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Chapter 1 Introduction, Measurement, estimating Reading Guide Due ___________ Vocabulary Due ____________ Problems Due _____________ Approximate Test Date ________ Chapter Important Dates Models, Theories, and Laws Model - a mental or visual image - can be a picture, diagram, or graph - relates something we don't understand to something we do - should simplify a problem A theory CAN NEVER be proved, ONLY disproved A theory CAN be ACCEPTED if it: stands up to experimental testing is more accurate than previous theories explains more situations than previous theories Theory - any idea that attempts to explain an observation - can be a concept or a mathematical relationship

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Page 1: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Chapter 1 Introduction, Measurement,

estimating

Reading Guide Due ___________

Vocabulary Due ____________

Problems Due _____________

Approximate Test Date ________

Chapter Important Dates

Models, Theories, and LawsModel  - a mental or visual image 

- can be a picture, diagram, or graph- relates something we don't understand   to something we do- should simplify a problem  A theory CAN NEVER be proved, 

ONLY disprovedA theory CAN be ACCEPTED if it: 

stands up to experimental testingis more accurate than previous theoriesexplains more situations than previous theories

Theory - any idea that attempts to explain an observation- can be a concept or a mathematical relationship

Page 2: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Laws Universally accepted generalizations of observed physical behavior

Most laws are written as

mathematical equations called formulas

Laws must be experimentally validover a large range of conditions

Physical laws are DESCRIPTIVE

They DESCRIBE how an object is expected to behave

THEY DO NOT CONTROL HOW AN OBJECT BEHAVES.

Measurement

Precision is the ability to get the same result over and over.

Accuracy is how close the result is to the actual answer.

A good measurement in Physics is BOTH accurate and precise.

Measurements and Errors

Page 3: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

EVERY measuring tool is limited in it's ability to measure accurately and precisely.

Measure the line below.

0 1 2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 70°

What are possible causes of errors?

Do these errors limit your precision or your accuracy?

These errors are estimated to be ± half of the smallest increment shown.

Measure the same line with two different rulers. Do you get the same answer?

Is this an error in precision or accuracy?

This value is determined by the manufacturer.

Every measuring tool is manufactured to a different standard.

The estimated uncertainty is the sum of the precision error and the accuracy error.

What is the ESTIMATED UNCERTAINTY for the protractor and the ruler?

 

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

0

1

2

90°

0 180

10 170

20160

30

15040

14050

13060

120

70

110

80

100

90

90

100

80

110

70

120

60

130

50

140

40

150

30

16020

17010

1800

0 1 2 3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 70°

How to Write Estimated Uncertainty & What it means

Measure each line.  Write the answer including the estimated uncertainty.

What are the possible actual lengths of each line?

Page 4: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Percent Error -How big is the error compared to the measurement?

Find the percent error for the given angle:

Significant Figures - In science, we recognize the limitations of our measurements.

We can only use as many digits as we can accurately measure.

Use Percent Error to help decide how many digits to use.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3 4 50°

Identifying Significant Figures - How many Significant Figures are in each of the following numbers?

6.45

450

7340.0

0.0063

0.0140

50.205

In large numbers, zeros to the RIGHT of the last non­zero digit ARE NOT significant

Unless they are continued TO THE RIGHT of the decimal

In decimals, zeros to the left of the first non­zero digit are not significantZeros to the RIGHT of DECIMALS

ARE significant figuresZeros BETWEEN non­zero digits are 

ALWAYS significant

NON­ZERO digits are ALWAYS significant

Working with Significant FiguresAdding and Subtracting

The number of digits is limited to  the least accurate DECIMAL 

POINT

Add: 2.34 + 0 .035Multiplying and Dividing

The number of digits is limited to  the least number of significant figures

Multiply: 0.21 * 5.07

Page 5: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Take this example:Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds?

536112000 Seconds.

When is Anna exactly 536112000 seconds old?Is she that old now?How many significant figures should you use?

Calculate.Give each answer with the correct number of significant figures.

2.75 * 0.043 9.464 ­ 56.2

56.78 + 2.024 2600 / 0.0345

    52 / 3.30 58001 * 1.00257

For multi-step calculations keepALL digits until the very end.

This can affect ROUNDING 82.354 + 53.2/1.254

Calculate.Give each answer with the correct number of significant figures.

25.34 * 0.0124 ­ 8.74

5.46 / 2.15 + 2.12 * 120

Page 6: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Scientific Notation-easily write and compare very large & very small numbers -only write the significant digits

-only ONE digit in front of the decimal place

-Order of Magnitude changes the Decimal Place

Orders of Magnitude

Write in decimal notation.2.34 x 104

2.34 x 10,000

23,400 

5.72 x 10­5

5.72 x 0.00001

0.0000572Positive Exponents -

A LARGE NUMBERThe decimal moves to the RIGHT

the number of places in the exponent

Negative Exponents - A SMALL NUMBER

The decimal moves to the LEFTthe number of places in the exponent

Write in decimal notation.2.56 X 103

3.24 X 1014 X 1010

55.7 X 10­7

5.8 X 100

0.1483 X 10­1

Page 7: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Write in Scientific Notation

54,800

Large Numbers ­ Positive Exponents,Decimal Moves to the LEFT

5.48 X 10464.78 X 10354,800

6.478 X 103+1

6.478 X 104

64.78 X 103

78.2 X 10­5345 X 10­1Write in Scientific & Decimal Notation

78.2 X 10­5345 X 10­1

7.82 X 10­5+13.45 X 10­1+2

7.82 X 10­43.45 X 101

Decimal Notation

Scientific Notation

.00078234.5 

0.00002478

2.478 X 10­5

Small Numbers ­ Negative Exponents,               Decimal move to the Right

0.00002478 0.0843 X 1070.0843 X 107

8.43 X 107­2

8.43 X 105

Write in Scientific Notation Write in Scientific & Decimal Notation0.0045 X 10­4 0.000579 X 104

Decimal Notation

Scientific Notation

4.5 X 10­4­3

0.0045 X 10­4

4.5 X 10­7

0.00000045 

5.79 X 104­4

0.000579 X 104

5.79 X 100

5.79 

Page 8: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Write in Scientific Notation35,000,000,000 0.0004874

0.0487 X 10­8

10.078 X 1016

0.000142 X 102

2040 X 10­3

Calculations in Scientific Notation-Adding & Subtracting Numbers must have the same 

Order of Magnitude 

Add or Subtract Normally, Keep the Order of Magnitude

Use the correct number of Significant Figures!

Adjust answer to maintain Scientific Notation

6.24 X 1012 + 5.76 X 1012

(6.24  + 5.76) X 10126.24 X 1012 + 5.76 X 1012

12.00 X 1012 

1.200 X 1012+1

1.200 X 1013

Calculations in Scientific Notation-Adding & Subtracting

2.71 X 10­5 + 5.48 X 10­3

If the Exponents do not match, adjust the SMALLER VALUE to match the LARGER VALUE. 

0.0271 X 10­5+2 + 5.48 X 10­3

0.0271 X 10­3 + 5.48 X 10­3 Positive adjust left,Negative 

adjust right.

NOTE:

(0.0271 + 5.48) X 10­3

5.5071 X 10­3

5.51 X 10­3

2.71 X 10­5 + 5.48 X 10­3

Calculations in Scientific Notation-Adding & Subtracting

Page 9: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Calculations in Scientific Notation-Multiplying & Dividing

Multiply or Divide the numbers normally. 

Multiply or Divide the Order of Magnitude separately.

Use Exponent Rules  Multiply ­ add exponentsDivide ­ subtract exponents

Use the correct number of Significant Figures!

Adjust the answer to Scientific Notation.

Calculations in Scientific Notation-Multiplying & Dividing

(3.4 X 1011)(4.21 X 107)

(3.4 * 4.21) X (1011*107)

14.314 X 1011+7

14 X 1018

1.4 X 1019

(3.4 X 1011)(4.21 X 107)

Calculations in Scientific Notation-Multiplying & Dividing

(5.47 X 103) ÷ (7.23 X 107)

(5.47 ÷ 7.23) X (103 ÷ 107)

(0.756570...) X (103­7)0.757 X 10­4

7.57 X 10­5

(5.47 X 103) ÷ (7.23 X 107)

Calculate(1.542 X 102) + (5.4 X 10­1)

(7.4 X 10­4)(3.34 X 102)

Page 10: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Calculate(5.734 X 10­5)÷(4.04 X 10­2)

(8.4 X 10­2)-(7.24 X 10­3)

Calculate(2.04 X 10­4) + (5.467 X 10­2)

(7.3 X 1012)(2.4 X 10­13)

Scientific Notation with Graphing Calculators Systems of MeasurementTwo Main Systems of Measurement

British Engineering System

Systèmè International

Used Primarily in the USRarely used in Britain 

Used around the WorldPreferred for Scientific Studies 

inches, feet, yards, milesfl. oz, cups, pints, quarts, gallons

slugounces, pounds, tons

seconds, minutes, hours

centimeter, meter, kilometermilliliter, liter

milligrams, grams, kilogramsNewtons

seconds, minutes, hours

Page 11: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Systems of MeasurementBASE UNITS ARE DEFINED BY STANDARDS

  Length, Time, Mass, Current, Temperature, Amount, Luminous Intensity

DERIVED UNITS CAN BE DEFINED IN TERMS OF BASE UNITS

Area, Volume, Speed Acceleration, Weight/Force, 

Work, etc.

.

Systems of Measurement - LengthBase Unit (SI)- Meter(m) - 

Defined in the 1790s as      the 

distance from the equator to either pole

Once defined by the length of a man's foot

Now one foot is defined as 0.3048 m

Base Unit (British) - foot(ft.) - 

Approximate Lengths in Meters(order of magnitude)

Arm Span 100

Atom 10­10 Football Field Length 102

Paper Thickness 10­4 Earth Diameter 107  

Penny Thickness 10­3 Earth to Sun 1011

Penny Diameter 10­2 Earth nearest galaxy 1022

See also, Textbook pg 8 Table 1-1

Systems of Measurement - TimeBase Unit (SI & British)- second(s) - Originally defined as    of the average day.

Now defined based on the radiation of cesium atoms.

Approximate Times in Seconds(order of magnitude)

Heartbeat 100Humans on Earth 1014

One Day 105Age of Universe 1018

3 Years 108

See also, Textbook pg 9 Table 1-2

Page 12: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Systems of Measurement - MassBase Unit (SI)- kilogram (kg) - 

Defined as the mass of a specific platinum‐iridium cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris, France

unified atomic mass(u)For VERY small masses (atoms and molecules) 

approximately the mass of a single proton or neutron 1.6605 X 10‐27 kg

Base Unit (British) - slug - NOT COMMONLY USED

Systems of Measurement - Mass vs. Weight

Mass and Weight ARE NOT the same thingbut they are proportional. 

Mass­ the measure of how many neutrons, protons, and 

electrons, etc. are present in an object

changes in gravity DO NOT affect an object's mass

Weight­a measure of FORCE

It is a derived unit based on an objects mass AND the amount of gravity it is 

experiencing

changes in gravity DO affect an object's weight

Approximate Masses in kg(order of magnitude)

Your Textbook 100

Electron 10­30 one year old baby 101

Proton 10­27 220 pound man 102  

Penny 10­3 Earth     6 X 1024

See also, Textbook pg 9 Table 1-3

Converting Units-In order to compare or add two or more 

measurements they must have the SAME unit

We adjust a measurement to a different unit by a process called UNIT CONVERSION.

Conversion Factors (defined values) tell you how many of one unit are in an equal amount of a second unit.  

Page 13: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Converting Units - SIMeasurements are coverted 

within the SI system by adjusting the Order of Magnitude, 

the number does not change!!!

All units work with the same prefixes.

Time is the only unit that is slightly different

Converting Units - SI

ONE of 

these

equalsthis many BASE UNITSg, m, s, L

Convert.300 kg to g 2 km to cm

300 kg 103 g1 kg

300 X 103 

300,000 g or

3.00 X 105g 

2 km 103 m1 km

1 cm10­2 m

10310­2

2

2 X 103 ­ (­2)

2 X 105cmor

200,000 cm

Convert.1.5 ns to μs 3 L to mL

42.7 V to kV 78400 mC to kC

Page 14: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Converting Units - Time (both systems)Anything SMALLER than 1 second works the same as the SI system

Larger periods of time have familiar units.1 minute(min) = 60 seconds1 hour(hr) = 60 minutes

1 day= 24 hours

How many hours are in 5.68 X 1012 ms?

1 year(yr) = 365 Days1 Century = 100 Years

1 Millenium = 1000 Years

5.68 X 1012 ms1 ms 10­3 s 1 min

60 s 60 min1 hr

1.58 X 106 hr

Converting Units- British Common ConversionsLength

1 foot = 12 inches1 yard = 3 feet

1 mile = 5,280 feet

Weight1 pound = 16 ounces1 ton = 2000 pounds

Weight on earth to Mass1 slug = 32 lbs

Volume1 gallon = 4 quarts = 231 in3

1 quart = 2 pints1 pint = 2 cups

1 cup = 8 fluid ounces

Convert.2500 fl oz to gallons2500 fl oz 1 cup

8 fl oz1 pint2 cups

1 quart2 pints

1 gallon4 quarts

39 gallons

1.00 X 10­2 miles to inches

1.00 X 10­2 miles 5280 ft1 mile

12 in1 ft

634 in

Converting Units- British SI Length  1 in = 2.54 cm

Mass  1kg = 0.0685 slugs 1 kg = 2.2 lbs on earth

Force 1 lb = 4.45 N

Volume 1 gal = 3.785 L

Work 1 J = 0.738 ft lb

Page 15: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Convert.5 km to miles

265 mL to fl oz

5 km

5 km to miles

5 km 103 m1 km

1 cm10­2 m

1 in2.54 cm

1ft12 in

1 mile5280 ft

3.11 miles

265 mL 10­3 L1 mL

1 gal3.785 L

4 qt1 gal

2 pints1 qt

2 cups1 pints

8 fl oz1 cups

8.96 fl oz

Convert.35 mm to inches

4 lb to g (on earth)

Convert.5 quarts to liters

500 slugs to grams

Derived UnitsMany properties have units that are a 

combinations of more than one base unit. Mathematically, units are treated the same way variables are.

For Example:Find the area of a 3 foot by 2 foot table.

Area = length * widthArea = 3ft * 2ftArea = 6 ft2

Find the volume of a cube with a side of 3 cm.

Volume = side3Volume = (3 cm)3Volume = 27 cm3

Page 16: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

Some derived units we will use in this class.

Derived Units

Quantity SI Derived   Base Measurements SI Base Unit      Units

Velocity  Distance / Time  m/s

Acceleration  Distance / Time2 m/s2

Force  Newton (N) Mass * Distance/ Time2 kg m/s2

Work Joule (J) Mass * Distance2/Time2 kg m2/s2

Power Watts (W) Mass * Distance2/Time3 kg m2/s3

Pressure Pascal (Pa) Mass /(Distance*Time2) kg/(ms2)

(    ) 2Converting Derived UnitsConvert65 in2 to ft2 65 in2 1ft

12 in

65 in2 1 ft2144 in2

0.45 ft2

20 m/s to mi/hr

20 m      s

1 km103 m

1 mi1.609 km

60 s1 min

60 min1 hr

45 mi/h

6 kg*ms2 (    ) 239.37 in

1 m3600 s1 hr

0.0685 slug 1 kg

Converting Derived UnitsConvert6 kg*m/s2 to slug*in/hr2

2 X 108 slug * in/hr2

Converting Derived UnitsConvert50 ft*lb to N*m 75 km/hr to mi/hr

24 kg*m2/s3 to g*cm2/min3

Page 17: Chapter 1 - PC\|MACimages.pcmac.org/SiSFiles/Schools/AL/SaralandCitySchools...Take this example: Anna is 17 years old. How old is she in seconds? 536112000 Seconds. When is Anna exactly

EstimatingAn estimate can be used to make 

calculations easier in cases when knowing an exact answer is not important.

Estimating can also be used to check if an exact answer is reasonable.

A pool is 42 ft long and 18 ft wide.  One end is 3 ft deep and the other end is 10 ft deep.  The instructions on the chlorine says to add one scoop per 500 gallons of water.   

How many scoops do you put in?

Estimate 40 206

40*20*6/5004800/5005000/500

10

Delta thinks that 2850 people will need to fly from Atlanta to Mobile on an average Friday.  Each plane holds between 80 and 130 people. How many flights should they schedule?

Estimate 3000

100

3000/10030