rious politicians rewarding their followers withgovernment jobs.

For the next 50 years, national, state, and local politicians used the spoils system to fill bureaucratic positions. Political supporters of can-didates expected to be rewarded with jobs if theircandidate won. As the federal government grewlarger, the spoils system flourished.

Calls for Reform The spoils system fosteredinefficiency and corruption. Inefficiency grew be-cause, as government became more complex,many jobs required expert staff members. Yet mostfederal workers were not experts in their jobs.Their special talents lay in working in electioncampaigns to secure victory for their candidates.

Corruption developed as people used theirjobs for personal gain. Government employees didspecial favors for interest groups in return for po-litical support for their candidates. Jobs were oftenbought and sold. People made large profits fromgovernment contracts. Bureaucrats regularly gavejobs to their friends rather than the lowest bidder.

In the 1850s groups of citizens began to call forreforms. Influential newspapers and magazinespointed out the problems with the spoils system.


Not Your Typical Office This National Park Service ranger is actually a federal bureaucrat. A ranger’s office may be a national park,a national monument, or a national historic site. Park rangers patrol theparklands to protect them from damage and help visitors. What otherbureaucratic jobs besides park rangers offer people opportunitiesto work outside the nation’s capital?

A Federal Bureaucrat

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federal workers. The Merit System ProtectionBoard settles job disputes and investigates com-plaints from federal workers.

The Civil Service System TodayHas the present civil service system creatednew problems while solving those problems

linked with the spoils system?

Getting a Job Competition for federal jobstoday is stiff. In recent years every job opening hashad about 76 applicants. This competition willprobably continue. While the federal bureaucracyis huge, the number of federal jobs has notchanged much since 1950. Yet the number of peo-ple wanting federal jobs keeps on increasing.

The Office of Personnel Management, alongwith individual agencies, is responsible for fillingfederal jobs. Job notices are usually posted in postoffices, newspapers, and Federal Job InformationCenters located in many communities.

Most secretarial and clerical jobs require theapplicant to take a written examination. For otherjobs such as accountants, social workers, man-agers, and so on, applicants are evaluated on thebasis of training and experience. Veterans are givenspecial preference.


Patronage SystemPoliticians often bestowedfederal jobs on friends and family members, as is shown in this 1800s cartoon. Many of these people proved ill-equippedfor their jobs and weremainly interested in makingthemselves rich. Whatdoes the umbrella in thecartoon symbolize?

A System of Corruption

President Grant, whose own administration wasfilled with corruption, persuaded Congress in 1871to set up the first Civil Service Commission.By 1875, however, reform efforts faltered as Con-gress failed to appropriate money for the newcommission.

It took a tragedy to restart the reform effort. In1881 President James A. Garfield ignored CharlesGuiteau’s requests for a job in the diplomatic ser-vice. Infuriated at not being appointed, Guiteaushot President Garfield in the back at a Washing-ton railway station on July 2, 1881. Garfield died 80days later.

The Pendleton Act The public was outraged.Chester A. Arthur, the new president, pushed hardfor reform. In 1883 Congress passed the PendletonAct, creating the present federal civil service sys-tem. The civil service system is the principle andpractice of government employment on the basisof open, competitive examinations and merit. Thelaw set up the Civil Service Commission to admin-ister examinations and supervise the operation ofthe new system.

The Civil Service Commission operated for 95years. In 1979, two new agencies replaced it. TheOffice of Personnel Management handles recruit-ment, pay, retirement policy, and examinations for

“PUBLIC OFFICE IS A ‘FAMILY SNAP’.”

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Benefits and Problems Government jobsare attractive because of the many benefits theyoffer. Salaries are competitive with those in privateindustry. Federal workers get from 13 to 26 days ofpaid vacation every year, depending on the lengthof their service. They have extensive health insur-ance plans and 13 days of sick leaveevery year. Government workersmay retire at age 55. If they retire be-fore then, their monthly benefitpayment will be reduced.

Each government job is as-signed a certain grade ranging fromGS-l, the lowest level, to GS-15, thehighest. All civil service workershave job security. They may be fired,but only for specific reasons andonly after a very long, complex se-ries of hearings. Many supervisorsand top officials find it is easier toput up with an incompetent workerthan fire one.

Thus, an ironic situation has de-veloped. On the one hand, the civilservice was designed to hire federalworkers on merit and protect themfrom being fired for political rea-sons. In achieving this goal, howev-er, the system also helps protect asmall number of incompetent andinefficient employees.

The Hatch Act The Hatch Actlimits how involved federal govern-ment employees can become inelections. In 1939 Congress passedthis law—named after its chiefsponsor, Senator Carl Hatch—toprevent a political party from usingfederal workers in election cam-paigns. If that happened, it wouldraise the dangerous possibility thatworkers’ promotions and job securi-ty could depend on their support ofcandidates from the party in power.

The law has been controversialsince its passage, and its constitu-tionality has been the subject of twoSupreme Court decisions. Manyfederal workers dislike the Hatch

Act, arguing that the law violates freedom ofspeech. They also claim the act discourages politicalparticipation by people who may be well-informedabout political issues.

Supporters of the Hatch Act believe it is neededto keep the federal civil service politically neutral.


816,886

1,034,152

248,174

158,655

122,594

83,932

847,821

671,591

225,893

148,186

108,540

127,783

�3.8

�35.1

�9.0

�6.6

�11.5

�52.2

Postal Service

Department ofDefense

Department ofVeterans Affairs

Department ofthe Treasury

Department ofAgriculture

Department ofJustice

EmployerEmployees,

1990Employees,

2001PercentChange

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2002 (Washington, D.C.: 2002).

Note: Current figures do not reflect the Department of Homeland Security reorganization.

Some civil service branches have increased their number of employees, while others have not. Why do you think employment increased in the Department of Justice but decreased in the Department of Defense?

Critical Thinking

Civil ServiceCivil Service

847,821

671,591

225,893

148,186 108,540 127,783

Postal Service

Departmentof Defense

Departmentof Veterans

Affairs

Departmentof the

Treasury

Departmentof

Agriculture

Departmentof

Justice

Six Largest Civil Service Employers, 2001

Changes in Civil Service Employment

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They claim the act protects workers from politicalpressure from superiors. They also argue it helpsprevent employees from using their governmentpositions to punish or influence people for politi-cal purposes.

In 1993 Congress revised the act to tighten on-the-job restrictions while loosening up off-duty lim-its on those employed by the federal government. Asamended, the Hatch Act prohibits federal employeesfrom engaging in political activities while on duty,including wearing a campaign button. While offduty, federal workers are allowed to hold office in apolitical party, participate in political campaigns andrallies, publicly endorse candidates, and raise politi-cal funds from within their own governmentagency’s political action committee. However, theycannot run for partisan elective offices or solicit con-tributions from the general public.

Political Appointees in Government

In each presidential election year, the Houseor Senate publishes a book known by Wash-

ington insiders as the plum book. The word plumstands for political plum—a job the new presidentmay fill. The plum book lists all such jobs.

Upon taking office every president has thechance to fill about 2,200 top-level jobs in the federal bureaucracy. These jobs are outside thecivil service system. Those who fill these jobs aresometimes called unclassified employees, as op-posed to the classified employees hired by the civilservice system. About 10 percent of executivebranch jobs are appointed by the president. Theyinclude 15 cabinet secretaries, about 300 top-level

bureau and agency heads, over 170ambassadorships, and about 1,700aide and assistant positions.

Filling these jobs gives presidentsan opportunity to place loyal sup-porters in key positions. These politi-cal appointees head agencies, offices,and bureaus and make key politicaldecisions. They are expected to try to implement the president’s deci-sions. Unlike career civil serviceworkers, their employment usuallyends when a new president is elected.Who are the people with these plumpolitical jobs?

People at the Top The people appointed to the non-civil service po-sitions are first and foremost the pres-ident’s political supporters. Most arewell-educated. Nearly all are collegegraduates. The great majority have advanced degrees, mostly as lawyers.Others are successful leaders frombusinesses or professions.

The people holding these types ofpositions usually are not experts in thework of the agency they head, thoughthey may have served in governmentbefore. When the president leaves of-fice, most of them return to other jobsoutside the government.


Civil Servants at Work Beginning in the 1800s, civil service staffing has been largely based on merit. PresidentJimmy Carter urged Congress to pass the Civil Service ReformAct of 1978. This law reorganized and reformed the civil service.How do you think the qualifications for a civil servant oftoday might differ from those for a civil servant from themid-1800s? Describe the differences.

Federal Employees

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A Short Tenure Many new people enter thebureaucracy by presidential appointment. How-ever, these top political appointees hold their po-sitions for only a few years. Because federalagencies are so large and complex, the shorttenure makes it difficult for appointees to learnabout their jobs. It can take the head of a largeagency a year or more to learn all the issues, pro-grams, procedures, and personalities involved inrunning the agency. One new political appointeediscovered, “I was like a sea captain who finds

himself on the deck of a ship that he has neverseen before. I did not know the mechanism of myship, I did not know my officers—and I had no acquaintance with the crew.”

The result of the short tenures of presidentialappointees is that much of the real power overdaily operations remains with the career civil ser-vice officials. Many of their day-to-day decisionsdo not make headlines or the nightly newscast, butthey do shape the policy of the national govern-ment on key problems facing the nation.

Paring Down GovernmentHistorically the federal bureau-cracy has expanded to meet the increasing complexities andissues facing the government.How do you think the increas-ing size of the federal bureau-cracy affects the president’scontrol of the government?

A Ballooning Federal Bureaucracy

Sect ion 2 AssessmentSect ion 2 Assessment

Civic Participation Imagine that you want toobtain employment in a civil service position.You need to evaluate the negative and positiveaspects of such employment. Make a list ofthe pros and cons of a career in the civil ser-vice. Discuss your list with your classmates.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Using a graphic organizer like the one

below, note the advantages and disadvantages ofthe spoils system and the civil service system.

2. Define spoils system, civil service system.3. Identify Andrew Jackson, Pendleton Act,

Hatch Act.4. What two agencies now make up the former Civil

Service Commission?

Critical Thinking5. Synthesizing Information Why do you think

political supporters are so eager to fill the plum jobs?


Advantages Disadvantages

Spoils

Civil service

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290

Background of the CaseThe Hatch Act, passed by Congress in 1939,

limited federal employees’ participation in cam-paigns or political party activities. The law said fed-eral workers could not campaign for or against apolitical party, serve as an officer or delegate of aparty, raise funds for a party, or run for political of-fice. The purpose of the law was to protect democ-racy from the influence of partisan governmentemployees. The act did allow workers to vote, join apolitical party, attend political rallies, and expresstheir opinions.

In 1972, six federal employees, a union, andcertain local Democratic and Republican Party com-mittees claimed the act violated the First Amend-ment. A district court recognized a “well-establishedgovernmental interest in restricting political activi-ties by federal employees” but ruled the law was in-deed unconstitutional because it was too vague.The court held that free speech was so importantthat laws limiting speech had to be clear and pre-cise. The Supreme Court ruled on the case in 1973.

The Constitutional IssueThere was no question that the Hatch Act put

restrictions on free speech, but were such restric-tions justified? Over the years the Court had devel-oped the principle that the right to free speech wasnot absolute; Congress could put some limits onspeech when it was necessary in order to protectthe public good. Was this one of those times? TheCourt also asked whether the restrictions in the lawwere applied evenly and not aimed at particular political parties, groups, or points of view.

In its 1973 decision the Court referenced the1947 case of United Public Workers of America v.Mitchell. In that case George Poole, a federal work-er, lost his job for serving as a Democratic wardcommitteeperson and working as a poll watcher.The Court upheld the law’s limitations on politicalactivity, stating that Congress had the power to pass a law “to promote efficiency and integrity inthe public service.” Justice Hugo Black, in a strongdissent, stated that any law limiting speech mustbe “narrowly drawn to meet the evil aimed at.”

Questions to Consider1. What problem did the Hatch Act address? 2. Would allowing government employees to be-

come involved in political campaigns and activi-ties have positive or negative consequences?

3. Did the law’s aim outweigh the right to freedomof speech for government employees?

You Be the JudgeEarlier the Supreme Court had found the

Hatch Act to be constitutional. In your opinion,should that decision be overturned? Does the Hatch Act violate the First Amendment guaranteeof free speech, or is it an acceptable limitation on speech?

Debating the CaseDebating the Case

Do First Amendment guarantees of freedomof speech apply to

government workers? Should federal employees be free to participate in partisan political activities, or can Congress limit such participa-tion? The case of Civil Service Commission v. Letter Carriersaddressed this question.

Civil Service Commission v.Letter Carriers, 1973

CASES TO DEBATE

A government employee

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Simply defined, public policy is whatever action the government chooses to take or not to take. The decision of Congress,for example, to provide federal funds for

businesses run by disabled persons is a public-policy decision. The decision of the president torefuse to send military aid to a Latin Americancountry is also public policy.

In theory, federal bureaucrats only carry outthe policy decisions the president and Congressmake. In practice, however, federal bureaucratstoday also help make public policy. They often playkey roles both in choosing goals the governmentwill try to meet and in selecting programs toachieve those goals. By choosing what or what notto do in various situations, federal bureaucrats aresetting policy. Should people who were not elect-ed make policy? Administering federal programsseems to require that they do.

In recent years federal agencies have madekey decisions about many policy issues. These in-clude establishing safety requirements for nu-clear power plants and deciding the extent towhich the nation will depend on oil for energy.Federal agencies are also responsible for settingthe eligibility requirements for federal healthand welfare programs.

Influencing PolicyFederal bureaucrats help make policy inseveral ways. The most important of

these involves administering the hundreds ofprograms that have an impact on almost everyaspect of national life. Administering theseprograms requires federal bureaucrats to writerules and regulations and set standards to im-plement laws Congress passes.

Making Rules When Congress passes alaw, it cannot possibly spell out exactly whatneeds to be done to enforce it. The bureau-cracy shapes what the law actually means.

The Bureaucracy at WorkS e c t i o n 3S e c t i o n 3

Ban on Deadly SweatersWASHINGTON, D.C., DECEMBER 18, 1996

The Consumer Product

Safety Commission

(CPSC) today recalled

some 32,000 highly flam-

mable women’s and girls’

sweaters. The sweaters are

made of very soft- textured

chenille and come in a vari-

ety of styles and colors.

They sell for up to $130 in

department stores and

fashion boutiques across

the nation. The CPSC sur-

veyed over 100 stores in major U.S. cities to test for

the fire hazard. It found that the sweaters burned

faster than newspaper. The CPSC urges that con-

sumers immediately stop wearing any sweater they

believe may be involved in this recall and return it to

the retailer for a refund.

Shopping for chenille


Reader’s Guide

Key Termsclient group, liaison officer, injunction, iron triangle

Find Out■ What are the advantages and disadvantages

of bureaucrats taking a greater role in policymaking?

■ Why do you think people sometimes get frustrated with government bureaucracy?

Understanding ConceptsSeparation of Powers What role does the govern-ment bureaucracy play in setting policy?

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created guidelines for building contractors to fol-low when hiring minority employees. These guide-lines are used to decide whether contractors canwork on federally funded construction projects.The HUD guidelines have the force of law. In orderto work on the projects, contractors must followthem.

Paperwork For many years the number of rulesand regulations federal agencies issued had beengrowing. Agency regulations totaled more than50,000 printed pages a year. Along with more reg-ulations came more paperwork. More than 2 bil-lion forms were filled out and submitted to thefederal government each year. The Small BusinessAdministration estimated that companies spent atleast 1 billion hours per year filling out forms—ata cost of about $100 billion annually.

Congress in 1995 cleared a bill to reduce theamount of federal paperwork. The presidentsigned the bill, requiring the Office of Manage-ment and Budget director to set a paperwork re-duction goal of at least 10 percent in each of thefirst 2 years and 5 percent per year to fiscal 2001.

Involvement in Lawmaking The bureaucra-cy also shapes public policy by helping draft newbills for Congress, testifying about legislation, andproviding lawmakers with technical informationthey may not otherwise have access to. In addition,lawmakers know that it can be difficult to passmajor bills without the advice of the federal agen-cies most concerned with the bills’ contents.

Often, the ideas for new laws come from with-in the bureaucracy itself. Lawyers within the JusticeDepartment, for example, drafted the Safe StreetsAct of 1968, which created a new division withinthe Justice Department—the Law Enforcement

Assistance Administra-tion—that existed into the1980s. In the same way, bu-reaucrats in what is now theDepartment of Health andHuman Services, along withsome hospital administra-tors and labor unions,worked hard and over along period of time for thelaw that set up the Medicareprogram.

The chief way federal agencies do this is by issuingrules and regulations designed to translate the lawinto action. One study has shown that, on an aver-age, the bureaucracy formulates 20 rules or regula-tions to carry out each law.

In 1935, for example, Congress passed the Social Security Act establishing the Social Securitysystem. The law makes it possible for disabledworkers to receive payments from the government.What does the word disabled mean? Are workersdisabled if they can work only part-time? Are theydisabled if they can work, but not at the same jobthey once had?

The Social Security Administration in the De-partment of Health and Human Services has devel-oped 14 pages of rules and regulations describingdisability. These regulations even state what blind-ness means and specifically how it is to be mea-sured. Without such rules, people who are notblind might receive benefits they do not deserve. Atthe same time, the rules help ensure that anyonewho meets the established standard cannot unfair-ly be denied benefits. It is through thousands of de-cisions such as these that bureaucrats make federalgovernment policy affecting disabled people.

Often, rule making by federal agencies is thesame as lawmaking. For example, the Departmentof Housing and Urban Development (HUD) has

Federal Policy Deci-sions made by federalbureaucrats affect thelives of all Americansevery day. Why doyou think the Depart-ment of Health andHuman Services has14 pages of rules describing disability?

Bureaucratic Policy Making

292

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Settling Disputes Some federalagencies shape public policy by de-ciding disputes over the applicationof a law or set of rules. When agen-cies do this, they act almost ascourts. The regulatory commissionsin particular make government poli-cy in this way. They have the author-ity to hear and resolve disputesamong parties that come under theirregulatory power. The rulings ofthese agencies have the same legalstatus as those of courts.

Providing Advice Bureaucratsalso help shape public policy by providing top political decisionmakers with information and ad-vice. Many career bureaucrats areexperts in their areas. In addition,federal agencies collect informationon an incredible variety of subjects.These range from the number ofbald eagles left in the United Statesto the effects of secondhand smok-ing on newborn infants.

Federal agencies may use theirinformation to support or oppose aparticular public policy. Severalyears ago, for example, studies bythe Public Health Service on the ef-fects of smoking led to new laws andregulations designed to cut down onthe use of cigarettes.

Thus, the federal bureaucracydoes more today than simply fill inthe details of laws. The bureaucracyplays a role in determining whatthose policies will be.

Why the Bureaucracy Makes Policy

The federal bureaucracy has grown and as-sumed an important role in making public

policy for five reasons: (1) growth of the nation,(2) international crises, (3) economic problems athome, (4) citizens’ demands, and (5) the nature ofbureaucracy itself.

National Growth and Technology Thegrowth of the federal bureaucracy mirrors thegrowth of the United States. For almost 60 years,the 3 original cabinet departments and the attor-ney general’s office handled the work of the execu-tive branch. As the population grew, so did thegovernment. The same number of officials whoran a country of 50 million people cannot governa country of more than 250 million.

In addition, rapid advances in technology havemade life much more complex. Today, a singlepresident and 535 lawmakers in Congress cannotpossibly have all the knowledge and time needed to


Reducing Government Waste Surrounded by bureaucraticpaperwork, Vice President Al Gore presented his proposal “Reinventing Government,” also called The National PerformanceReview, to President Clinton on the White House lawn. Gore attempted to streamline the federal bureaucracy and eliminatewaste and duplication. Why do you think trimming the bureaucracy and its paperwork is such a difficult task?

Paper Shuffling in the Capital

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deal with the many complicatedissues that face the nation. Theseissues include nuclear power, edu-cation reform, space exploration, environmentalprotection, cancer research, health care, and manyothers.

Many other tasks such as regulating atomic en-ergy or launching communications satellites alsorequire some government involvement. The presi-dent and Congress establish bureaucracies andgive them the money and authority to carry outtheir tasks.

International Crises Competition with theSoviet Union and international crises followingWorld War II furthered the growth of the federalbureaucracy. During the Cold War, the U.S. andthe U.S.S.R. developed new weaponry, and bothcountries gave aid to other countries they wantedas allies. The Department of Defense was orga-nized in 1947 by combining the Departments ofWar and Navy. Until the end of the Cold War, itwas the largest department in the federal govern-ment. The Defense Department shrank in size dur-ing the 1990s, but President George W. Bush beganto build it up again as part of the war on terrorismafter the attacks of September 11, 2001.

After the Soviet Unionlaunched Sputnik I, the first spacesatellite, in 1957, the federal gov-

ernment started a large-scale program to improvescience and mathematics instruction in the UnitedStates. The government established NASA in 1958to direct the nation’s space exploration program.As a further result of the Cold War, the govern-ment created several other new agencies. These in-cluded the Central Intelligence Agency, the ArmsControl and Disarmament Agency, the UnitedStates Information Agency, and the Peace Corps.

The Korean War (from 1950 to 1953) and theVietnam War (from 1964 to 1973) involved mil-lions of American soldiers. Both wars led to thecontinued need for the Veterans Administration,which was elevated to the cabinet level in 1989 andrenamed the Department of Veterans Affairs. It isone of the largest federal agencies.

Economic Problems President Franklin D. Roosevelt greatly expanded the size of the feder-al bureaucracy as he attempted to combat the Depression during the 1930s. By 1940 the numberof federal workers had almost doubled. Many people accepted the idea that the federal govern-ment had a duty to assist the ill, the disabled, the


Competition and Expansion The UnitedStates felt threatened by the Soviets’ launchingof Sputnik in 1957. President Dwight Eisenhow-er immediately increased military funding andestablished the National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration (NASA), which worked feverishlyto close the gap in the space race. Later, Presi-dent John F. Kennedy authorized the Apollo pro-gram to challenge the Soviets in space. Thisprogram allowed Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., (left) and

Neil Armstrong to be the first hu-mans to walk on the moon. Howdid the launching of Sputnik in-crease the size of the UnitedStates government?

The Space Race Expands the Government

John Glenn, first American toorbit the earth

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elderly, and the neglected. As a result, the federalgovernment today spends billions of dollars eachyear on hundreds of assistance programs.

The Depression years also led to the idea that the federal government has a special respon-sibility both to stimulate the nation’s economyand to regulate unfair business practices. Thus,agencies that help businesses, such as the Depart-ment of Commerce, have grown along with agen-cies that regulate businesses, such as the FederalTrade Commission.

Citizen Demands The bureaucracy has alsogrown in response to issues raised by various interest groups within the country. This is not anew phenomenon. Congress, for example, createdthe Departments of Agriculture (1862), Com-merce (1903), and Labor (1913) in part to meet theincreased demands of farmers, businesspeople,and workers.

Once it is established, each agency has clientgroups that it serves. Client groups are the individ-uals and groups who work with the agency and aremost affected by its decisions. The client groups ofthe Department of Defense, for example, includethe defense contractors who make weapons andsupplies for the armed forces. The client groups ofthe Department of Agriculture are largely the farm-ers and others in the business of agriculture.

Client groups often lobby both Congress andthe agency itself for more programs and services.Sometimes competition develops. If business lead-ers can have “their” people in the Commerce De-partment, labor leaders want “their” people in theLabor Department to make sure they get their “fairshare.”

The Nature of Bureaucracy Another rea-son for the increase in the number of federal agen-cies is that the country’s needs change. Oncecreated, however, federal agencies almost neverdie. They seem to exist for their own sake. Severalyears ago Congress created the Federal Metal andNon-Metallic Safety Board of Review. A bureau-crat named Jubal Hale was appointed as its direc-tor. The board, however, never received any casesto review. As a result, Hale had no work to do. Hespent the next four years reading and listening tophonograph records in his office. Finally, he sug-gested the agency be abolished, and it was.

Former president Ford put it this way:

“One of the enduring truths of the nation’scapital is that bureaucrats survive. Agen-cies don’t fold their tents and quietly fadeaway after their work is done. They findsomething new to do.” —Gerald Ford

These observations are what led to reform.President Clinton’s “reinventing government” andthe Republican Congress’s “Contract With America”both targeted government waste.

Influencing Bureaucratic Decisions

The federal bureaucracy does not makepublic policy in isolation. The president,

Congress, the courts, and client groups influencefederal agencies as they conduct business.


Economics and Expansion Roosevelt’s NewDeal programs changed the federal government.The FDR Memorial in Washington, D.C., honorsthe president. Why did Roosevelt expand thegovernment during the Depression?

Meeting the Country’s Needs

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Influence of Congress Bureaucrats carefullybuild relationships with the congressional com-mittees that have authority over their agencies.Each cabinet department has liaison officers whohelp promote good relations with Congress. Liaisonofficers keep track of bills moving through Congressthat might affect the agency, as well as responding torequests for information from lawmakers.

Congress uses two major tools to influence de-cision making in federal agencies—new legislationand the budget. Lawmakers can pass laws tochange the rules or regulations a federal agency es-tablishes or to limit an agency in some way. In1979, for example, the Internal Revenue Serviceruled that donations to private schools were nottax deductible unless the schools enrolled a certainnumber of minority students. The ruling caused agreat deal of controversy, and Congress overturnedit with new legislation.

Congress has also attempted to hold agenciesmore accountable for their activities by passing theGovernment Performance and Results Act. Thislaw requires federal agencies to write strategicplans, set annual performance goals, and collectdata that measures how well the goals are being

met. Starting in 2000 each agency began publish-ing reports on their performance. Over time thesereports are supposed to allow lawmakers and tax-payers to determine which programs produce thebest results for the money spent.

Congress’s major power over the bureaucracyis the power of the purse. The nation’s lawmakerscontrol each agency’s budget. They can add to orcut an agency’s budget and, in theory at least,refuse to appropriate money for the agency. Whathappens more often, however, is that Congress canthreaten to eliminate programs that are importantto the agency.

Even the power of appropriation has limits as away for Congress to influence agency decisions.Much of an agency’s budget may be used forentitlement expenditures. These expenditures arefor basic services already required by law, suchas Social Security or pensions for retired govern-ment employees. Such services are almost impossi-ble for Congress to cut. If budget cuts mustbe made, agencies may sometimes target their cutsin the districts or states of key members of Con-gress who have the power to get budget cuts re-stored. In 1975, for example, Congress said it

Heidi Landgraf

Making a DifferenceMaking a Difference Hearing the words, “My nameis Heidi Landgraf. I’m anagent with the DEA,” two

drug cartel bosses stared in dis-belief. This time they were the victims—of a Drug EnforcementAdministration sting operation.Heidi Landgraf was at the centerof Operation Green Ice, playingthe part of a drug lord’s daughter.Her two-year performance wonLandgraf a 1993 DEA Administra-tor’s Award. As one of more than

100 federal agents involved inthe worldwide operation, shehelped police in the UnitedStates and six other coun-tries arrest a total of 140suspected criminals and

seize about $50 million.Landgraf’s identity

as Heidi Herrera was createdcarefully with tax returns, Visacards, and a passport. Althoughshe was always under the watch-ful eyes of fellow agents, shewas in constant danger. From aphony business location Landgrafcollected cash from major drugdealers across the country andlaundered it through banks. Aftertwo years of collecting evidence,the DEA scheduled the “takedown.”

Because her face and nameappeared in press accounts ofthe operation when the newsbroke, Landgraf had to give upher work as an undercover agent.She continued to work within theDEA, however, in media relationsand drug prevention education.


DEAbadge

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wanted to reduce the budget for Am-trak, the federal agency that operatespassenger trains in the United States.Amtrak almost immediately an-nounced plans to comply with the re-duced budget by cutting vitalpassenger service in the districts ofkey congressional leaders. The an-nouncements had their desired ef-fect: these leaders succeeded inrestoring most of the Amtrak funds.

The Influence of the CourtsFederal courts do not actively seek toinfluence the federal bureaucracy.The courts, however, can have an im-portant impact on policy making.The Administrative Procedures Actof 1946 allows citizens directly affect-ed by the actions of federal agenciesto challenge those agencies’ actions incourt. A federal court may issue aninjunction—an order that will stop aparticular action or enforce a rule orregulation.

Success in Court Cases Whilethe courts can have a real impact onthe bureaucracy, citizens have nothad much success in court casesagainst the bureaucracy. One studyshows that the courts do not usuallyreverse the decisions of federal regu-latory commissions. For example, theFederal Power Commission and theFederal Trade Commission have won91 percent of the cases they have ar-gued before the Supreme Court. The NationalLabor Relations Board and the Internal RevenueService have won 75 percent of their cases.

The Influence of Client Groups As stated earlier, each agency has clientgroups. The Department of Education

spends much of its time dealing with state and local school administrators. The Food andDrug Administration works closely with majordrug companies. The Commerce Departmentidentifies with and promotes business interests.

The Department of Labor has a similar relation-ship with labor unions.

Client groups often attempt to influenceagency decisions through lobbyists in Washington,D.C. These lobbyists work to reach agency officials.Lobbyists may testify at agency hearings, write let-ters, keep track of agency decisions, and take othersteps to support their groups’ interests.

Iron Triangles Congressional committees,client groups, and a federal department or agencyoften cooperate closely to make public policy.When agencies, congressional committees, and


Critical Thinking Because of iron-triangle alliances like the one shown above, it is often difficult to change agency policies or eliminate government agencies. Why do some people consider iron triangles a threat to democracy?

Gov

ernm

ent

Age

ncy

or D

epar

tmen

t

Interest Groups

Congress

Small Business Administration

American Business Owners Association

Small Business Committee

Iron TrianglesIron Triangles

291-301 CH10S3-860053 12/1/04 9:01 PM Page 297

client groups continually work together, such cooperation is called an iron triangle, because together the three groups have the necessary re-sources to satisfy each other’s needs. The adjectiveiron is used because the relationship is so strongthat it is often difficult for other individuals andgroups outside the triangle to influence policy inthe area.

Public policy toward veterans’ affairs is an ex-ample of an iron triangle. The Department of Vet-erans Affairs (VA) provides important servicessuch as hospital care, but the VA needs resources tocontinue offering such services to veterans. Law-makers on congressional committees responsiblefor veterans’ affairs supply the VA with money butneed electoral support to remain in office. Con-gressional committees also need political supportto win internal struggles for power in Congress.Client groups, such as the American Legion, pro-vide the political support that the lawmakers needto remain in office. Client groups in turn need theVA’s goods and services to satisfy the demands oftheir members. It is the working combination ofthese three groups that basically determines thepolicy of the national government toward veterans.Similar iron triangles operate in many policy areassuch as agriculture, business, labor, and nationaldefense.

People often move from one side of the trian-gle to another. In the area of national defense, forexample, a general in the Department of Defense

may retire and become a Washington lobbyist fora defense contractor that sells weapons to the De-partment of Defense. A staff member of the Sen-ate Armed Services Committee may leaveCongress and go to work in the Defense Depart-ment. Later, the same person may take a job witha defense contractor.

Many critics believe that because iron trianglesallow interest groups undue influence outside thecontrol of the executive branch, Congress shouldpass laws to regulate them.

Agencies Influence One Another Interac-tions among agencies also influence decisions andpolicy making in the bureaucracy. For example,rules made by the Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration about noise standards in factoriesmay contradict regulations established by the Envi-ronmental Protection Agency. Decision makers ineach agency may attempt to influence the others toaccept their programs or rules. Often, such disputesare settled by interagency task forces or committees.

Sect ion 3 AssessmentSect ion 3 Assessment

Separation of Powers The government bureaucracy, in theory, carries out the policydecisions of Congress and the president. Inpractice, however, the bureaucracy also helpsinfluence policy. Create a political cartoon depicting one of the ways in which the federalbureaucracy influences policy.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Using a graphic organizer like the one

below, identify two ways Congress influencesfederal agencies and two ways federal agencies contribute to legislation.

2. Define client group, liaison officer, injunction,iron triangle.

3. Identify Social Security Act, Department of Veterans Affairs.

4. What are five reasons that the federal bureaucracy has assumed an important role in making public policy?

Critical Thinking5. Making Inferences Do you think that iron

triangles undermine or serve the public interest?Explain your answer.


Student Web Activity Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web site atgov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 10–Student Web Activities for an activity about thebureacracy at work.

GOVERNMENT

Congress FederalAgencies

1.

2.

1.

2.

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299

Application ActivityApplication ActivityFind and read an in-depth article in a

newspaper. Then list the primary sourcesthe article uses and analyze how reliable youthink they are.

Analyzing Secondary Sources

This textbook, like many other history books, isa secondary source. Secondary sources drawfrom primary sources to explain a topic. The

value of a secondary source depends on how itsauthor uses primary sources. Learning to analyzesecondary sources will help you figure out whetherthose sources are presenting a complete and accu-rate picture of a topic or event.

Learning the Skill

To determine whether an author uses primarysources effectively, ask these questions:

• Are there references to primary sources inthe text, footnotes, or acknowledgments?

• Who are the authors of the primary sources?What insights or biases might these peoplehave?

• Is the information from the primary sourcesinterwoven effectively to support or describe an event?

• Are different kinds of primary sources consid-ered? Do they represent varied testimony?

• Is the interpretation of the primary sourcessound and logical?

Practicing the Skill

In the following excerpt from The Cold War,1945–1987, author Ralph B. Levering discussesPresident Carter’s China policy. Carter sent hisnational security adviser, Zbigniew Brzezinski, toChina to encourage better relations and thus putpressure on the Soviets. As you read, identify theprimary sources Levering uses to make his argu-ment.

During his trip to Peking, Brzezinski did every-thing he could to please the Chinese leaders. . . . Hestressed repeatedly the evil nature of the Soviet Union.

. . . Upon his return, Brzezinski told a New YorkTimes reporter that the trip was intended to “un-derline the long-term strategic nature of the UnitedStates’ relationship to China.”

. . . Soviet leaders were deeply concerned. Aneditorial in Pravda on May 30, 1978, stated thatBrzezinski “stands before the world as an enemy ofdétente.” Pravda also blamed China, stating onJune 17 that “Soviet-American confrontation . . . isthe cherished dream of Peking.” On the whole, U.S.officials were not displeased by the Kremlin’s angerand concern: perhaps it would make Soviet leadersmore anxious to conclude the SALT negotiationsand more inclined to show restraint in the ThirdWorld.

1. What kind of primary sources does Leveringuse twice in this passage?

2. Do you think this kind of primary source hasany possible weaknesses?

3. Would the use of government documentsstrengthen the author’s argument? Explain.

President Nixon and First Lady Pat Nixon visiting theGreat Wall of China during their historic 1972 trip.

new art tk

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Reviewing Key TermsChoose the letter of the correct term or conceptbelow to complete the sentence.

a. injunction f. iron triangleb. liaison officer g. bureaucratc. government corporation h. embassyd. procurement i. spoils systeme. client group j. deregulate

1. An individual who works for the federal govern-ment is a ____.

2. Before the civil service system, many peoplegot government jobs through the ____.

3. Some people work for a _____, such as thePostal Service.

4. Some people lost their jobs when Congressbegan to _____ the Civil Aeronautics Boardand cut down on its procedures.

5. An _____ is the office of an ambassador in aforeign country.

6. A _____, such as a special-interest group, is akey factor in influencing public policy.

7. In some cases, a court will issue an _____ tostop a particular action.

8. To make regulatory agencies more efficient,Congress repealed 300 laws that had made_____, or purchasing of materials, complicated.

9. A _____ helps promote good relations amongCongress and cabinet departments.

10. A cooperative effort on the parts of congres-sional committees, a federal agency, andclient groups is called an _____.

Recalling Facts1. What three types of agencies make up the

federal bureaucracy?2. What is the special role of independent regula-

tory commissions in the federal bureaucracy?3. Why was the civil service system created?4. What event led to the practice of government

assisting the ill and the neglected?5. How do client groups attempt to influence the

decisions that government agencies make?

Understanding Concepts1. Public Policy Is evaluating existing programs

important in a society with a large bureaucra-cy? Support your opinion.

2. Civic Participation With every new adminis-tration, new people are named to hold topmanagement positions within the federal bureaucracy. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of this system.

Assessment and ActivitiesChapter 10Chapter 10

Self-Check Quiz Visit the United States Government:Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 10–Self-Check Quizzes to preparefor the chapter test.

GOVERNMENT

1750

1789

✦1800

1850

1900

1950

✦

✦

✦

✦2000

The Spoils System• Victorious candidates rewarded political

supporters and friends with jobs

Need for Reform• Spoils system led to government

inefficiency and corruption• As government operations became more

complex, staff employees needed specificexpertise

• First Civil Service Commission was createdin 1871 but had no effective power

• President Garfield’s assassination by an ignored jobseeker renewed calls for reform

Changes• The Pendleton Act created a

federal employment system based on competitive examinations and individual merit

• In modern times, the Office of PersonnelManagement and the Merit SystemProtection Board split the functions ofthe original Civil Service Commission

1871

1881

1883

1979

✦

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Critical Thinking1. Making Inferences Why

might strong presidentsrely less on their cabinets’advice than weak presidents?

2. Synthesizing InformationUse an outline like the one below to organize apaper that would explainwhy the federal bureaucracyhas grown. Use facts fromthe text and charts in Chapter 10.

Analyzing PrimarySourcesThe Social Security Act (1935) was the first govern-ment program of its kind to ensure retirement andunemployment income. Social Security payments are funded by taxes on employers’ and employees’ incomes. Social Security funds are administered bythe Treasury Department. Read the excerpt from a Social Security administration publication and answer the questions that follow.

“Your card shows you have an insurance account with theU.S. Government, under the old-age, survivors and disabilityinsurance system provided for in the Social Security Act.

Your account is a record of the pay you receive whichcounts toward old-age, survivors and disability insurancebenefits. The size of benefits will depend upon the amount ofwages credited to your account.”

1. What do you think are some of the benefits of having a social insurance program? Why isit beneficial to have this program administeredby the Treasury Department (a part of the federal bureaucracy) and not directly by thefederal government (Congress)?

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity

2. Although programs like Social Security werenot outlined in the Constitution, they are partof the growing bureaucracy of the federal government. What are some of the positiveand negative effects of this growth?

Participating in Local GovernmentYou can find jobs within thegovernment bureaucracy in alllevels of government. This allowsa greater number of citizens the opportunity to participate in politicallife. Using your local library or the Internet, researchthe different types of government jobs available in your community. Find out the procedure for applying for these jobs, the qualifications required,and the salaries. Present your findings in an illustrated pamphlet.

Chapter 10Chapter 10

1. What is the warning each of these people is giving?2. How do you think these people’s attitudes affect the size

of the federal bureaucracy?3. What governmental dilemma does this cartoon emphasize?

The Growth ofthe Federal Bureaucracy

I. Its sizeA.B.

II. Its ComplexityA.B.

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Documents

Chapter 10: The Federal Bureaucracy · bureaucracy. Article II, Section 2, ... The 15 cabinet departments are a major ... 1. CHAPTER 10: THE FEDERAL BUREAUCRACY