Chapter 1

Psychological Science

What is Psychology?

the science of behavior and mental processes

Psychology’s Current PerspectivesPerspective Focus

Neuroscience How the body and brain create emotions, memories, andsensory experiences

Behavior How much our genes, and our environment, influence ourgenetics individual differences

Behavioral How behavior is learned

Evolutionary How nature selects traits that promote the perpetuation ofone’s genes

Psychodynamic How behavior springs from unconscious drives andconflicts

Cognitive How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

Social-cultural How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

Current Perspectives

Perspective Focus

Neuroscience How the brain creates emotions, thoughts, and behaviors

Evolutionary How nature selects traitsthat promote survival ofour genes

Current PerspectivesPerspective Focus

Behavior Genetics How much our genes are responsible for individual differences

Psychodynamic How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

Current Perspectives

Perspective Focus

Behavioral How we learn observablebehavior

Cognitive How we encode, process, store and retrieve

information

Current Perspectives

Perspective Focus

Social-cultural How social situations and culture influences behavior and thought

Eclectic Drawing from two or more of the perspectives to explain behavior or thought processes

Psychology vs. Psychiatry

Clinical Psychology (Ph.D) a specialty in psychology clinical psychologists uses psychotherapy to treat psychological

disordersPsychiatry (M.D.)

a specialty in medicine psychiatrists may prescribe medication and use

psychotherapy

The Scientific Method

generate or refine

research and observations

lead to

hypothesis

theories

Scientific Method

Goal is good theory theories explain behavior

Science guards against faulty explanations hindsight bias

Faulty Explanations Intuition and The Hot Streak

Hindsight Bias

tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon

The Scientific Method

Theory a general explanation as to why

a behavior occursHypothesis

a testable prediction often derived from a theory Example: I predict A will cause B

The Scientific Method

generate or refine

research and observations

lead to

hypothesis

theories

The Scientific Method

Operational Definition a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables

for example, intelligence may be operationally defined as “what an intelligence test measures”

The Scientific Method

Replication repeating the procedures of a research study with another sample of participants

to see whether the results are also repeated

Types of Scientific Methods

1. Case Study2. Survey3. Naturalistic Observation4. Correlation Coefficient5. Experiment

Types of Scientific Methods

1. Case Study in depth observation of one person in hopes of revealing universal laws

Types of Scientific Methods

2. Survey a questionnaire about attitudes or behavior given to a sample of people

A Key Distinction: Population versus Sample

Population a specific group of interest to the researcher (e.g., all children!)

a sample is drawn from a population

Drawing a Sample

Male subjects, neurosis, and sex!

Good Samples

Representative Sample a sample that is a perfect reflection of a population, only smaller in size

Random Sample a sample that fairly represents a population because each member of the sample had an equal chance of being chosen

Types of Scientific Methods

3. Naturalistic Observation observing and recording behavior in

naturally occurring situations, trying not to manipulate the situation

Types of Scientific Methods

4. Correlation Coefficient a measure that shows the extent to which two variables change together

good for prediction Note: correlation does not imply causation!

Correlation and CausationThree possible cause-effect relations

could cause(1)

Low self-esteemDepression

(2)Depression

Low self-esteem

Low self-esteem

Depression

(3)Distressing events

or biologicalpredisposition

could cause

could cause

or

or

and

Types of Scientific Methods

5. Experiment a procedure for identifying the

causes of behavior all experiments have two variables:

Independent Variable: variable manipulated by a researcher

Dependent Variable: observed consequence of IV on some behavior or mental process

The Dependent Variable

Dependent Variable the variable that is being measured value of DV depends on value of IV

ExperimentExperimental Group

these participants are exposed to the independent variable (treatment)

Control Group these participants do not receive the independent

variable is a comparison group we use to be able to see

the effect of the independent variable (treatment)Note: the measure (DV) is taken for both groups

Experiment

Random Assignment assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance

minimizes preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Experiment

Placebo an inert substance (e.g., sugar pill)

instead of an active agent (e.g., drug) placebo is administered to see if it

triggers the same reaction as the active agent (IV)

Placebo Effect any effect on behavior caused by a

placebo

Experiment

Single-blind Procedure Research participants don’t know if they

are getting the placebo or active agent.Double-blind Procedure

Participants don’t know …. Also, research staff doesn’t know (blind)

who is getting the active agent vs. placebo

The Scientific Method

Comparing Research MethodsResearch Method Basic Purpose How Conducted What is

Manipulated

Descriptive To observe and Case studies, surveys, Nothing(Goal: Describe) record behavior and naturalistic

observations

Correlational To detect naturally Computing statistical Nothing(Goal: Predict) occurring relationships; association, sometimes

to assess how well among survey one variable predicts responses

Experimental To explore cause Manipulating one or Independent(Goal: Explain) and effect more IVs and using variable(s)

random assignmentto eliminate preexistingdifferences among subjects

Practice: Hypothesis Testing

Drug A makes children more attentive in school

The larger the family, the duller the childrenCigarette smoking causes lung cancerTelevision violence is related to aggression

in childrenAbsence makes the heart grow fonder