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Chapter 1 Introduction and Basic concepts Chapter 2 Radiation Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology Chapter 4 Power From Fission Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons Chapter 7 Nuclear Waste Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture Chapter 11 Medical Applications of Nuclear Technology
1The Significance of Nuclear Technology 2Early Discoveries 3Basic Facts and Definitions
4Units SI system Physical constants natural unit
5Nuclear Reactions
Chapter 1 Introduction and Basic concepts
Discovery of nuclear reactions (nr)Energy in nrNeutron induced nuclear reactionsSimple theories or concepts related to nrTypes of nrApplications of nr
1 人类寻找物质构造基本单元的历程
gt10-2 cm() 10-8 cm 10 -12 cm 10-13 cm
Nuclide Z N A Symbol
碳 -12 6 6 12 12C
碳 -13 6 7 13 13C
碳 -14 6 8 14 14C
nuclear jargon
Z N A Examples
isotope Same D D 1H 2H 3H
isotone D Same D 2H 3He
isobar D D Same 3H 3He
isomer Same Same Same 99Te 99mTe
The binding energy (BE) of a nuclide is the energy released when the atom is synthesized from the appropriate numbers of hydrogen atoms and neutrons
Z H + N n = AE + BE
or Z mH + N mn = mE + BEwhere mH mn and mE are masses of H n and AE respectivelyEg
BE = Z mH + N mn - mE
BE (3He) = (21007825 + 1008665 - 301603) 931481 MeV = 772 MeV
BE (4He) = (21007825 + 21008665 - 400260) 931481 MeV = 2830 MeV
3) Nuclear mass and energy)()()()(M 1 AZMmZAHZMAZ n
The more the binding energy the more stable is the nuclide
Stable and Radioactive Nuclidesaverage binding energy
The binding energy and averagebinding energy of some nuclides
Nuclide BE BE A MeV MeV nucleon
3He2 772 2574He2 283 70816O8 1276 79856Fe26 4923 879 54Fe26 47176 874 208Pb82 163644 787 238U92 18017 757
Variation of the Average Binding Energyas a Function of Mass Number A
Fe
U
3He
BEa
v
A
BE A
A
Estimate Energy in Nuclear Reactions
The energy Q in a reaction A (a b) B is evaluated according to
ma + mA = mb + mB + Q (Q differs from enthalpy)
where mi means mass of i etc
Q = ma + mA - (mb + mB) (difference in mass before and after the reaction)
The Q is positive for exothermic (energy releasing at the expense of mass) or negative for endothermic (requiring energy) reactions
For endothermic reactions the energy can be supplied in the form of kinetic energy of the incident particle Energy appear as kinetic energy of the products in exothermic reactions
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
These two examples illustrate endothermic and exothermic reactions
Example Energy for the reaction
14N + 4He 17O + 1H + Q 1400307 + 400260 = 1699914 + 1007825 + QQ = 1400307 + 400260 ndash (1699914 + 1007825) = ndash 0001295 amu = ndash 121 MeVendothermic kinetic energy of must be greater than 121 MeV
Example The energy Q for the reaction 11B( n) 14N given masses 11B 1100931 n 10086649
Q = 1100931 + 400260 - (10086649 + 1400307) = 0000175 amu = 0163 MeVexothermic reaction
(5) Special Nuclear Units
is the kinetic energy gained by an electron (mass me
and charge -e) that is accelerated through a potential difference ΔV of one volt The work done by the electric field is -eΔV = (160217646 x 10-19 C)(1 JC) = 160217646 x 10-19 J = 1 eV
The Electron Volt 1 eV= 1602 176 46 x 10-19 J
The Atomic Mass Unit 1 amu = 16605387 x 10-27kg
112 the mass of a neutral ground-state atom of 12C
Chapter 2 Radiation
1Radioactivity
2Radiation interaction with Matter
3Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
1) overview
Gamma-ray Three Modes of Interaction with Matter
Interaction of Photons with Matter
1 5 MeV
Pairproduction
Photo-electric
Compton scattering
Photoelectric effect Compton scattering pair production
Compton Effect of Gamma Rays
Spectra of an Original and Scattered X-raysat a Particular Fixed Angle
Intensityarbitraryscale
Originalspectrum
scatteredspectrum
Feynman Diagram forthe Compton Effect
When a photon transfers part of its energy to an electron and the photon becomes less energetic is called Compton effect
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
1The Significance of Nuclear Technology 2Early Discoveries 3Basic Facts and Definitions
4Units SI system Physical constants natural unit
5Nuclear Reactions
Chapter 1 Introduction and Basic concepts
Discovery of nuclear reactions (nr)Energy in nrNeutron induced nuclear reactionsSimple theories or concepts related to nrTypes of nrApplications of nr
1 人类寻找物质构造基本单元的历程
gt10-2 cm() 10-8 cm 10 -12 cm 10-13 cm
Nuclide Z N A Symbol
碳 -12 6 6 12 12C
碳 -13 6 7 13 13C
碳 -14 6 8 14 14C
nuclear jargon
Z N A Examples
isotope Same D D 1H 2H 3H
isotone D Same D 2H 3He
isobar D D Same 3H 3He
isomer Same Same Same 99Te 99mTe
The binding energy (BE) of a nuclide is the energy released when the atom is synthesized from the appropriate numbers of hydrogen atoms and neutrons
Z H + N n = AE + BE
or Z mH + N mn = mE + BEwhere mH mn and mE are masses of H n and AE respectivelyEg
BE = Z mH + N mn - mE
BE (3He) = (21007825 + 1008665 - 301603) 931481 MeV = 772 MeV
BE (4He) = (21007825 + 21008665 - 400260) 931481 MeV = 2830 MeV
3) Nuclear mass and energy)()()()(M 1 AZMmZAHZMAZ n
The more the binding energy the more stable is the nuclide
Stable and Radioactive Nuclidesaverage binding energy
The binding energy and averagebinding energy of some nuclides
Nuclide BE BE A MeV MeV nucleon
3He2 772 2574He2 283 70816O8 1276 79856Fe26 4923 879 54Fe26 47176 874 208Pb82 163644 787 238U92 18017 757
Variation of the Average Binding Energyas a Function of Mass Number A
Fe
U
3He
BEa
v
A
BE A
A
Estimate Energy in Nuclear Reactions
The energy Q in a reaction A (a b) B is evaluated according to
ma + mA = mb + mB + Q (Q differs from enthalpy)
where mi means mass of i etc
Q = ma + mA - (mb + mB) (difference in mass before and after the reaction)
The Q is positive for exothermic (energy releasing at the expense of mass) or negative for endothermic (requiring energy) reactions
For endothermic reactions the energy can be supplied in the form of kinetic energy of the incident particle Energy appear as kinetic energy of the products in exothermic reactions
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
These two examples illustrate endothermic and exothermic reactions
Example Energy for the reaction
14N + 4He 17O + 1H + Q 1400307 + 400260 = 1699914 + 1007825 + QQ = 1400307 + 400260 ndash (1699914 + 1007825) = ndash 0001295 amu = ndash 121 MeVendothermic kinetic energy of must be greater than 121 MeV
Example The energy Q for the reaction 11B( n) 14N given masses 11B 1100931 n 10086649
Q = 1100931 + 400260 - (10086649 + 1400307) = 0000175 amu = 0163 MeVexothermic reaction
(5) Special Nuclear Units
is the kinetic energy gained by an electron (mass me
and charge -e) that is accelerated through a potential difference ΔV of one volt The work done by the electric field is -eΔV = (160217646 x 10-19 C)(1 JC) = 160217646 x 10-19 J = 1 eV
The Electron Volt 1 eV= 1602 176 46 x 10-19 J
The Atomic Mass Unit 1 amu = 16605387 x 10-27kg
112 the mass of a neutral ground-state atom of 12C
Chapter 2 Radiation
1Radioactivity
2Radiation interaction with Matter
3Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
1) overview
Gamma-ray Three Modes of Interaction with Matter
Interaction of Photons with Matter
1 5 MeV
Pairproduction
Photo-electric
Compton scattering
Photoelectric effect Compton scattering pair production
Compton Effect of Gamma Rays
Spectra of an Original and Scattered X-raysat a Particular Fixed Angle
Intensityarbitraryscale
Originalspectrum
scatteredspectrum
Feynman Diagram forthe Compton Effect
When a photon transfers part of its energy to an electron and the photon becomes less energetic is called Compton effect
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
1 人类寻找物质构造基本单元的历程
gt10-2 cm() 10-8 cm 10 -12 cm 10-13 cm
Nuclide Z N A Symbol
碳 -12 6 6 12 12C
碳 -13 6 7 13 13C
碳 -14 6 8 14 14C
nuclear jargon
Z N A Examples
isotope Same D D 1H 2H 3H
isotone D Same D 2H 3He
isobar D D Same 3H 3He
isomer Same Same Same 99Te 99mTe
The binding energy (BE) of a nuclide is the energy released when the atom is synthesized from the appropriate numbers of hydrogen atoms and neutrons
Z H + N n = AE + BE
or Z mH + N mn = mE + BEwhere mH mn and mE are masses of H n and AE respectivelyEg
BE = Z mH + N mn - mE
BE (3He) = (21007825 + 1008665 - 301603) 931481 MeV = 772 MeV
BE (4He) = (21007825 + 21008665 - 400260) 931481 MeV = 2830 MeV
3) Nuclear mass and energy)()()()(M 1 AZMmZAHZMAZ n
The more the binding energy the more stable is the nuclide
Stable and Radioactive Nuclidesaverage binding energy
The binding energy and averagebinding energy of some nuclides
Nuclide BE BE A MeV MeV nucleon
3He2 772 2574He2 283 70816O8 1276 79856Fe26 4923 879 54Fe26 47176 874 208Pb82 163644 787 238U92 18017 757
Variation of the Average Binding Energyas a Function of Mass Number A
Fe
U
3He
BEa
v
A
BE A
A
Estimate Energy in Nuclear Reactions
The energy Q in a reaction A (a b) B is evaluated according to
ma + mA = mb + mB + Q (Q differs from enthalpy)
where mi means mass of i etc
Q = ma + mA - (mb + mB) (difference in mass before and after the reaction)
The Q is positive for exothermic (energy releasing at the expense of mass) or negative for endothermic (requiring energy) reactions
For endothermic reactions the energy can be supplied in the form of kinetic energy of the incident particle Energy appear as kinetic energy of the products in exothermic reactions
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
These two examples illustrate endothermic and exothermic reactions
Example Energy for the reaction
14N + 4He 17O + 1H + Q 1400307 + 400260 = 1699914 + 1007825 + QQ = 1400307 + 400260 ndash (1699914 + 1007825) = ndash 0001295 amu = ndash 121 MeVendothermic kinetic energy of must be greater than 121 MeV
Example The energy Q for the reaction 11B( n) 14N given masses 11B 1100931 n 10086649
Q = 1100931 + 400260 - (10086649 + 1400307) = 0000175 amu = 0163 MeVexothermic reaction
(5) Special Nuclear Units
is the kinetic energy gained by an electron (mass me
and charge -e) that is accelerated through a potential difference ΔV of one volt The work done by the electric field is -eΔV = (160217646 x 10-19 C)(1 JC) = 160217646 x 10-19 J = 1 eV
The Electron Volt 1 eV= 1602 176 46 x 10-19 J
The Atomic Mass Unit 1 amu = 16605387 x 10-27kg
112 the mass of a neutral ground-state atom of 12C
Chapter 2 Radiation
1Radioactivity
2Radiation interaction with Matter
3Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
1) overview
Gamma-ray Three Modes of Interaction with Matter
Interaction of Photons with Matter
1 5 MeV
Pairproduction
Photo-electric
Compton scattering
Photoelectric effect Compton scattering pair production
Compton Effect of Gamma Rays
Spectra of an Original and Scattered X-raysat a Particular Fixed Angle
Intensityarbitraryscale
Originalspectrum
scatteredspectrum
Feynman Diagram forthe Compton Effect
When a photon transfers part of its energy to an electron and the photon becomes less energetic is called Compton effect
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
gt10-2 cm() 10-8 cm 10 -12 cm 10-13 cm
Nuclide Z N A Symbol
碳 -12 6 6 12 12C
碳 -13 6 7 13 13C
碳 -14 6 8 14 14C
nuclear jargon
Z N A Examples
isotope Same D D 1H 2H 3H
isotone D Same D 2H 3He
isobar D D Same 3H 3He
isomer Same Same Same 99Te 99mTe
The binding energy (BE) of a nuclide is the energy released when the atom is synthesized from the appropriate numbers of hydrogen atoms and neutrons
Z H + N n = AE + BE
or Z mH + N mn = mE + BEwhere mH mn and mE are masses of H n and AE respectivelyEg
BE = Z mH + N mn - mE
BE (3He) = (21007825 + 1008665 - 301603) 931481 MeV = 772 MeV
BE (4He) = (21007825 + 21008665 - 400260) 931481 MeV = 2830 MeV
3) Nuclear mass and energy)()()()(M 1 AZMmZAHZMAZ n
The more the binding energy the more stable is the nuclide
Stable and Radioactive Nuclidesaverage binding energy
The binding energy and averagebinding energy of some nuclides
Nuclide BE BE A MeV MeV nucleon
3He2 772 2574He2 283 70816O8 1276 79856Fe26 4923 879 54Fe26 47176 874 208Pb82 163644 787 238U92 18017 757
Variation of the Average Binding Energyas a Function of Mass Number A
Fe
U
3He
BEa
v
A
BE A
A
Estimate Energy in Nuclear Reactions
The energy Q in a reaction A (a b) B is evaluated according to
ma + mA = mb + mB + Q (Q differs from enthalpy)
where mi means mass of i etc
Q = ma + mA - (mb + mB) (difference in mass before and after the reaction)
The Q is positive for exothermic (energy releasing at the expense of mass) or negative for endothermic (requiring energy) reactions
For endothermic reactions the energy can be supplied in the form of kinetic energy of the incident particle Energy appear as kinetic energy of the products in exothermic reactions
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
These two examples illustrate endothermic and exothermic reactions
Example Energy for the reaction
14N + 4He 17O + 1H + Q 1400307 + 400260 = 1699914 + 1007825 + QQ = 1400307 + 400260 ndash (1699914 + 1007825) = ndash 0001295 amu = ndash 121 MeVendothermic kinetic energy of must be greater than 121 MeV
Example The energy Q for the reaction 11B( n) 14N given masses 11B 1100931 n 10086649
Q = 1100931 + 400260 - (10086649 + 1400307) = 0000175 amu = 0163 MeVexothermic reaction
(5) Special Nuclear Units
is the kinetic energy gained by an electron (mass me
and charge -e) that is accelerated through a potential difference ΔV of one volt The work done by the electric field is -eΔV = (160217646 x 10-19 C)(1 JC) = 160217646 x 10-19 J = 1 eV
The Electron Volt 1 eV= 1602 176 46 x 10-19 J
The Atomic Mass Unit 1 amu = 16605387 x 10-27kg
112 the mass of a neutral ground-state atom of 12C
Chapter 2 Radiation
1Radioactivity
2Radiation interaction with Matter
3Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
1) overview
Gamma-ray Three Modes of Interaction with Matter
Interaction of Photons with Matter
1 5 MeV
Pairproduction
Photo-electric
Compton scattering
Photoelectric effect Compton scattering pair production
Compton Effect of Gamma Rays
Spectra of an Original and Scattered X-raysat a Particular Fixed Angle
Intensityarbitraryscale
Originalspectrum
scatteredspectrum
Feynman Diagram forthe Compton Effect
When a photon transfers part of its energy to an electron and the photon becomes less energetic is called Compton effect
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
nuclear jargon
Z N A Examples
isotope Same D D 1H 2H 3H
isotone D Same D 2H 3He
isobar D D Same 3H 3He
isomer Same Same Same 99Te 99mTe
The binding energy (BE) of a nuclide is the energy released when the atom is synthesized from the appropriate numbers of hydrogen atoms and neutrons
Z H + N n = AE + BE
or Z mH + N mn = mE + BEwhere mH mn and mE are masses of H n and AE respectivelyEg
BE = Z mH + N mn - mE
BE (3He) = (21007825 + 1008665 - 301603) 931481 MeV = 772 MeV
BE (4He) = (21007825 + 21008665 - 400260) 931481 MeV = 2830 MeV
3) Nuclear mass and energy)()()()(M 1 AZMmZAHZMAZ n
The more the binding energy the more stable is the nuclide
Stable and Radioactive Nuclidesaverage binding energy
The binding energy and averagebinding energy of some nuclides
Nuclide BE BE A MeV MeV nucleon
3He2 772 2574He2 283 70816O8 1276 79856Fe26 4923 879 54Fe26 47176 874 208Pb82 163644 787 238U92 18017 757
Variation of the Average Binding Energyas a Function of Mass Number A
Fe
U
3He
BEa
v
A
BE A
A
Estimate Energy in Nuclear Reactions
The energy Q in a reaction A (a b) B is evaluated according to
ma + mA = mb + mB + Q (Q differs from enthalpy)
where mi means mass of i etc
Q = ma + mA - (mb + mB) (difference in mass before and after the reaction)
The Q is positive for exothermic (energy releasing at the expense of mass) or negative for endothermic (requiring energy) reactions
For endothermic reactions the energy can be supplied in the form of kinetic energy of the incident particle Energy appear as kinetic energy of the products in exothermic reactions
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
These two examples illustrate endothermic and exothermic reactions
Example Energy for the reaction
14N + 4He 17O + 1H + Q 1400307 + 400260 = 1699914 + 1007825 + QQ = 1400307 + 400260 ndash (1699914 + 1007825) = ndash 0001295 amu = ndash 121 MeVendothermic kinetic energy of must be greater than 121 MeV
Example The energy Q for the reaction 11B( n) 14N given masses 11B 1100931 n 10086649
Q = 1100931 + 400260 - (10086649 + 1400307) = 0000175 amu = 0163 MeVexothermic reaction
(5) Special Nuclear Units
is the kinetic energy gained by an electron (mass me
and charge -e) that is accelerated through a potential difference ΔV of one volt The work done by the electric field is -eΔV = (160217646 x 10-19 C)(1 JC) = 160217646 x 10-19 J = 1 eV
The Electron Volt 1 eV= 1602 176 46 x 10-19 J
The Atomic Mass Unit 1 amu = 16605387 x 10-27kg
112 the mass of a neutral ground-state atom of 12C
Chapter 2 Radiation
1Radioactivity
2Radiation interaction with Matter
3Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
1) overview
Gamma-ray Three Modes of Interaction with Matter
Interaction of Photons with Matter
1 5 MeV
Pairproduction
Photo-electric
Compton scattering
Photoelectric effect Compton scattering pair production
Compton Effect of Gamma Rays
Spectra of an Original and Scattered X-raysat a Particular Fixed Angle
Intensityarbitraryscale
Originalspectrum
scatteredspectrum
Feynman Diagram forthe Compton Effect
When a photon transfers part of its energy to an electron and the photon becomes less energetic is called Compton effect
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
The binding energy (BE) of a nuclide is the energy released when the atom is synthesized from the appropriate numbers of hydrogen atoms and neutrons
Z H + N n = AE + BE
or Z mH + N mn = mE + BEwhere mH mn and mE are masses of H n and AE respectivelyEg
BE = Z mH + N mn - mE
BE (3He) = (21007825 + 1008665 - 301603) 931481 MeV = 772 MeV
BE (4He) = (21007825 + 21008665 - 400260) 931481 MeV = 2830 MeV
3) Nuclear mass and energy)()()()(M 1 AZMmZAHZMAZ n
The more the binding energy the more stable is the nuclide
Stable and Radioactive Nuclidesaverage binding energy
The binding energy and averagebinding energy of some nuclides
Nuclide BE BE A MeV MeV nucleon
3He2 772 2574He2 283 70816O8 1276 79856Fe26 4923 879 54Fe26 47176 874 208Pb82 163644 787 238U92 18017 757
Variation of the Average Binding Energyas a Function of Mass Number A
Fe
U
3He
BEa
v
A
BE A
A
Estimate Energy in Nuclear Reactions
The energy Q in a reaction A (a b) B is evaluated according to
ma + mA = mb + mB + Q (Q differs from enthalpy)
where mi means mass of i etc
Q = ma + mA - (mb + mB) (difference in mass before and after the reaction)
The Q is positive for exothermic (energy releasing at the expense of mass) or negative for endothermic (requiring energy) reactions
For endothermic reactions the energy can be supplied in the form of kinetic energy of the incident particle Energy appear as kinetic energy of the products in exothermic reactions
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
These two examples illustrate endothermic and exothermic reactions
Example Energy for the reaction
14N + 4He 17O + 1H + Q 1400307 + 400260 = 1699914 + 1007825 + QQ = 1400307 + 400260 ndash (1699914 + 1007825) = ndash 0001295 amu = ndash 121 MeVendothermic kinetic energy of must be greater than 121 MeV
Example The energy Q for the reaction 11B( n) 14N given masses 11B 1100931 n 10086649
Q = 1100931 + 400260 - (10086649 + 1400307) = 0000175 amu = 0163 MeVexothermic reaction
(5) Special Nuclear Units
is the kinetic energy gained by an electron (mass me
and charge -e) that is accelerated through a potential difference ΔV of one volt The work done by the electric field is -eΔV = (160217646 x 10-19 C)(1 JC) = 160217646 x 10-19 J = 1 eV
The Electron Volt 1 eV= 1602 176 46 x 10-19 J
The Atomic Mass Unit 1 amu = 16605387 x 10-27kg
112 the mass of a neutral ground-state atom of 12C
Chapter 2 Radiation
1Radioactivity
2Radiation interaction with Matter
3Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
1) overview
Gamma-ray Three Modes of Interaction with Matter
Interaction of Photons with Matter
1 5 MeV
Pairproduction
Photo-electric
Compton scattering
Photoelectric effect Compton scattering pair production
Compton Effect of Gamma Rays
Spectra of an Original and Scattered X-raysat a Particular Fixed Angle
Intensityarbitraryscale
Originalspectrum
scatteredspectrum
Feynman Diagram forthe Compton Effect
When a photon transfers part of its energy to an electron and the photon becomes less energetic is called Compton effect
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Stable and Radioactive Nuclidesaverage binding energy
The binding energy and averagebinding energy of some nuclides
Nuclide BE BE A MeV MeV nucleon
3He2 772 2574He2 283 70816O8 1276 79856Fe26 4923 879 54Fe26 47176 874 208Pb82 163644 787 238U92 18017 757
Variation of the Average Binding Energyas a Function of Mass Number A
Fe
U
3He
BEa
v
A
BE A
A
Estimate Energy in Nuclear Reactions
The energy Q in a reaction A (a b) B is evaluated according to
ma + mA = mb + mB + Q (Q differs from enthalpy)
where mi means mass of i etc
Q = ma + mA - (mb + mB) (difference in mass before and after the reaction)
The Q is positive for exothermic (energy releasing at the expense of mass) or negative for endothermic (requiring energy) reactions
For endothermic reactions the energy can be supplied in the form of kinetic energy of the incident particle Energy appear as kinetic energy of the products in exothermic reactions
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
These two examples illustrate endothermic and exothermic reactions
Example Energy for the reaction
14N + 4He 17O + 1H + Q 1400307 + 400260 = 1699914 + 1007825 + QQ = 1400307 + 400260 ndash (1699914 + 1007825) = ndash 0001295 amu = ndash 121 MeVendothermic kinetic energy of must be greater than 121 MeV
Example The energy Q for the reaction 11B( n) 14N given masses 11B 1100931 n 10086649
Q = 1100931 + 400260 - (10086649 + 1400307) = 0000175 amu = 0163 MeVexothermic reaction
(5) Special Nuclear Units
is the kinetic energy gained by an electron (mass me
and charge -e) that is accelerated through a potential difference ΔV of one volt The work done by the electric field is -eΔV = (160217646 x 10-19 C)(1 JC) = 160217646 x 10-19 J = 1 eV
The Electron Volt 1 eV= 1602 176 46 x 10-19 J
The Atomic Mass Unit 1 amu = 16605387 x 10-27kg
112 the mass of a neutral ground-state atom of 12C
Chapter 2 Radiation
1Radioactivity
2Radiation interaction with Matter
3Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
1) overview
Gamma-ray Three Modes of Interaction with Matter
Interaction of Photons with Matter
1 5 MeV
Pairproduction
Photo-electric
Compton scattering
Photoelectric effect Compton scattering pair production
Compton Effect of Gamma Rays
Spectra of an Original and Scattered X-raysat a Particular Fixed Angle
Intensityarbitraryscale
Originalspectrum
scatteredspectrum
Feynman Diagram forthe Compton Effect
When a photon transfers part of its energy to an electron and the photon becomes less energetic is called Compton effect
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Estimate Energy in Nuclear Reactions
The energy Q in a reaction A (a b) B is evaluated according to
ma + mA = mb + mB + Q (Q differs from enthalpy)
where mi means mass of i etc
Q = ma + mA - (mb + mB) (difference in mass before and after the reaction)
The Q is positive for exothermic (energy releasing at the expense of mass) or negative for endothermic (requiring energy) reactions
For endothermic reactions the energy can be supplied in the form of kinetic energy of the incident particle Energy appear as kinetic energy of the products in exothermic reactions
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
These two examples illustrate endothermic and exothermic reactions
Example Energy for the reaction
14N + 4He 17O + 1H + Q 1400307 + 400260 = 1699914 + 1007825 + QQ = 1400307 + 400260 ndash (1699914 + 1007825) = ndash 0001295 amu = ndash 121 MeVendothermic kinetic energy of must be greater than 121 MeV
Example The energy Q for the reaction 11B( n) 14N given masses 11B 1100931 n 10086649
Q = 1100931 + 400260 - (10086649 + 1400307) = 0000175 amu = 0163 MeVexothermic reaction
(5) Special Nuclear Units
is the kinetic energy gained by an electron (mass me
and charge -e) that is accelerated through a potential difference ΔV of one volt The work done by the electric field is -eΔV = (160217646 x 10-19 C)(1 JC) = 160217646 x 10-19 J = 1 eV
The Electron Volt 1 eV= 1602 176 46 x 10-19 J
The Atomic Mass Unit 1 amu = 16605387 x 10-27kg
112 the mass of a neutral ground-state atom of 12C
Chapter 2 Radiation
1Radioactivity
2Radiation interaction with Matter
3Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
1) overview
Gamma-ray Three Modes of Interaction with Matter
Interaction of Photons with Matter
1 5 MeV
Pairproduction
Photo-electric
Compton scattering
Photoelectric effect Compton scattering pair production
Compton Effect of Gamma Rays
Spectra of an Original and Scattered X-raysat a Particular Fixed Angle
Intensityarbitraryscale
Originalspectrum
scatteredspectrum
Feynman Diagram forthe Compton Effect
When a photon transfers part of its energy to an electron and the photon becomes less energetic is called Compton effect
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
These two examples illustrate endothermic and exothermic reactions
Example Energy for the reaction
14N + 4He 17O + 1H + Q 1400307 + 400260 = 1699914 + 1007825 + QQ = 1400307 + 400260 ndash (1699914 + 1007825) = ndash 0001295 amu = ndash 121 MeVendothermic kinetic energy of must be greater than 121 MeV
Example The energy Q for the reaction 11B( n) 14N given masses 11B 1100931 n 10086649
Q = 1100931 + 400260 - (10086649 + 1400307) = 0000175 amu = 0163 MeVexothermic reaction
(5) Special Nuclear Units
is the kinetic energy gained by an electron (mass me
and charge -e) that is accelerated through a potential difference ΔV of one volt The work done by the electric field is -eΔV = (160217646 x 10-19 C)(1 JC) = 160217646 x 10-19 J = 1 eV
The Electron Volt 1 eV= 1602 176 46 x 10-19 J
The Atomic Mass Unit 1 amu = 16605387 x 10-27kg
112 the mass of a neutral ground-state atom of 12C
Chapter 2 Radiation
1Radioactivity
2Radiation interaction with Matter
3Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
1) overview
Gamma-ray Three Modes of Interaction with Matter
Interaction of Photons with Matter
1 5 MeV
Pairproduction
Photo-electric
Compton scattering
Photoelectric effect Compton scattering pair production
Compton Effect of Gamma Rays
Spectra of an Original and Scattered X-raysat a Particular Fixed Angle
Intensityarbitraryscale
Originalspectrum
scatteredspectrum
Feynman Diagram forthe Compton Effect
When a photon transfers part of its energy to an electron and the photon becomes less energetic is called Compton effect
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
(5) Special Nuclear Units
is the kinetic energy gained by an electron (mass me
and charge -e) that is accelerated through a potential difference ΔV of one volt The work done by the electric field is -eΔV = (160217646 x 10-19 C)(1 JC) = 160217646 x 10-19 J = 1 eV
The Electron Volt 1 eV= 1602 176 46 x 10-19 J
The Atomic Mass Unit 1 amu = 16605387 x 10-27kg
112 the mass of a neutral ground-state atom of 12C
Chapter 2 Radiation
1Radioactivity
2Radiation interaction with Matter
3Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
1) overview
Gamma-ray Three Modes of Interaction with Matter
Interaction of Photons with Matter
1 5 MeV
Pairproduction
Photo-electric
Compton scattering
Photoelectric effect Compton scattering pair production
Compton Effect of Gamma Rays
Spectra of an Original and Scattered X-raysat a Particular Fixed Angle
Intensityarbitraryscale
Originalspectrum
scatteredspectrum
Feynman Diagram forthe Compton Effect
When a photon transfers part of its energy to an electron and the photon becomes less energetic is called Compton effect
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Chapter 2 Radiation
1Radioactivity
2Radiation interaction with Matter
3Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
1) overview
Gamma-ray Three Modes of Interaction with Matter
Interaction of Photons with Matter
1 5 MeV
Pairproduction
Photo-electric
Compton scattering
Photoelectric effect Compton scattering pair production
Compton Effect of Gamma Rays
Spectra of an Original and Scattered X-raysat a Particular Fixed Angle
Intensityarbitraryscale
Originalspectrum
scatteredspectrum
Feynman Diagram forthe Compton Effect
When a photon transfers part of its energy to an electron and the photon becomes less energetic is called Compton effect
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
1) overview
Gamma-ray Three Modes of Interaction with Matter
Interaction of Photons with Matter
1 5 MeV
Pairproduction
Photo-electric
Compton scattering
Photoelectric effect Compton scattering pair production
Compton Effect of Gamma Rays
Spectra of an Original and Scattered X-raysat a Particular Fixed Angle
Intensityarbitraryscale
Originalspectrum
scatteredspectrum
Feynman Diagram forthe Compton Effect
When a photon transfers part of its energy to an electron and the photon becomes less energetic is called Compton effect
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Gamma-ray Three Modes of Interaction with Matter
Interaction of Photons with Matter
1 5 MeV
Pairproduction
Photo-electric
Compton scattering
Photoelectric effect Compton scattering pair production
Compton Effect of Gamma Rays
Spectra of an Original and Scattered X-raysat a Particular Fixed Angle
Intensityarbitraryscale
Originalspectrum
scatteredspectrum
Feynman Diagram forthe Compton Effect
When a photon transfers part of its energy to an electron and the photon becomes less energetic is called Compton effect
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Compton Effect of Gamma Rays
Spectra of an Original and Scattered X-raysat a Particular Fixed Angle
Intensityarbitraryscale
Originalspectrum
scatteredspectrum
Feynman Diagram forthe Compton Effect
When a photon transfers part of its energy to an electron and the photon becomes less energetic is called Compton effect
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Gamma Ray Spectrum of O18
E
Intensity 2h+
2+0+
327 MeV
198198 MeV
327 MeV
525 MeV
a)
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
16
An Ideal Alpha Spectrum
MeV
Noof
8 10
211Po particle energy | 989 1002 MeV | 05 945 | 05 855 |
| 207Pb |72+ 090 MeV ndash 0552+ 057 MeV ndash 0512+ ndash
989
b)How is alpha energy evaluated and determined What is a typical alpha spectrum and why
Expeimentally
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
4) Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter
Sketch of Alpha Particle Paths in a Medium
source
Shield
Fast moving protons 4He and other nuclei are heavy charged particles
Coulomb force dominates charge interaction
They ionize and excite (give energy to) molecules on their path
The Born-Bethe Formula for Energy Loss of Charged Particles
- dE
dx =
KM zE
2
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
18
c) Beta Decay Spectra and Neutrino
Pauli Neutrino with spin 12 is emitted simultaneously with beta carrying the missing energy
A Typical Beta Spectrum
Intensityor of
Energy of
E max
A Beta Decay Scheme
PZ DZ+1 + ndash + v
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Radioactive Decays
What is decay rate How does decay rate vary with time
Radioactivity or decay rate A is the rate of disintegration of nuclei Initially (at t = 0) we have No nuclei and at time t we have N nuclei This rate is proportional to N and the proportional constant is called decay constant
dNA = ndash ndashndashndashndashndash = N Integration gives
d t
ln N = ln No ndash t or N = No e ndash t
Also A = Ao e ndash t
activity or decay rate A decay constant
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
20
Half-life and its measurementVariation of N as a function of time t
N No
t
N = No e - t
Also A = Ao e - t
Be able to apply these equations
N = No endash t
A = Ao e ndash t
ln N = ln No ndash t ln A = ln Ao ndash t
Determine half life tfrac12
Ln(N or A)
t
ln N1 ndash ln N2
= ndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndashndash t1 ndash t2
tfrac12 = ln 2
Half life is not affected by chemical and physical state of matter
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
1) Historical Roots
2) Dosimetric Quantities
3) Natural Exposures for Humans
4) Radiation Effects
23 Radiation Doses and hazard Assessment
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Radiation Absorption and DosageThe amount of energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a dose The radiation effect measured by a dosimeter reflects an equivalence of certain dosage of X-rays The amounts are defined in certain units as shown here
type units
Radioactivity Bq Ci
Exposure dose Gy rad (R)
Quality factor Q
Biological dose Sv rem
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
A Dosage Evaluation ExampleA 5-MeV particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water estimate the dosage in rad and rem
The Q factor is 10 for particle and thus the dose is 8e-7 rem or 8e-9 Sv
If the particle is absorbed by a of 10-9 g cell then the dose is 109 times higher (08 Gy 8 Sv) exceeded lethal dose for most living beings
rad 1080 = erg 100
rad 1
J 1
erg 10 MeV 1
J 1016
g 1
5MeV 8-7-13
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Exposure Limit
Maximum permissible dosage of workers in radiation zone
Max accumulated Max dose13 wk mSv mSv
Whole body 50(age-18) 30
Hands and 250 (750y)forearms
1 Sv = 1000 mSv = 100 rem
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Chapter 3 Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology
1 Accelerators
2 Detectors
3 Reactors
Outline of experiment
bull1048708 get particles (eg protons hellip)bull1048708 accelerate thembull1048708 throw them against each otherbull1048708 observe and record what happensbull1048708 analyse and interpret the data
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
types of accelerators ion source1048708 electrostatic (DC) accelerators1048708 Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (protons up to 2 MeV)1048708 Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 10 MeV)1048708 Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator (protons up to 20 MeV)
1048708 resonance accelerators1048708 cyclotron (protons up to 25 MeV)1048708 linear accelerators electron linac 100 MeV to 50 GeV1048708 proton linac up to 70 MeV
1048708 synchronous accelerators1048708 synchrocyclotron (protons up to 750 MeV)1048708 proton synchrotron (protons up to 900 GeV)1048708 electron synchrotron (electrons from 50 MeV to 90 GeV)
1048708Induction Induction linac betatron
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Gas-Filled Radiation Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Semiconductor Detectors
Personal Dosimeters
Others
Particle identification
Measurement theory
Detection Equipment
ionization chambersproportional countersGeiger-Muller counters
E-ΔE TOF
photographic films photographic emulsion plates
Cloud and Bubble Chambers
Photomultiplier tube
2 Detectors
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of 24Na as measured by a Nal(Tl) scintillation detector
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
fastabsorp
resonance escape probability p
fast fission factor ε
thermal utilization f
thermal fission factor η
Fission
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Chapter 5 Thermonuclear Fusion
1Introduction
2Thermonuclear Reactions and Energy Production
3Fusion in a Hot Medium
4Progress Towards Fusion Power
5Stellar Burning
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Chapter 6 Nuclear Weapons1History of Weapons Development
2Nuclear Explosions
3Uranium and Nuclear Weapons
4Plutonium and Nuclear Weapons
5Nuclear Weapons related Issues
Basic Characteristics of Fission BombsCritical Mass for Nuclear WeaponsBuildup of a Chain Reaction
Explosive Properties of PlutoniumReactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material
1 kt of TNT = 1012 cal = 418 times 1012 J
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Chapter 8 Radioactive isotopes and Their Applications
1Introduction
2Production of Radioisotopes
3Some Commonly Used Radionuclides
4Tracer Applications
5Thickness Gauging
6Radioisotope Dating
7Radioisotope Applications in Space Exploration
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Daughter Decays Faster than the Parent λI lt λ2
daughters decay rate is limited by the decay rate of the parent
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
After elution the daughter activity starts to grow again in the column until an equilibrium is reached the elution of activity can be made repeatedly the 99mTc is milked from the 90Mo cow
Production timeAs long as possible
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
tt eCC
01414
MeasuredMeasured
ConstantConstant
CalculatedCalculated
Clock starts when one dies
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
N ( t ) = N(0)exp(-λt)
we never know N(0)
the initial ratio N(0)NS of the radionuclide and some stable isotope of the same element can be estimated with reliabilityThis ratio also decays with the same radioactive decaylaw as the radionuclide
It is usually easier to measurethe specific activity of 14C in a sample ie A14 per gram of carbon
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Radiocarbon Measurements and Reporting
Radiocarbon dates are determined by measuring the ratio of 14C to 12C in a sample relative to a standard usually in an accelerator mass spectrometer
standard = oxalic acid that represents activity of 1890 wood
14C ages are reported as ldquo14C years BPrdquo where BP is 1950
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Chapter 9 Nuclear Analysis Methods
1Neutron Activation Analysis 2Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 3Moumlssbauer Spectroscopy 4Ion Beam Analysis 5Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
Chapter 10 Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture
101 Introduction 102 Material Modification- lithography 103 Sterilization 104 Food and Agriculture
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
40
No matter which sterilization method is used the objective is to reduce thebioburden (the number of microorganisms present) to a safe level
Ethylene oxide环氧乙烷
suitable or unsuitable
