Chapter 10: School

Samuel R. Mathews, Ph.D.The Department of PsychologyThe University of West Florida

Patterns of Schooling: USA

• USA: Mandatory attendance ages based on states law(FL: students may drop out of school with parent’s permission at 16 years)

• Organization of school systems based on state and school district political systems

• Curriculum is state or local decision• National requirements based on No Child Left

Behind (NCLB) but dependent on state level assessment

Patterns of Schooling in USA• Elementary School—kindergarten through 5th

or 6th grade• Middle School—6th grade through 8th grade• Junior High School—7th grade through 9th

grade• High School—9th or 10th grade through 12th

grade• Alternative plan: Primary (K-8) & Secondary

(9-12)—tends to be more adaptive.

Patterns of Schooling: A Global Perspective

• Globally the compulsory age varies by country.– Frequently attendance is required through basic

school which goes through 8th or 9th grade.– Assessments frequently determine the type of

post basic education (gymnasium=college prep; professional=technical career; vocational=trade or guild)

– Decisions about profession and type of school made quite early

Patterns of Schooling: A Global Perspective

• Education in Post Conflict Regions – Low Numbers of Trained Teachers – Universities and Teacher Training Centers lack

trained faculty– Dependent upon foreign trainers and faculty– Number of females in secondary schools

significantly lower than males– Textbooks typically outdated and shared by

multiple students

Effective Schools for Adolescents

• Two dimensions for consideration:– School climate & belongingness: • the degree to which adolescents feel part of the social

fabric of the school• Adolescents’ sense of support and care from peers,

faculty, and administration

– Academic achievement• Level of academic performance• Test scores• Class levels (advanced, basic, remedial)• Class grades

School climate & Belongingness

• School Size:– 500 students is likely optimal– Above 1000 students isolation of shy, neglected

students more frequent– School-within-a-school • Within larger schools, students and teachers form

smaller learning communities

– Teacher as Advisor• Each teacher is assigned a small group of students to

maintain contact across the middle or high school years

School climate & Belongingness

• Transition from Primary to Secondary School:– Teacher expectations generally negative re:

adolescents (Eccles and associates)– Multiple teachers across subjects– Broader range of peer groups– Age at transition less important than school, peer,

& parental factors

School Climate & Academic Achievement• Factors predicting academic achievement

(Stewart, 2007/2008):

– School Attachment: the extent to which students care about and have positive feelings for school.

– School Commitment: students’ perceptions that education is important to themselves

School Climate & Academic Achievement

• Factors predicting academic achievement (Stewart, 2007/2008):

– Positive Peer Affiliations: values peers who have high academic aspirations and prosocial behaviors

– Parent-Child Discussions: parents who engage in conversations with their children about school and school-related topics in the home

School Climate• Norms of Secondary Education:– Greater teacher control of the teaching/learning

process– More negative stereotype about adolescents in

general– Low expectations for most students– Less individualized attention than in primary

schools

School Climate• Creating Positive School Climates– High Demandingness• High and appropriate expectations of all students

– High Responsiveness• Provide necessary and appropriate support for student

needs to meet or exceed expectations.• Create a safe and warm atmosphere

– Sound familiar????

Teacher Attitudes that Foster Positive School Climate

• All students are capable of learning• Expectations are high for all students• Teachers value free and positive interactions

with all students • Teacher student relationship reflects

authoritative style• Teachers freely provide and receive feedback

that is encouraging & informative

Attribution for Success & Failure

Internal Attribution External Attribution

Stable Factor Ability Luck, Fate

Variable Factor Effort; Strategy Selection

Task DifficultyOther’s Bias

Attribution for Success & Failure• Middle & High School:– Females • Tend to attribute success in science or math to luck or

task (easy)• Tend to attribute failure in science or math to ability• (Dickhauser & Wulf-Uwe, 2006)

– Males • Tend to attribute success in science or math to ability• Tend to attribute failure in science or math to luck or

lack of effort (self-handicapping)• (Dickhauser & Wulf-Uwe, 2006)

Attribution for Success & Failure• College students: – females more than males indicated lack of ability

for failure and effort for success (males attributed success to ability)• (Beyer ,1998)

• Attributions of internal and variable factors for success and failure linked to greater perception of control.

Motivation Orientation and Engagement

Dweck’s Motivation Orientation– task/mastery orientation—• the completion of the task and learning the material or

mastering the skill is key• Tends to have a more intrinsic motivational set

Motivation Orientation and Engagement

• Dweck’s Motivation Orientation– performance/ability orientation—• Focus is on external evaluation; getting the grade• Tends to have more extrinsic motivational set

– Schooling typically requires both!!!

Beyond School Climate: Student Engagement

• Family factors in Student Engagement:– Parental expressions of value of educational

attainment (e.g. Stewart, 2007/2008)– Parental monitoring of students’ homework and

academic progress– Parental models for literacy – Parents provide a text rich environment– Authoritative parenting related to higher

engagement regardless of social class.• How might a parent with low skills and little

financial resources accomplish this?

Peers, Friends, & School• Friends typically share similar levels of

engagement and achievement

• Larger peer groups (e.g. crowds) can influence social comparisons

• Selective schools/programs can have differential impacts on peer status

Work, Leisure, & School

• Broad issue is linked to competing priorities• Work of greater than 10 hours/wk linked to:– reduced engagement in school, – lower academic performance, – increased psychological difficulties, and– over all poorer outcomes

• Students from lower SES families tend to work to provide partial family income

• Others tend to work for disposable income (e.g. car)

Ethnic Differences in Schooling: Engagement and Achievement

• Cautionary Notes: – Ethnic differences are confounded by economic

factors– As much intragroup variability exists as intergroup

variability– When economic, prejudice, and peer influences

are considered, little difference in engagement and academic achievement exist

Gender Differences

• Cautionary Notes– Differences in academic achievement related to

social support from peers, teachers, and families– Overall females achieve higher than males– Domain specific differences (e.g. science & math)

likely due to socialization (Nosak’s work)

Academic Achievement• What are factors that impact one’s level of

academic achievement?– Educational history– Parenting factors– Individual motivation– Peers and friends– Psychological/Learning disabilities– Teacher expectations

Academic Achievement• Accommodations for Differences– Special needs programs (Exceptional Student

Education) within schools– Different schools (Charter Schools)– Individual interventions (e.g. medication, therapy,

tutoring)– Tracking (grouping by achievement levels)

Tracking

• Research on tracking• Snow (1986) with tracking "low" kids tend to

be alienated from school• Gamoran & Mare (1989) When achievement

is held constant, tracking predicts drop out better than scores on achievement tests.

• Page (1990) kids in low tracks tend to think that luck and guessing is more fruitful than hard work and skills

School Dropouts/School Leavers

• School Dropouts:– Old-for-grade (retained one or more grades)– Disengagement from social fabric of the school• Relevant peer groups outside of school

– Disengagement from the process of learning• Repeated failure with no sense of possibility of

recovery

– Behavioral Problems• Rejected peer group

School Dropouts/School Leavers• Family Factors:– Competing priorities in the home• Need for additional income • Need for child care or care for ill parent

– Neglectful Parenting• Little parental monitoring• Little encouragement to succeed in school

School Dropouts/School Leavers• Prevention– School within a school– Active learning strategies– Models/Mentors– Cooperative learning with mixed ability groups– Family involvement programs– Alternative programs/Pathways• Adult High School (Pensacola Junior College)• Cooperative Education (.5 day academics/.5 day work

placement)

• On the next slide are some questions I’d like you to prepare for our discussion. Do not spend too much time but make some notes for yourself for our discussion on School and Adolescence.

Education during Emerging Adulthood: The College Years

• Think about your first year in college. – How would you describe your peer group?– How has it changed since that year?– How would you describe your own educational

experience to date in your college tenure?– In what ways have you as a person changed

during your college years?– What other priorities have you had to handle

during your college years?