Chapter 1

Psychology: An Introduction

What is psychology?

• Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes.

• Psychology is not limited to the study of humans, it is intended to include other animals as well as the rationale for animal study

• Psychologists use accepted standard techniques to build a body of knowledge about behavior and mental processes

Psychology: Science and Practice

• Psychologists beliefs are not built on:Faith-based beliefs

Traditions

Common sense

Empirical evidence: evidence gathered through direct sensory experience or observation

How do psychologists approach problems? What are the goals of psychology?

Scientific method:• Collect data through careful, systematic

observation (DESCRIBE)• Attempt to explain what they observed by

developing theories (UNDERSTAND)• Make new predictions (HYPOTHESES)

based on the theories (PREDICT)• Systematically test predictions to

determine if correct (CONTROL)

Research>facts>theory

• Theory: a general principle or set of principles proposed to explain how a number of separate facts are related

• necessary to enable scientists to fit separate pieces of data into meaningful frameworks

• Stimulate debate and further knowledge

Replication

• Process of questioning findings and then repeating a study with different participants and a different investigator to verify research findings

Thinking like a scientist

• Critical thinking:– Process of objectively evaluating claims, propositions,

and conclusions to determine whether they follow logically from the evidence presented

• This thinking is independent: do not accept and believe what is read or heard

• This thinking suspends judgment: gather information on all sides of an issue before taking a position

• This thinking modifies or abandons prior judgment: evaluates new evidence, even when it contradicts pre-existing beliefs

Research Methods

• Naturalistic Observation: observer bias• Case Studies: single individual, small number studied in

great depth, over extended period of time• Surveys: uses interviews, questionnaires to gather info

on attitudes/beliefs• Correlational Method: looks at relationship between

two characteristics, events, behaviors• Experimental Research: experimental method,

independent variable, dependent variable, experimental group, control group, experimenter bias

• Multimethod Research

The importance of sampling

• Population: entire group of interest to researchers

• Sample: part of population that is studied in order to reach conclusions about an entire population

• Representative samples: mirrors the population of interest; important subgroups

• Biased sample: does not adequately reflect population

The Growth of PsychologyVarying Perspectives in Psychology

“Psychology has a long past, but a short history.”

– Aristotle– Plato– Rene Descartes (1596-1650)– Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Structuralism

Wilhelm Wundt• first formal psychological laboratory 1879• Perception• IntrospectionEdward Bradford Titchener• Cornell University• The science of consciousness- physical

sensations, feelings, images

Functionalism

William James 1875

• Perceptions, emotions, images cannot be separated

• Consciousness flows in a continuous stream

• Studies how an organism learns to function in its environment

Behaviorism

John B. Watson

• Behavior is a learned response to something in the environment- conditioning

• Little Albert

• Tabula rasa

BF Skinner

• reinforcement

Gestalt

• German psychologists interested in perception- and the tricks the mind plays on itself

• Gestalt means “whole” or “form’- we have a tendency to see patterns, to distinguish an object from its background, to complete a picture with a few cues

• Rejected structuralists breaking down of perception and thought into elements

Psychodynamic Psychology

Sigmund Freud

• “free will” is an illusion

• Humans are motivated by unconscious instincts and urges not available to the rational, conscious part of the mind

• Psychoanalysis

• “fixated” at stages

Existential and Humanistic Psychology

• Existential: focuses on the meaninglessness of modern life, how these factors lead to apathy and psychological problems– Guides people towards inner sense of identityHumanistic: human beings must learn to

realize their human potentialPossibilities of non-verbal experiences, altered states of consciousness, “letting go”

Current Trends:Cognitive Psychology

• Study of the mental processes– thinking– Learning– Feeling– Remembering– Making decisions and judgments

Developmental Psychology

• Concerned with the lifelong process of human mental and physical growth from conception to death

• Ex. Child psychologists

• Adolescent psychologists

Physiological Psychology

• Investigate biological basis for human behavior, thoughts, emotions

• Ex.– Psychobiologists- study the body’s

biochemistry- how hormones, medications, drugs affect people

– Neuropsychologists- study the brain and the nervous system

– Behavioral geneticists- study the impact of heredity on behavior

Experimental Psychology

Psychologists conduct research on psychological processes-

• Learning• Memory• Sensation• Perception• Cognition• Motivation• Emotion

Personality Psychology

Psychologists study the differences among individuals in traits such as:

• Anxiety

• Sociability

• Self-esteem

• Need for achievement

• Aggressiveness

Social Psychology

Social psychologists study how people influence each other

• Personal attraction

• Attitude formation

• Prejudice

• Conformity

Industrial and Organizational Psychology

Psychologists concerned with practical issues relating to the workplace

• Selecting and training personnel

• Improving productivity

• Improving working conditions

• Computerization and automation

Cognitive Psychology

• Study of the mental processes– thinking– Learning– Feeling– Remembering– Making decisions and judgments

Evolutionary Psychology

• Study of the evolutionary origins of behavior patterns and mental processes

• Asks how human beings go to be the way we are

• Emphasis on cultural and gender differences

Clinical and Counseling Psychology

• 50%- Clinical Psychologists: interested in diagnosis, cause and treatment of psychological disorders (mood disorders)

• 50%- Counseling Psychologists: interested in normal lifetime adjustments (career, marital problems)

Multiple Perspectives

• Contemporary psychologists are apt to see the various perspectives as complimentary- each approach contributes to our understanding of human behavior

• Sometimes the theories mesh beautifully and compliment one another and other times one approach challenges another

• This is how the field of psychology advances

The Decade of Behavior: Solving Societies Problems

• The American psychological Association (APA) has declared 2000-2010 as the Decade of Behavior

• Goals include:– Promoting behavioral and social science

research– Increasing funding for research– Educating the public

Human Diversity Issues

• Gender: roles, stereotypes, differences

• Culture: intangible processes, subcultures

• Race and ethnicity: ethnic identity

Psychology and Human Diversity Issues

• Feminist challenges- feminist theory

• Sexual orientation

• Ethnic and minority issues

• Unintended biases