Chapter 1: Introduction

Transboundary narco-trafficking has been one of the most ancient and yet

persistently catalytic issue in the history of international politics. The literal meaning

of 'transboundary narco-trafficking' deals with illicit 'opium' commerce across the

international territorial land, air and maritime borders of a country. Illegal opium

cultivation and trafficking are normally viewed as global debacl"es in terms of drug

abuse and law and order matter for it debilitates the social, economic and political

institutions.

Opium is produced from 'Opium Poppy' plant!..Papaveraceae family having

three genus or species of:

1. 'Opium Poppy' (Papaver Somniferum)2,

2. 'Prickly Poppy' (Argemone Mexicana)

3. 'California Poppy' (Eschaschaolzia Californica).

So far, opium poppy has been the earliest known and most abused medicinal

plants. Though opium poppy crop is cultivated in quite a few countries all over the

world, Asia houses major opium producing countries. The opiate product is lvw

weight, high volume cash crop. Due to its addictive and lethal properties, the

hierarchy of prices of opium products from the farm gate price of opium producing

country to opium consuming country's retail street price is a hundred times the price

paid to the farmer. The gimmicks of opium trade are therefore intricate where the

opiate products transit from the producing country-to the transshipment country and

then to the opium consuming country. It is this compulsive nature of the opiate

product, that the opium trade has procured illegal market dynamics which have

achieved exhaustive dimensions and stupendous proportions. It is primarily the vast

financial implications of the opium trade and the crucial role of the opium

transshipment or narco-trafficking countries that narco-trade has achieved illegality.

The addictive property of opium and its derivatives ensures a steady supply of

revenue from opium addicts thus making opium crop one of the most notorious and

marketable crop (an average opium and heroin addict spends US$ 200 daily in order

Opium poppies were ornamental plants, popularly grown in United States until this plant was declared illegal in 1942's 'Opium Poppy Control Act'. 'Papaver' is the Greek word for "poppy" and 'Somniferum' in Latin means "sleep inducing".

11

to maintain the addiction). To add to it, least crop investment ratio vis-a-vis crop

revenue generation has encouraged farmers to grow opium crop both in terms of

medical use and non-medical abuse. Therefore, opium crop has become a very

lucrative crop among the impoverished farmers of opium producing regions.

Moreover, the abusive property of opium has always been historically used as a

catalyst to steer the political undercurrents of a nation.

Opium has acted as a geopolitical weapon to control the regions of political

dynasties of various countries for centuries. Often the fall of great empires has been

corroborated to the geopolitics of opium. The United Nations estimates that the

annual illegal opium trade ranges up to US $ 400 to $ 500 billion per annum

(Doughlas Keh, 1998 and INCSR 1999).

Narco-trafficking countries or narcotics transshipment countries are those

countries where opiates are transported illegally from one country to another with

respect to the matrix of opium demand and supply. Clandestine narco-trade often

flourishes by inefficient and corrupt law enforcement agencies.The mode of nacre­

trafficking encompasses all means of transport be it manually, by two wheelers or

four wheeler automobiles on land or by maritime movements through local femes,

steamers or ships to that of air trafficking by aircrafts.

Narco-trafficking is considered a threat to national security. The effects of

illicit drugs are seen as a threat to socio-economic development of a nation. Of all the

various effects on individuals, intravenous use of narcotics (heroin) is of great

concern as it is a harbinger of HIV-AIDS3 which is a much lethal threat to socio­

economic development of a nation. Narco-trafficking is also considered as a

geopolitical tool, where one nation uses it against another for passive destruction. This

phenomenon can be traced into China during the 181h and 191

h century where Britain

encouraged opium trafficking to cause social decay to the ruin of once a great nation:

China. Illicit narco-trade survives in prui by locating and exploiting vulnerable areas

of a broad range of national institutions, the weakest area being the judicial sector for

there is no integrated transnational narcotics control policy to encourage and help

governments to strengthen their law enforcement, justice and financial system to

minimize narcotic penetration and manipulation by narco-trafficking organizations.

HIV-AIDS is a pandemic and incurable disease which is virally transmitted by sexual intercourse and blood transfusion.

12

Narco-trafficking is one of the pillars of organized crime as well. Narco­

trafficking has become an international problem with an intricate network of

trafficking routes combined with the increased sophisticated, organized global

criminal organizations. The enormous financial returns of narco-trade and the issues

of money laundering and narco-terrorism by narco-money, has escalated asymmetric

proportions on a globallevd. Narco-crimes on a local level have not only become a

threat to social security but also to that of global communities. Transboundary narco­

trafficking plays an arterial role in the illegal narcotics trade filling the gap between

opiate producing and opiate consuming countries.

The rple of narco-trafficking ensures opiate supply, an output element in

narco-trade. This involves the movement of narcotics from the point of its production

to its refining, transit and wholesale distribution at all stages. The International

Narcotics Control Bureau (INCB) has identified major illicit drug producing and

major opiate transit countries as, "the ones in which, "1 000 hectares or more of illicil

opium is cultivated or harvested during a year". A major narco transshipment country

is one that is a significant direct source of illicit narcotic drug through which are

tran~ported such drugs or substance." (INCSR, 2005).

I. GENESIS: In order to understand the current exigencies of contemporary

narco-trafficking it is vital to understand its historical milieu regardless of the fact that

despite development, most societies have used opium either for recreation, medicine

or even for religion. Historical records suggest that the earliest citing of opium was in

3400 B.C. in lower Mesopotamia, Sumeria where opium was used for recreation, as it

was considered as a ')oy plant." By 1300 B.C., during the region of Thutmose IV,

Ankhenaton and Tutankhemen, opium was patronaged in Egypt as such, setting a

trend amongst the royal diet of Egyptians and Minoans. Crossing Mediterranean Sea

via Greece to Europe, opium was identified in Cyprus by 1100 B.C.

It was in 5111 century B.C., that opium was used as a medicine m Greek

pharmacopoeia. The Eastward movement of opium from the Mediterranean by 300

B.C. was by the advent of Alexander's opium introduction. Opium also spread

Eastwards to China from Egypt (by 400 A.D.) through Arab travelers along Asia's

trade routes to India, reaching China by 8111 century as recorded in Chinese medical

texts. The historical records in India dating 1200 A.D. in Shodal Gadanigarh,

Sharangdhar Samhita and Dhanyatri Nighalu suggest that the use of opium has been

13

of medicinal significance. However, the gradual role of opium as a medicine to that of

a recreational euphoria made opium as a leading trade commodity in an 'expanding

intra-Asian trade'. By 1556-1605, during Akbar's regime, land under opium

cultivation was regarded as major source of revenue. Opium cultivation was

concentrated in two main areas upriver Gan_setic delta and Malwa, upcountry from

West Bombay. While opium cultivation was gaining popularity in the East, it had an

inverse effect in the West where opium disappeared suddenly from Europe. This

entire transit of opium through land trade marked a shift of approach.

The"Portuguese sea adventures however broke opium into East again by 1500

A.D. through a maritime route reaching China through East China Sea via India and

Macao. Maritime navigation of opium by Portuguese was implied by British as well

around 1606 but maritime opium trade was restricted to India only as war supplement

(both for diet and medicinal purpose) to the Raj put soldiers stationed under Mughals.

The Dutch in 1700 A.D. while analysing the British monopoly in India and the

Portuguese opium trade to China, encroached the Southeast Asian markets. It was

from 1767 onwards the British monopolised the opium trade in China by taking

command of the sea routes to China. While 1 t 11 century witnessed the monopoly of

British East India Company of opium trader into India, the 18111 century saw British

opium infiltration into China. The seven decade narcostanding in China by British

well demonstrated the opium contamination towards its political system.

While the Portuguese and British were into direct opium commerce with

China, the Dutch catered to opium trade in Southeast Asia especially in Indonesia.

"Dutch established a permanent port at Jakarta (in 1619) and began purchasing opium

from Bengal (in 1640) to supply Java's limited demand". The Bengal opium trade in

India was monopolized by a syndicate of Indian merchants up the Ganges River at

Patna who made cash advances to peasant farmers and sold processed opium to

Dutch, British and French merchants. This area was inadvertently India's richest

opium zone and was discovered by British in 1764 when it conquered Bengal". After

this discovery the British converted this limited opium trade to an expanding

European commerce. Soon, the intra-Asian trade networks of local merchants were

replaced by profitable long distance trade in low weight, high value goods. The

European involvement in opium commerce increased with the extraordinary

profitability of opium trade (Alfred Me Coy, 1972).

14

European opium trade with China has not been healthy. On one hand, while

the whole business of opium was increasing, the increasing Chinese population

witnessed the per-capita increase of the opium addicts also. Despite making opium

illegal in 1796, nothing much happened for the next 40 years till stringent law

enforcement resulted in two opium wars between China and British. The First Opium

War occurred on 18th March 1839-1842, where Chinese were defeated by the British

culminating in the Treaty of Nanking between Queen of Great Britain and Emperor of

China and the war ended with Britain's seizure of Hong Kong. The Second Opium

War in 1856 marked a repeated Chinese defeat by British and French, as a result,

opium was legalized into China. The military defeat of Chinese by British over the

issues of opium gave vent for new market explorations and consolidation of opium

production zone in the Southeast Asia. The commerce of opium in China caused

Southeast Asian opium production in lower Myanmar to a full time high, supervised

by the British patronage from 1852 to 1856.

While transboundary opium commerce was expanding and strengthening, the

use of opium also underwent drastic changes with respect to its consumption. The

discovery of morphine from opium in 1803 and the synthesis of heroin from

morphine in 1874 caused opium trade establish further with respect to its demand

from opium addicts. The pioneering ban on opium in San Francisco in United States

of America, in 1874 was followed by the 'Opium Act' in 1878 by British was

considered as a historic move. This itself suggests the manic consumption of opium

and helplessness of its addictives properties. With this, we observe 191h century as an

era alternated with opium commerce enhancement and anti-opium legal drives, which

was state sponsored. The acquisition of Myanmar's Northeast region or Shan State by

the British for opium production in 1886 laid the seeds of an indelible opium

producing zone. This was followed by further measures to curtail opium consumption

in United States of America as United State Congress imposed tax on opium and

morphine. The residual event in late 19th century was the discovery of heroin as a

medicine in 1895 where it was made commercial for three years thus making it legal

for consumption. The first half of the 20th century experienced a parallel growth and

development of opium production and law enforcement respectively. Gradually, the

opium commerce created an opium producing area which was centered around the

Shan Plateau in N011heastem region of Myanmar, encompassing three countries of

15

Thailand, Myanmar and Laos. This region came to be called as 'Golden Triangle'. By

1940's the Golden Triangle became a major player in profitable opium trade.

While Golden Triangle emerged as an ace region for opium production,

transboundary narco-trafficking developed a certain pattern. Despite temporary

curtailment of transboundary narco-trafficking during World War II in 1940's in the

Golden Triangle, the post effect of the II World War was that of a flourishing opium

trade. This was due to Britain's involvement in II World War that laid temporary hold

to its opium geopolitics in Golden Triangle.

After II World War, opium trade control changed hands from British

monopoly to United State of America's novel hold in Golden Triangle. The United

States involvement with Golden Triangle was more as a side-effect for its political

involvement in Southeast Asia especially in Vietnam, Laos and Myanmar. As a result,

the Golden Triangle emerged as a main opium production centre with narco­

trafficking routes emerging from erstwhile Burma, Laos, South China, Cambodia and

Vietnam. When opium warlord Khun Sa of Shan State surrendered to State Law and

Order Restoration Committee (SLORC) of Myanmar, the image of Golden Triangle

shattered rapidly. As a result, the major vpium producing region of the world got

uprooted from Golden Triangle in Southeast Asia to that of Southwest Asia's. Golden

Crescent which comprises of contiguous countries of Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran,

where the political conditions were similar to that of the geographic nomenclatures.

II. OPIUM EXTRACTION PROCESS: Opium is produced from Opium Poppy

plant. It is an erect annual herb which flowers and fruits nearly year round in tropical

areas and elsewhere in spring and summer. Its flowers have 4-8 em long petals

ranging from white to purplish and are also found in pinks, violets, bluish or red.

Opium poppies flower after 90 days of growth and continue to flower for two to three

weeks. The petals last for two to four days revealing a bulbous green fruit which

continues to develop to about the size of chicken egg. These fruits are also called

"seedpods", "bulbs" or "poppy heads" which are oblate, globular or elongated. This

fruit pod is the main source from where the plant can produce opium alkaloids.

Flowering only once, the entire growth cycle for this plant is 120 days as its seeds

germinate rapidly in warm and moist conditions.

The opium poppy sapling emerges from the soil in less than six weeks with

lobed galucous green colored four leaf-set. With only one primary long smooth stem,

16

the opium poppy plant grows into its full height ranging from 1.0 to 1.5 meters within

two months. The poppy pod skin encloses the wall of the pod ovary which is of three

layers namely outer, middle and inner layers. The milky latex (opium) is produced

within the orange wall and drains into the middle layer which secretes more than 95%

of the opium through a system of vessels and tubes within the pod (Diagram 1.1).

The pod is scored and harvested when the cultivators tap the opium from each

pod, while it remains on the plant. This scoring is also called "lancing", "incising'~ or

"tapping" which beings about two weeks after the flower petals fall from the upward

curved, dark green pods. Scoring of the pods is done very meticulously by a specially

designed blade-tool for opium extraction. The tool is like a set of three of four small

blades of iron or glass splinters that are bound tightly together on a wooden handle to

score two or three sides of pod in a vertical direction. Scoring is ideally done in late

afternoons where the incision desirably is one millimeter deep in order to avoid over

spilling of opium into ground and undue coagulation inside the pod. Late afternoons

usually avoid opium coagulation over the incision due to less sunlight and that it

oxidizes, darkness and thickens in the cool night air and early next morning the opium

gum is scarped from the pod surface by a three to four inch wide, short-handled flat . iron blade. The lower, mature pods are scored first before the taller pods to avoid

inadvertent spilling of opium.

"The single opium pod secretes 10 to 100 mg of opium, the average yield

being about 80 milligrams." (See Opium Poppy Cultivation and Heroin Processing in

Southeast Asia, DEA- 92004).

The pods continue to secrete opium for several days and farmers return to

these plants up to five or six times in order to collect additional opium until the total

depletion of the pod. The farmers usually collect opium in a container, which hangs

from the farmer's neck or waist. The larger, more productive pods are tagged with

colored strings or yam to collect seeds for the following year's planting. The pods are

usually cut from the stems, and dried. The seeds are removed and dried in the sun

before re-planting.

Another method of collecting opium seeds is from intentionally unscored pods

as scoring diminishes the quality of the seeds. The opium poppy grows best in

temperate, warm climates with low humidity. It requires only moderate amount of

water before and during the early stages, of growth as excessive moisture or

extremely arid conditions would affect the poppy plants growth, thus reducing its

17

DIAGRAM 1.1: THE OPIUM POPPY PLANT

THE OPIUM YOPPY rapa~r.so~m

lEAf

) .HAA'I'ESTING WEEDtNG t TH\.N.Ni.N6

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alkaloid4 content. Opium poppy is a "long-day" photo-responsive plant as it requires

long days and short nights before flowering. Opium grows best in sandy loam soil and

can also be grown in clay, sandy loam and sandy clay soil. Sandy loam soil has good

moisture-retentive and nutrient-retentive properties and also is good favourable for

root development of opium plant (but the month of growth can leach alkaloids

spoiling the harvest). In poorly drained soils, the poppy plants can become water

logged and die after a heavy rainfall.In this period of growth stage of opium, dull,

rainy or cloudy weather not only reduces the quantity but also the quality of the

alkaloid content of opium plant.

The opium poppy seed can be sown towards the end of Asian rainy season in

August-September. However, the method of opium cultivation differs from Golden

Crescent to that of Golden Triangle. The Golden Triangle being more rugged

compared to Golden Crescent, most opium-poppy fields are on the mountain slopes.

The average elevation of the mountain slopes is 1000 meters above sea level with a

slope gradient of 20 to 40 degrees for best water drainage.by slash-and burn

agriculture, (commonly practiced by dry-field farmers,) where fields are cleared for

opium-poppy cultivation. During March land is prepared by cutting, piling bushes,

vines and smalls trees and allowed to dry in summer. In April, these fields are set

ablaze. The ash resulting from burn off is rich in nutrients and enriches the soil

additionally. Till August-September, the farmers level the ground and sow opium

poppy seeds by October. About one pound (0.45359 kg) of opium poppy seeds is

needed to sow in one acre of land." Maize is often planted with opium poppies as it

not only keeps excessive weeds at bay, but also is useful for pigs and ponies but also

protects young opium poppy plants from heavy rains. By the processes of "thinning"

ideally, there are as many as 18 plants per square meter or 60,000 to 120,000 poppy

plants per hectare, with a range of 120,000 to 275,000 opium producing pods." Opium

is thus harvested in the last two weeks of February by the process of scoring.

Opium is cooked before it is smoked such that unwanted moisture, vegetable

matter and other impurities are detracted from it before it becomes a smoking product.

Hence, opium gum, collected from the opium poppy pods is placed in an open

cooking pot of boiling water in order to dissolve the opium alkaloids and then filtered

Any of the nitrogen containing organic bases derived from plants, usually physiologically active; common alkaloids include caffeine, cocaine morphine, papvenne, quinine, narcotic, codeine, atropine, noscapire, strychnine and the buine.

18

to separate the undisclosed impurities to drain clear brown "liquid opium". Cooking

opium is the first step in extracting morphine from opium. Morphine is 20% lighter

than opium and is purer than raw opium. Morphine is then converted to heroin which

is the purest form of opium and often most abused and narco-trafficked opiate.

Morphine is extracted from opium by few chemicals and water. As opium

gum is extracted from the fields, the extraction of morphine from opium gum is

carried out in clandestine "laboratories" located near opium poppy fields. The

conversion of opium into morphine and further into heroin is usually derived for

enhancing the purity levels and for convenient trafficking as well.

The process of extracting morphine and heroin from opium in Golden Triangle

is as under:

"I) I 0-15 kg of raw opium is added to a 55 gallon oil drum filled with 30 gallons of water and allowed to boil. The empty oil drum is placed on bricks about a foot above the ground and fire is built under the drum.

2) Periodic stirring is ensured to dissolve raw opium eventually into boiling water and to scoop non-solution to derive "liquid opium"

3) Salted lime or calcium hydroxide is added to the solution in order to convert water insoluble morphine into water soluble calcium morphanate to form'sludge'

4) While the solution is allowed to cool down, morphine is scooped and filtered by burlap rice sacks and reheated in large cooking pots.

5) Ammonium Chloride is added5 to the reheated solution and then allowed to cool for one or two. hours where the morphine base is formed and unreacted Codeine is settled to the bottom of cooking pot. 6

6) This solution is re-filtered through cloth and then wrapped and squeezed in cloth and allowed to dry till light brown.

7) This crude morphine base is further purified by its dissolution in hydrochloric acid and by the similar process of re-heating, cooling, filtering and drying, morphine hydrochloride (much refined) is derived.

8) This refined morphine hydrochloride is usually wrapped in paper or cloth into brick-sized blocks of 2 inches by 4-5 inches of 1.3 kg weight, to be dried and trafficked to heroin processing laboratories. (Approximately 13 kg of opium, from one hectare of opium poppies are needed to produce each morphine block of this size)".

The morphine blocks are then bundled and packed for transport to heroin

laboratories by human couriers or by pack animals. Pack mules are able to carry 1 00

kg payloads over 400 miles of rugged mountains trails in less than three weeks.

9)

6

"Conversion of heroin from morphine is a two way process where active anhydride is added to the pulverized morphine hydrochloride bricks and

This chemical is added in order to adjust the alkalinity to pH of 8 to 9. "Codeine is an opium alkaloid which is mildly water soluble and will be carried over with calcium morphenate in the liquid.

I9

I 0)

11)

12)

cooked for two hours at 185°F carefully ensuring that neither the solution boils nor is evaporated. Water is added7 along with activated charcoal and stirred in order to remove colored impurities. Sodium carbonate8 is also added such that heroin base precipitates. This is a 12 hour process. For each pound of morphine, about 11 ounces of crude heroin base is formed". The resultant heroin base is further processed as Heroin 3 (smoking heroin) and Heroin 4 (injectable heroin). Another 8 hour process is needed for the derivation of Heroin 3 (Heroin Hydrocholride) where hydrochloric acid is mixed with the crude heroin base along with caffine. The wet paste mix is stirred to dryness. Heroin 4 or injectable heroin is the purest form of heroin which is denoted by its pure white color. The precursor chemicals needed for this is acetic anhydride meager chloroform and activated charcoal (for decolorizing).

Approximately 1.1 kg of sodium carbonate per 0.5 kg of morphine is dissolved in hot water and added slowly to the mixture till effervescence is replaced by precipitates of heroin or re-crystallized heroin based is undertaken by skilled chemist to increase heroin quality which is injectable by interventions drug use (IVD) by syringes. About 5-l 0 kg dry or 20 kg heroin batches with filter paper are packed such that it is ready for trafficking." (Southeast Asian Heroin Processing,DEA documents).

"The International Narcotics Control Bureau (INCB) identifies m~jor illicit drug producing and major-drug transit countries as the one in which "1000 hectares or more of illicit opium is cultivated or harvested during a year". A major drug transit country is one that is "a significant direct sources of illicit narcotic drug through which are transported such drugs or substance".

III. OPIUM CONSUMPTION TECHNIQUES: Opium is consumed in different

ways (Table 1.1 ). Each technique of opium consumption differs on the basis of the

recovery of heroin. Heroin is the most processed form of opium. Its quality or purity

is further identified as Heroin 1, Heroin 2, Heroin 3 and Heroin 4. Opium

consumption ranges from being swallowed, chewed, and smoked to that of

intravenous drug use. Smoking opium or its derivatives like heroin are by two

methods called:

(a) 'Chasing the Dragon' Technique: Here, heroin is inhaled through a straw or

match box cover when the fumes of a heroin barbiturate mixture (which is

vaporized from a receptacle) is held over the nose and thus consumed.

(h) Tlte Ack-Ack Technique: Here, the method is when heroin is placed at the end

of a cigarette from which some of the tobacco has been removed. It is then bit

and inhaled.

Water is added at three times the volume of acetic anhydride. Sodium Carbonate is dissolved at 2.5 pounds per pound of morphine.

20

t

(c) Opium Swallowing Technique: This method produces maximum and direct

effect to the opium consumer as its effect is ten times more than any of the

opium consumption technique.

(d) Intravenous Injection: Here, heroin is directly injected into the vems of

S. No.

I.

2.

3.

4.

heroin consumer to cause 68% of the intoxicating experience. This method of

opium consumption is very lethal as often the needles are shared causing HIV­- TH

AIDS threat. 363.450959 M2648 Tr

Table l.l \II \ll\~~1\1~~~~~11\\ll\ OPIUM CONSUMPTION TECHNIQUES - --

Opium Smoking Technique Heroin rate recovery*

Chasing the dragon 26%

Intravenous injection 68%

Ack-Ack technique 14%

Svvallow opium Ten times that of smoked opium

Source: Mo, Ben;amrn Pre-Nm and Way E. Lecony, 1966. *Analysis of the total urinary output of opiate of their subiectsfor three days following ingestion.

IV. STUDY AREA: The study areas are geostrategically located in Southv.-~st

Asia called The Golden Crescent and Southeast Asia called The Golden Triangle

which are the leading opium cultivation, production and trafficking regions of opium

trade (Map 1.1 ). This area consists of six countries namely: Afghanistan-Pakistan­

Iran of the Golden Crescent and Myanmar-Thailand-Laos of the Golden Triangle.

These are the two illicit opium poppy cultivation, production and trafficking regions

located diametrically opposite to each other with India in between which is the only

largest licit opium poppy cultivation and production country. The key factor for the

emergence of this area is the absence of apparent legislature constraints on opium

production, the role of narco-trafficking as revenue raising technique for erstwhile

Taliban in Afghanistan or insurgents in Myanmar and the heavy demand for heroin

from Russia and Eastern Europe apart from West European market or other parts of

the world. 'The Golden Crescent' and 'The Golden Triangle' are the world's leading

source areas of heroin availability for the international market. This is due to the

stupendous growth of illicit opium poppy cultivation produc~.!J=!f;:tfficking /;:~eY.\ e t1 r l;

development of an imposing opiate processing infrastructure.y,~y~~

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In the Golden Crescent, Afghanistan has overtaken Myanmar as world's

leading and single largest source of illicit opium for the international illicit narcotics

industry, with its total potential illicit drug production being 4,563 metric tons in 2006

(INCSR 2006). The total land area under poppy cultivation of Afghanistan is three

times less than Myanmar. This is due to better soil, superior farming practices and

developed irrigation system that makes it 50% to 36% of the global opium production

respectively. Erstwhile Taliban regime in Afghanistan encouraged opium production

despite the war ravaged economic infrastructure of Afghanistan. It had controlled the

Afghanistan's opium growing areas. "The incentive to grow highly profitable opium

arose as continued fighting since Soviet pullout and widespread damage to roads had

made it difficult and costly for farmers to move legitimate agricultural crops to city".

From 1990 to 1999 there was hence a 300% increase of opium poppy cultivation.

Afghanistan's historical opium growing areas are Helmand, Khandhar, Uruzgan and

Nangarhar province. Pakistani illicit opium production has averaged about 145 metric

tons annually from 1989 to 1995. Since 1990's Pakistan has been aggressive on

imposing a ban on poppy cultivation and the traditional opium cultivation areas are

Bajur and Mohamand Agencies and Dir district.

Iran is a destination point for convoys where the opiate loads of Afghanistan

and Pakistan are dumped for further trafficking. Substantial amount of opiate products

are moved over land to Iran wherein opium processing is done. Narcotic shipment is

trafficked from areas in Afghanistan stage by stage to Iran, is usually in large heavily

armed convoys. These shipments are hence broken once in Iran. Thus Iran is the most

important conduit for Southwest Asian narcotic's export. Tehran's anti narco­

trafficking efforts have surpassed Afghanistan and Pakistan as it itself has been

bedeviled by its in-house opium and heroin abuse problem. The Markan Coast adds to

Iran's importance as a chief narco-trafficking transit route.

'The Golden Triangle' comprises of Shan Plateau and Kachin Hills of

Northeastern Myanmar, the highlands of Northwestern Laos and the highlands of

Northern Thailand. It is notorious historical place of illicit opium production with

potential illicit opium production being 408 metric tons (INCSR 2006). It overlaps the

three states whose mountainous peripheries constitute Myanmar (formerly Burma),

Laos and Thailand. The emergence of the Golden Triangle from the tropical

mountains of Northern mainland Southeast Asia is an altogether 20th century

phenomenon which has emerged due to its geostrategic location and this tern1 was

22.

popularized in 1970's by Western journalists to designate one of the principal 'source

area' in the world for illicit opium and its derivatives like morphine and heroin.

Myanmar is known as world's second largest producer of illicit opium, after

Afghanistan with potential production in 2006 being 380 metric tons and opium

cultivation in 2006 being 40,000 hectares. The' surrender of warlord Khun Sa's

'Mong Tai Army' in January 1996 was hailed by Yangoon as a major counter

narcotics success, but lack of government will and ability to take on major narco­

trafficking groups and lack of serious commitment against money laundering

continues to hinder the overall narcotic enforcement efforts.

The farmers, governments, mafias and gangs operate m order to take

unprocessed opium from the hills of Myanmar and later process, manufacture and

transport heroin to be sold on the streets in European and North American cities. The

process depends not only on the strength and sophistication of transnational organized

crime networks, but also on the political situation and complicity of certain authorities

under which they operate suggesting many possible narco-trafficking strategies.

During the last decade, Myanmar emerged as the single largest exporter of heroin

with more than 60% of the world's opium grown in the opium fields of Myanmar.

Laos is world's third-largest illicit opium producer with estimated cultivation

in 2006 being 5,500 hectares and an estimated potential production of 38 metric tons

(INCSR 2006). It is a transshipment point for heroin.

Till 2005, Thailand was a minor producer of opium and heroin and an illicit

transit point for heroin en route to the international drug market from Myanmar and

Laos. Eradication efforts have made Thailand "poppy free". Thailand is also a drug

money-laundering center. Thailand's banking system is used by narco-traffickers for

their financial transactions where money laundering accounts to a significant

proportion of Thailand's underground economy. The artificial economy being created

by money laundering has overshadowed the Thailand's government so much that it is

considering legalizing gambling in the country in order to recuperate its ailing

economy. (Thailand is not yet a member to the 1998 United Nation's Drug

Convention but a member of Asia Pacific group on money laundering). Thailand is a

fine example where the financial system is continued to be abused by criminals thus

adversely affecting the economy.

23

V. NARCO-TRAFFICKING STRATEGIES:

1. Golden Triangle: For three decades and more, United States has been a

dominant market of narcotic production, especially for the manufacture of Heroin 4

which is high grade heroin having the highest purity level. The market emerged

especially in the 1980's and 1990's due to the opium geopolitics motivated by United

States of America. Golden Triangle's heroin shipments were made through high-level

violators. The narco-trafficking from Golden Triangle is done ranging from

independent brokers and Asian shippers, to Chinese overseas ethnic criminals who are )

wholesale distributors of heroin in United States of America mainly dependent on

criminal organization for the entire heroin distribution. The Chinese criminal groups

are the most sophisticated groups of narco-trafficking in the world. The narco­

trafficking routes destined to the markets of United States are in the form of heroin

shipments transiting through China, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore,

Taiwan and South Korea, then opiate derivatives of the Golden Triangle make their

market in United States of America.

On the other hand, the Southwest Asian heroin is consumed in Western

Europe and countries of Golden Crescent. The narco-traffickers, located in the Middle

East are ethnics of Lebanon, Pakistan, Turkey and Afghanistan for retail distributi')ll.

Narco-traffickers of the Golden Crescent conduct narco-trade only with people

of Southwest Asian origin and the narcotic users, narco-traffickers, the narco­

distributors and narco-importers are usually people of Southwest Asian origin. The

prices of heroin and its purity levels directly determine narcotics trade and the

availability of narcotics in the market. For example, high purity levels of heroin

coupled with its low phase are direct indicators of heroin being readily available in the

markets of United States of America. In 2000, heroin's purity level has been reported

to be 36.8% compared to 7% in 1981 and 26% in 1991(DMP, US-DEA).This high

purity level heroin has high consumption in the Northeast of United States of America

especially in New York City, which has high heroin user density. It is also one of the

major hub where Southeast Asian heroin is imported and distributed.

In 2000, Drug Enforcement Agency of United Sates of America reported the

wholesale price of the Golden Crescent and Golden Triangle's heroiu averaged to be

US$ I, 15,000 per kilogram whereas heroin from the Latin American countries of

Columbia and Mexico averaged to be US$ 94,100 per kilogram. Since 1965, United

24

States of America remains to be a single largest market of the heroin produced from

the Golden Triangle.

The variables that determine transboundary narco-trafficking are directly

proportional to the purity level of heroin, heroin prices, narcotic buyer-seller

relationship, purchase frequencies, demand, quantities purchased and the

transportation cost and the drug enforcement agencies operations in the destination

country.

The narco-trade is a complex process. It involves opium poppy cultivation,

heroin manufacture, transport and sale of heroin. The enormous profits of heroin trade

make it an illicit co111111odity. The successive sale of heroin is directly proportional to

the political and economic situation of the places where it is produced and consumed.

Narco-trafficking strategies of the Golden Triangle have really been successful

so far due to the political patronage it has received. Farmers, governments,

transnational organized crime mafias and gangs of such mafias, operate from the

opium POPP.Y cultivation stage to manufacture, transport and marketing of Heroin 4

which has highest demand.

Opium production becomes a profitable farming in the mountainous regions of

Golden Triangle than compared to other conventional crops such as rice, corn, cacao

etc. due to the agricultural debacles in the rugged mountainous terrain. A farmer

cultivating opium becomes entrapped either into the net of trafficking organizations

for the traffickers who use extortion and violence for continuous opium production or

to the opium crop eradication programmes of the government. Usually the local

mafias or insurgent groups transport the raw material of opium poppy gum into the

local refinery for morphine processing than for large-scale international heroin

movements like transnational organized crime network controlled transboundary

narco-trafficking. The insurgent groups prevalent in the Golden Triangle use nacro­

money for funding their outfits. The popular insurgent groups being United Wa State

Army, Shan United Revolutionary Army (SURA), Shan State Army and South (SSA­

S) Map: 1.2 shows how the insurgent groups operating in the Golden Triangle have

been located near strategic transit towns in order to give patronage to the narco­

traffickers. The originating station from where narco-trafficking commences is from

Myitkuna Northern Myanmar to Yangoon in South Myanmar while transiting Laos

and Thailand. Diagram 1.2 depicts the transboundary narco-trafficking strategy loop

25

I MAP 1.2: INSURG;~~~-~~-~~~~~~R~-.~~~~KI~G ORGANIZATI~N IN I MYANMAR, THAILAND AND LAOS I '

INDIA ) r-

)

I

.M y

.-v I

\

__...·

A

....... -·1 '· ,.f ·J

I

KACH/N .. 1\J STATE .)

! . ../ MYUK.YU~~ . ("

-I (

I ,_..., ..... ,-

/'

' ' ' I I

IJ'i

LA.SHIO •

5HAN STATE

M .A.

) CHIANG. MAl • ·"V·

'-I .,

\ L

(

CHINA

\ . . .., . \

.A\.·-..."' ..... : \ . •KE=I\I(;.WN~. r. . ,.... . )

<.

\.

1.}\0S

') ·~

(

) ~· . r· ( / ......

t.1 THAJLANT>

DIAGRAM 1.2

TRANSBOUNDARY NARCO-TRAFFICKING STRATEGY IN GOLDEN TRIANGLE

-::::=---...:....N--=-0~ TERMINATION OF OPIUM CULTIVATION

CULTIVATION OF OPIUM POPPY CROP AND EXTRACTION OF OPIUM POPPY GUM

OPIUM FARMER GIVES IN TO EXTORTIONISTS AND

SMALL TIME NARCO­TRAFFICKERS

OPIUM CROP -:>--------'N'-'-0~ CONFISCATION AND

ERADICATION BY GOVERNMENT OR LAW

ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES

REFINING OPIUM GUM INTO MORPHINE IN CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES

PRODUCING MORPHINE CAKES IN LOCAL REFINERIES

CORRUPTION, BRIBING KEY GOVERNMENT OFFICERS, OUTPOST CLERKS AND LAND BORDER PATROLLING OFFICERS AT THE

MAJOR DRUG

PLAYERS OF ORGANISED

CRIME SYNDICATES

INTERNATIONAL LAND BORDER

IF TRAFFICKED BY INSURGENT----·:>----N~Oi r __ M_U_L_E_C_A_R_\_'_A_N_S _ _j--,

SPONSORED VEHICLES ·

HEROIN DESTINED TO BANGKOK, HONG-KONG. MANILA

DIRECT CARGO TRANSFER NO ON ISLANDS WHERE

~---~ MORPHINE IS FURTHER

LOADING OF 3 TONS OF MORPHINE INTO EACH

LOCAL FISHING TRAWLER

PROCESSING OF MORPHINE TO HEROIN 4 IN NEIGHBOURING CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES

PROCESSED TO HEROIN 4

BIG PRIVATE FISHING VEHICLES AND SUBMARINES

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

l ~

in Golden Crescent around which the flow of narco-traffickers is circuited in total

employment generation to at least 1, 70,000 people in general.

The insurgent sponsored vehicles or mule caravans are used as a mode of

transboundary narco-trafficking. The border enforcement authorities, border

checkpoint clerks and state administrators are given into corruption either passively or

actively in order to either use or lease the government infrastructure to help

transboundary narco-trafficking. Morphine is processed into heroin in vanous

processing plants; it is further trafficked to international distribution centers of

Bangkok, Hong Kong and Manila. The organized crime syndicates now take over

transboundary narco-trafficking while employing 1,70,000 people and above

internationally. Narco-trafficking in Golden Triangle is usually maritime. Local

fishing traders carrying as much as 3 tons of morphine either directly cargo transfer

into Hong-Kong touching the Chinese international waters or choose any island

deposit and pick up of narcotics. The imbalanced narcotic distribution depends upon

the economic demand of the end narcotic product. For example low grade heroin is

used by local people as it is less expensive than the markets of Heroin 4, having its

market in United States of America.

After the 1914 Harrison Act that banned legal sale of heroin in United States

of America, the Jewish and Chinese Mafias located in United States of Ar.~erica

emerged stronger as they expanded their organized crime activities into narco­

trafficking as well. In 1940's narco-trade declined due to stricter import control

fostered by the Second World War and the migration trends by 1950's.

During the Vietnam War Era, the Golden Triangle and the narcotics trade

boomed by Central Intelligence Agency's (C.I.Al covert operation in Southeast Asia

in the suggestive geopolitical environment. For example, the American soldiers

stationed in Golden Triangle became emissaries of narco-trade when they returned to

America and thus the seeds of trans-continental narco-trafficking took roots from

Southeast Asia to United States of America. Transboundary narco-trafficking in

Gold~n Triangle is cross cultural and cross-racial with respect to the ethnicity of the

people involved. The etlmic groups involved in transboundary narco-trafficking in

Golden Triangle are as follows:

9 C.I.A. or Central Intelligence Agency is the independent intelligence agency of United State's Government formed in 1947 under auspices of President Harry Truman and the National Security Act.

26

S.No.

1.

2.

Table 1.2

ETHNIC GROUPS OF GOLDEN TRIANGLE INVOLVED IN TRANSBOUNDARY NARCO-TRAFFICKING

Economic activity Ethnic groups

Opium poppy Koch in, Palaung, Wa, Lau (Musser, Musoe), Li.su growers and (Lisor, Lisaw), Akha (1-kor, 1-kaw, Hmong (Meo, smokers Miao ), Mien (lu Mien), Yao Opium traders and Kachin, Palaung, Wa, Shan (Tai Yai), Yunnanese middlemen Chinese (Haw), Guo kung Chinese (Kokang), Lahu

(Nusser, Musoe), Lisu (Lisor, Lisaw) Akha (1-kor, 1-kaw), Hmong (Meo, Miao), Mien (lu Mien, Yao), Lao, Thai.

Source: Oprum Poppy Cultrvatron and Herorn Processrng rn Southeast Asra, DEA, 92004, September 1993.

2. Golden Crescent: Europe has been a dominant market of narcotics produced

in Golden Crescent or Southwest Asia where usually more than 90% of the opium

produced in Afghanistan makes its inroads to Europe. Its only after catering to the

Europe market,. the surplus opium goes to United States of America following the

Northern Routes from The Netherlands where opium is transported to United

K~rtgdom and then the land . border route gets terminated to maritime route from

London to New York. The UNO DC has reported that 55% of narcotic seizures are in

Europe, followed by 27% in Asia and 11% in America and around 3% of narcotic

seizures have been made in Africa. The direction of narcotics flow or trans boundary

narco-trafficking is absolutely proportional to the demand and the viable monetary

returns vis-a-vis opium prices compared to currency rates. For instance, even though

heroin manufactured from Golden Crescent is not high grade as compared to Golden

Triangle, the revenues generated from the narco-trade is more-or-less balanced with

low quality heroin and large consumers in Europe and high grade Heroin 4 consumed

by few consumers in United States of America.

It has to be observed that transboundary narco-trafficking is more on

traditional land trade routes in Golden Crescent and the number of transit countries

via land routes are many as compared to that of Golden Triangle. Altogether, there are

two major illicit opium poppy cultivation areas in the world namely: 'The Golden

Crescent and Golden Triangle', which collectively comprise of 91% and 9% of the

total illicit opium poppy cultivation in the world respectively (Fig. 1.1 ).

27

Fig. 1.1: Illicit Opium Poppy Cultivation Regions (hectares), 2005

Golden Triangle 9%

/ I )

I

\

Source: JNCBR 2005

Golden Crescent 91%

In 2006, Afghanistan has the maximum area under opmm cultivation of

1,07,000 hectares in Golden Crescent which comprises in Study Area-l followed by

Myanmar in Golden Tringle with opium cultivation of 40,000 hectares (Fig. 1.2),

located in Study Area-l!. It is to be noted that now Iran and Thailand are mere narco­

trafficking countries where no opium poppy cultivation and production is reported. In

the Golden Triangle, Myanmar is the leading producer of opium of 380 metric tons

with Laos producing 28 metric tons.

28

Fig. 1.2: Illicit Opium Poppy Production of the Study Area (metric tons), 2005

5000

4500

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0 ~ I Golden Crescent Golden Triangle

lEI Afghanistan 4475

OPakistan 61

liD Myanmar 380

mJ Laos 28

Regions

Source: INCBR 2005

29

VI. NARCO-TRAFFICKING ROUTES:( Diagram 1.3)

(A) LAND ROUTES: The land narco-trafficking routes are as follows:

a) Traditional Routes (Table 1.3):

i) Ancient Great Silk Route: The most ancient trade route bridging the

Eastern and Western civilization has been that of the Great Silk Road.

It is basically a land route measuring 6,440 km. and has a network of

routes crossing Europe and Asia. The essential commodity of trade

was silk apart from Iranian precious stones, Byzantine clothes, Turkish

slaves, Afghanistan ceramics and Indian spices. Opium was also a

chief commodity for trade on the Great Silk Route. The main route of

the Great Silk route went through China along Gan-Su corridor then

through Tarim basin and the highlands of the Pamir and Tien Shan

Ranges into Central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran and Eastern shores of the

Mediterranean and still further to the top trading centers of the Near

East, North Africa and Europe (Map 1.3 a).

ii) Persian Royal Road Route: The ancient settlement~ of Sardes and

Lydia were the originating points of trade from that of Gordium,

Comana, Melitere, Arbela along the River Tigris and Euphrates to

Babylon in the South and culminating at Persia via United Arab

Emirates. The Persian royal road still continues to be the most used

narco-trafficking route of Iran and which is adjacent to Golden

Crescent (Map 1.3 b).

30

/,\!Ili . .J,.N OCIA.\'

;::::: >

MAP 1.3: ANCIENT NARCO-TRAFFICKING ROUTES-b) THE PERSIAN ROYAL ROUTE

_.s~, w~. N;tr; '.14'f .,$(- h o6-C-.Ie

@ , Tt;IUtflrV ~YI"tL- ~!r ~J>m Pomr~

-- : lJzR.$1"11'' l?oy/\1. ~ ------ : Rl~

Table 1.3 ANCIENT NARCO-TRAFFICKING ROUTES

• GREATSILKROAD

S.No. Great Silk Originating from Transit points Destination Settlements Road point branches

I Southern • Termez Samarkand, Via, Dushan Be, Merv Branch Trabuatry, Kyzyi-Su Kashgar

to Alai (Turkmenistan,

Charkhil, (Ryooang) Bukhara, Cherchech

• Hills of Kunlun (Quemo), Minfeng Kashgar, Samarkhand, Mountains (Niya) Heaten India,

(Hotari) Mediterrane Uganda and an Coast Khira

(Uzbekistan),

r-- Otrar, 2 The Central • Tien Shan Loulan Korla Mari

Branch or Chucha Aksu (Russia) Tarar and

I Pamirs

Chim Kent Hojent Isfrara Kokand ·~~~h (Kazakhstan) r-- Fergana • Samarqand

Branch Dgul, r--The Northern • Zamin Rabat Tashkent, (Chim Branch Kent Jambul (Traz) Suyab,

I

S.No.

I.

2.

• Northern foot Kara Baita (Nuzket)

hills of Tien Balasugun (Burana Novo Kent, Shan Mountains Issyr-Kul cacross

San-Tash range) Balasugam, • Hami China

Borskon,

Tash-Rabat Osh Black sea and Uzgen

(Kyrgyzstan.)

• PERSIAN ROYAL ROAD: .This ancient highway measuring 2699 km was built by

Persian in DARIUS-I in 51h Century B.C. It had the following branches:

Persian Royal Road Originating from Transit Points Destination point Branches North West Route Sardis Turkey Baghdad

East Route Great Silk Route Iran United States of America

Source: www.livius.org, www.orexca.com

31

b) Contemporary Routes:

i) The Nigerian Narco-trafficking Routes: Nigeria is a maJor heroin

trafficking country from the continent of Africa. Processed opium in the form

of heroin of all the available purity level is pooled into Nigeria especially

because of its strategic location and its direct landward and maritime

accessibility to the continents from Asia, Europe, Africa and North America.

This convergence of heroin from Golden Crescent and Golden Triangle in

Nigeria makes it the ace transit country in the world. Maritime narco­

trafficking routes towards South stand through Indian Ocean abrasing Cape of

Good Hope in Southern Africa to Nigeria along the West coast. This route

however is long in terms of distance but is the most popular narco-trafficking

route trom Uoiden Triangie to Nigeria as there are no transit points over the

ocean. It is also the safest route for most profitable Heroin 4 being

transshipped to Nigeria destined to Latin America and North America via

London. From Golden Triangle heroin is transshipped to Kenya on East coast

of Africa via Indian Ocean maritime wards. (Map 1.4)

Nigeria is also a transit country for the heroin emulated from Golden

Crescent that is coastal Pakistan and even India to Ethiopia in the East coast of

Africa. Till Ethiopia, the mode of narco-trafficking is maritime after which

landward narco-trafficking occurs. Converged heroin now is trafficked

directly to United States of America or from Nigeria heading for Latin

America via Mexico to United States of America.

Heroin trafficked from Golden Triangle reaches Nigeria via Middle

East through Egypt also. Hence Nigeria becomes a conduit especially for the

purest form of Heroin which is catered to the markets of United States of

America. It is in order to transship the purest form of heroin to United States

of America from Golden Triangle that Nigeria has become the major I

transshipment point of heroin. This is chiefly because of Nigeria's strategic

positioning both for landward and maritime narco-trafficking routes. Also the

distances narco-trafficked up to Nigeria both from Golden Triangle and

Golden Crescent are transcontinental hence transcontinental narco-traffickers

prefer to stop-over at Nigeria before they complete the narco-trafficking

expedition to United States of America. Due to the nodality of Nigeria in

terms of narco-trafficking, the crime rates and corruption rate of government

32

MAP 1.4: NIGERIAN NARCO-TRAFFICKING ROUTES

]'{

1

I I I

machinery is also rampant for ensuring the smooth and purest heroin

trafficking, which by now assumes the most risky, most expansive, most

illegal and most value added global trade commodity.

ii) Afghanistan's Narco-trafficking Routes: Afghanistan is the major opium

producing country in the Golden Crescent, major narco-trafficking routes

eminate from Northern Afghanistan and Southern Afghanistan with respect to

its land-locked nature. Maximum shared international land border with many

different countries, is in Northern Afghanistan where narco-trafficking is from

Badakhshan district which narco-traffics to Tajikistan and China. Opium

produced in Eastern Afghanistan in Nangarhar district (which is the leading

opium producing district of Afghanistan) is the nodal narco-trafficking point

of opium trafficked to Uzbekistan and to Helmand district where opmm

produced in Helmand is trafficked directly to Turkmenistan and opmm

trafficked from Nangarhar district is destined to Pakistan and Iran. In

Afghanistan, there is intra-district narco-trafficking which has pre-decided and

well established markets. It is to be however noted that in Badakhshan,

Nangarhar and Helmand, the average yield of opium is greater than 70

kg/hectare,(Map 1.5).

Narco-trafficking from Southern Afghanistan originates from Chutu

where heroin labs are also located. From Chutu there are three divergent

narco-trafficking routes (Map 1.6) namely:

1) To Oman via Southern Iran both laridward and maritime

2) To United Arab Emirates via Pakistan landward and then maritime via

Arabian Sea Gulf of Oman, Strait of Hormuz. Another landward and

maritime route is through Iran and Straight of Hormuz respectively.

This is Southward narco-trafficking route from Afghanistan.

3) To Turkey via Iran, is mainly the landward route emerging Westward

from Afghanistan.

The narco-trafficking routes from Northern Afghanistan are chiefly from

Herat and Kabul. Maximum volume of opium is trafficked from Herat than

compared to Kabul. There are five narco-trafficking routes emerging .(Table

1.4):

33

MAP 1.5: NARCO-TRAFFICKING ROUTES FROM NORTHERN AFGHANISTAN

I

KAZAKHSTAN

l L ~·~

') • ..J·

t.oo Kilo,..ct4~ / ! "PAKI~TAN 1oo 11i~'· ..... ,.-·..a

(

l ...... ....

MAP 1.6: NARCO-TRAFFICKING ROUTES FROM SOUTHERN AFGHANISTAN

~--------------------------~----------------.Jf

\ )

~ '-·-

0 I

0

•t )

too k;!......&tcrs

,..,o ;\.;Je.,

1

Table 1.4

NARCO-TRAFFICKING ROUTES OF AFGHANISTAN

S. No. Source Immediate Transit Major transit nodal country destination countries settlements

country 1. Afghanistan Kazakhstan Tajikistan, Dushanbe, Bishkek

Kyrgyzstan

2. Afghanistan Kazakhstan Tajikistan, Dushanbe, Tashkent

Uzbekistan

3. Afghanistan Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Termiz

4. Afghanistan Russia Turkmenistan Termiz, Herat, Mary,

Ashgabat, Turkmenistan

5. Afghanistan Iran - Herat, Tehran

Source: UNODC

iii) Chinese Narco-trafficking Route-The Black Corridor: This is the

Southern China's narco-trafficking route from Northeastern Golden Tri.mgle,

being Eastward divergent landward route touching the immediate provinces of

Yunah, Guizhou, Guangxi and Guangzhou from the seaports of which purest

high grade Heroin 4 is further narco-trafficked maritimewards to United States

of America (Map 1. 7).

iv) Narco-trafficking Routes from India: India is a major transit country of

narcotics as it is sandwiched between two major narcotic producing regions of

the world namely the Golden Crescent and Golden Triangle. It's the seventh

largest country and has shared international land boundary and also has a large

, coastline studded with many important trading ports. The strategic position of

India vis-a-vis its neighbour makes its positioning geostrategic as far as

transboundary narco-trafficking is concerned. (Map 1.8)

Heroin from Afghanistan in Golden Crescent makes direct inroads to

India via Pakistan from the cities of Multan and Lahore from Kandahar and

Kabul to New Delhi landward. Heroin is then trafficked by road to Jaipur,

Kota and Mumbai from where is headed to Nigeria. India is the only largest

country producing narcotics licitly in-order to medically sustain its vast

population which is the second largest in the world. Rajasthan, Madhya

34

MAP 1.7: CHINESE NARCO-TRAFFICKING ROUTE- THE BLACK CORRIDOR

/ )

G HINA

,.. \

\. ('

I 1...

( r-' THAILAN'D

\ , r·-·- . .._.r·---: . ~

~C.AMSO'DI.A ~

cCI' ~:§.-; .South

ChiM

-Sed

,

J

.ARABI

5 £ A

....... :::::'·"""'t r r ·, j '-,411 . .4rr • '· ,.- · 1

) JAMMU I

''~· ANP ./ · ( "R·1t'~s H ,.., t t<. f· "·

!'·""

c H A

B E T

·"'\.· ...... i ·.;::JNI\U'i~ .... .. -..

('' ...... '- • ./ ~ i... '. . "\ . )

BJ\:'1 oF

BEN-t;..A.L

z. B.. ~ ... . ), · ..

" ~; .. ,. StiE. •

J

I (..... '1,

1

-:z 0 ->

Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh are the only states that cultivate opium m

India. Transboundary illicit narco-trafficking once having crossed borders into

India gets superimposed upon the licit local trade movement of opium. In case,

the westward Mumbai route is blocked the narco-trafficking have an

alternative but longer Southern route to Nigeria via Kota-Gwalior-Vijaywada­

Vellore-Chennai-Pondichery route towards Sri Lanka from where opium is

transshipped to Nigeria. The opium from Golden Crescent is used for

transboundary narco-trafficking whereas, opium from Golden Triangle is used

for local consumption once it reaches Patna via Northeast India through the

cities of lmphal, Kohima, Itanagar, and Dispur. Transboundary narco­

trafficking takes place here meanwhile from Bhutan and Bangladesh.

Thus from all the above major narco-trafficking routes one can clearly

encapsulate the global narco-trafficking routes (Map: 1.9) indicating point of

divergent transboundary narco-trafficking routes from Golden Crescent and

Golden Triangle and point of convergent transboundary narco-trafficking

routes in Nigeria culminating in United States of America, United Kingdom in

the Continent of North America, and Europe respectively.

c) Major Narco-trafficking Routes:

"The major narco-trafficking routes have been identified as thus:

i) Tlte Traditional Route: Starting in Turkey to Western Europe, this

route is a traditional route for transporting 80% of heroin for European

consumption and is subdivided into the following:

• Northern Route: Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia,

Czech Republic, Germany. (By ferry-The Netherlands, Turkey and

Romania).

• Central Route: Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Austria,

Gern1any, The Netherlands or Turkey, Bulgaria, Former

Yugoslavia Republic of Macedonia, Federal Republic of

Yugoslavia (particularly Kosovo), Bosnia Herzegovina, Slovenia

and Italy.

• Southern Route: Turkey, Greece (by ferry) and Italy.

35

i

I L__

MAP 1.9: GLOBAL NARCO-TRAFFICKING ROUTES

_ _j

ii) The Contingency Route o_f Central Asia: A new corridor to the West.

The independent republics of Central Asia namely Uzbekistan,

Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kirghizistan and Turkmenistan which cover

three times the size of Western Europe play a predominant role in

narco-trafficking. The proximity of the opium-producer Southwest

Asian countries with their geopolitical and ethnic similarities makes

the Central Asian countries a fertile ground for narco-trafficking and

has apparently become a new corridor to the West." (UNODC).

(B) MARITIME ROUTES: The movement of opiates over water bodies

especially related to oceans. and seas is called maritime narco-trafficking. Often

controlled by organized crime syndicates this is the most cost effective mode of

transportation of narcotics in bulk. Large container ships and high speed ferries are

the maritime mode of transport. Maritime narco-trafficking has been an ancient reality

of opium trade for opium was treated as a trade commodity catering for medicinal

purposes ·and for recreation. Gradually as the addictive properties of opium were

discovered, the uninterrupted demand for opium compelled steady maritime narco­

trafficking. Unlike the limitations of air and land transportation routes for narcotics,

maritime narco-trafficking is a very convenient, flexible and maneuverable means of

transportation (See Casson L., 1971 ).

Vital sea links in Asia dated back to that of Harappan culture around 3000

B.C. (a naval dockyard has been unearthed at Lothal in Ahmedabad, suggesting naval

commerce between Indus Valley Civilization and people of Egypt, Central Asia,

Ceylon and Persia). Bharat Rakshak, India Naval Legacy, 2003. In the 15th century

the maritime trade between Portugal and China was rampant due to maritime

commerce between Prince Henry, the Portuguese navigator and the Chinese Ming

Emperor Zhu Di. This maritime traverse extended from China Sea to Portugal via

Sumatra-Ceylon India, Arabia and East Africa. From 1405 to 1433, there were about

seven naval expeditions from China suggesting busy naval commerce apart from

China excellence in the construction of naval ships in the entire world. Chinese naval

prowess was exhibited to apex in the Ming Dynasty of 15th century under the emperor

Zhu Di (See Bosworth L. Michael).

Comparing the geography of Europe and Southeast Asia, the Chinese in the

151h century were in a precarious situation. For example, the Mongol threat to the

36

North was a continental threat, 'Annam' was both a continental and maritime,

location, unlike Spain which is that of a constricted peninsula or that of Britain began

an island dominated maritime trade. The drawback was that of Chinese government's

disinterest in maritime trade. Hence by 161h century, the Chinese borne naval overseas

trade collapsed. One aspect to be understood is that non-European maritime networks

were regional such as that of Arab and Chinese mariners whereas, the European

maritime trade networks were global. This was chiefly during the First Age of

Discovery under Prince Henry of Portugal ( 13 94-1460) (he was a navigator of the 151h

Century and was mainly responsible for launching exploration voyages attempting to

find sea routes centering Africa-Indian Ocean for trading with India and Far

East).These naval discoveries had rather become an imperative for Portuguese due to

the fact that the land routes towards Asia were blocked by the Ottaman Turks (the

Turks of Ottoman Empire belonged to 13th century to 1914 of the World War-I. They

were led by Sultan of Turkey and dominated Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Balkan States, parts

of Hungary and Russia).

Succeeding Prince Henry was Bartholomew Dias who rounded Cape of Good

Hope in 1487 followed by Vasco-DaGama's East route discovery in 1498. Thus by

1511, the Portuguese not only mastered maritime trade routes but also extended their

trade further East towar~s that of China and Japan. During the period 1508-1515, the

Portuguese used their naval power to control trade routes in Indian Ocean. Under

Alfonso d' Albuquerque, the Portuguese established naval bases in Indian Ocean and

dominated their trade from 1511 to 1641.

In Indian Ocean, the Portuguese restricted their maritime trade. Spain, under

the advent of the voyage of Christopher Columbus, had its areas of influence spread

across Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean to the West Indies and Philippines

respectively. Countries especially France, Philippines, The Netherlands or England

had their naval trading outpost or colonies on other continents based on these

maritime routes.

Geostrategically it was Britain that took over supreme position in tenns of

global maritime trade. This was due to the fact that Britain was an island and wanted

to challenge France's oceanic dominion. It concentrated on building viable and

defence-centric naval vessels. It maintained its focus more on water-based warfare

rather than trade itself. It improvised its navigation technology, founded a Marine

Society in 1756 along similar lines. The supremacy of Britain naval power emerged

37

more as a survival technique from commercial and political colonial gains. Also by

this time, there was a global consciousness with the advent of the If Age of Discovery,

that is, The Industrial Revolution in 18th and 19th century. The Industrial Revolution

gained momentum by the introduction of steam power which led to the manufacture

of the steam-powered ships, boats and railways leading to enormous technological

and commercial progress and commerce were handled on a global level with prime

importance given to trade networks.

The economic undercurrents for Britain to maintain its position in Asia

protecting its prevalent Asian maritime trade routes was that of expanding its market

for its manufactured goods and exploration of Asia-Pacific trade as well. Britain's

commercial interest in China lay in the import of tea, seals and sea otter fur from the

Pacific. It is vital to understand the trade equations prevailing between Europe and

Asia based in the 18th century, in order to trace the matrix between opium trade

geopolitics between Europe and Asia. While much has been attributed to the surreal

Rise ofthe West in 18th century but the reality of the European economic and political

penetration oflndia has been different (See Chaudhari K.N.).

The core regions, especially uf industrial production, were in China and India.

West Asia and Southeast Asia also remained economically more important than

Europe. Likewise, China and India were the primary centers of the accumulation of

capital in the world system and China was in overall balance of trade surplus

throughout most of this period. Indeed, Europe was in deficit with all regions to the

East. West Asia was in surplus with Europe, but in deficit with India. India was in

surplus Westward but in deficit Eastward to Southeast Asia and China, where India

re-exported bullion received from the West. In political terms, the hegemonic

influence of China, India, and the Ottomans was considerably greater than that of the

European.

"In 1750, Asia had a GNP of$ 120 billion (in US $) while all the "West", meaning Europe and America had a GNP (before the Industrial Revolution) of$ 35 billion. Still a century later in 1860, the respective amounts were US $ 165 billion and $ 115 billion. Estimates, per capita production or income were almost the same in China and Western Europe in1400, indicating that standards of living were about at par world-wide" (See Gunder Frank Andre, 1995).

China's interest in trade with Europe was mainly due to its demand for silver

as silver was used as a mode of currency in China. The Chinese had a bimetallic

system of currency of copper and silver coins. 1000 copper cash equaled 1 silver Tael

38

(coin). In 1856, 1650s, copper cash coins equaled 1.8 Tael. It was hence this metallic

system of currency that enforced China into trade with European countries. The

imbalance of trade between China and Europe occurred with the introduction and

abuse of opium as trade commodity (See Gunder Frank Andre, 1995).

Europeans managed to maintain their presence in Asian markets by using their

profits and investment from American imports and exports which also included the

crucial Asian use of American silver. The American silver was a trade commodity in

triangular trade of 18th century between Europe, Africa and Caribbean.

However, in 1880, after the two Opium Wars, opium imports from India

touched apex and attained law of diminishing returns as opium legalization enabled

the native markets to dominate. Opium was cultivated in Szechwan and Yunnan

exceeded the imported amounts overall. "In 1881, opium imports in China amounted

to 6 million kg annually. Since about 30% of the weight was lost in preparing the

opium for smoking, this provided about 4.2 million kg of the smokable products.

From reports of the 19 British Custom Commissioners in China, it was estimated that

the average daily dose was about 12 gm, enough for about one million smokers of the

foreign product at ~r1at rate of consumption (Hart71881 ).

An opium addict consumed up to 6 gms pf-r day on "average" whereas a

chronic addict under treatment from opium consumed 12 gms daily (ingesting about

80 mg of morphine). Morphine is the primary principle narcotic in opium followed by

codeine. Smoking opium runs about 7-8% of morphine (See Burroghuhs William,

1978).

(C) AIR ROUTES: Transport of opium by mode of air planes is referred to air

narco-trafficking. It is the fastest means of opium transport. Despite the fact that air

narco-trafficking has the added advantage of narco-trafficking (from other modes,

such as land or water-bodies) for its feasibility over inaccessible areas such as that of

rugged topographic, desert or ice capped terrain, it cmmot be used to carry bulk .trans­

shipment and it is also most expensive mode of narco-trafficking. Air narco­

trafficking gained popularity in mid 20th century especially from 1955-1974 in one of

the opium producing state of Laos in Golden Triangle. The air trafficking of narcotics

assumed a very geopolitical role and once again opium was used as a weapon to

control the political undercurrents, in the Southeast Asian countries. This can be

39

attributed especially from 1958 to 1974 where American intervention in Vietnam War

had a geopolitical spillover in Laos.

The American presence in Laos was by the paramilitary operations undertaken

by C.I.A. for more than 13 years. These air operations in Laos not only trafficked

opium in and out of opium production regions, but also had tried to monitor the

political equations between Vietnam and Laos. Under the slogan of ousting the

communist regime of Pathet Lao in Laos by supporting the domestic anti-communist

elements, the United States of America, used opium as a weapon and performed the

task of air-infrastructure provider. Though the CIA paramilitary operation would not

prevent Laos succumbing to the communists, it definitely exposed the lethal nexus of

narcotics trade for arms, politics and narco-money. The paramilitary operations were

operated by Air America. Air America or Civil Air Transport was the C.I.A.

proprietary airlines flown during the Vietnam War which flew a variety of air

missions or Civil Air Transport (CAT). American geopolitics in Southeast Asia (due

to the Vietnam war) 10 also involved areal narco-trafficking in the Golden Triangle.

"By the summer of 1970, the airline had some two dozen twin engine transports, another two dozen short- take crfs and landing (STOL) aircraft and some more than 330 pilots, copilots, flight mechanics, and air-freight specialists flying in and out of Laos and Thailand." "Helicopter flight time reached more than 4000 hours a month in same year." (See Alfred Me Coy, 1972).

The role of Air America was restricted only upto air narco-trafficking but not

to any other dimension of narco-trade. "Air American helicopter collected the opium

harvests of 1970 and 1971, then flew the crop to V ang Pao' s, military Hmong tribal

base at Long Tieng in the mountains of Northern Laos, where it was turned into

heroin at the general's heroin laboratory. This narcotic transshipment was a pure

political function where the anti-communist drive was catering to encourage and

logistically facilitate the opium war lords of Golden Triangle and capitalize their anti­

nationalist sentiment which was suiting the anti-communist operations of America

against Laos and thereby Vietnam. As a matter of fact the CIA was successful in

bringing North Vietnamese units to a standstill and even though ultimately the Laos

fell into the hands of communist, their major design of the ousting the communist

regime in North Vietnam was successful.

10 The Vietnam War was fought during 1957 to 1975, after the Government of South Vietnam reneged on its promise, at the 1954 Geneva Accord, to hold national election.

40

The role of C.I.A. in using opium as a geopolitical tool was very clear as its

focus remained on fighting the covert war in Laos but not that of policing the

narcotics trade. Yet, when the matter escalated, the C.I.A. took action against the

opium traders and assumed its role of policing the narcotic trade (this happened when

narcotics became a problem among American troops in Vietnam). Hence what

commenced as the role of Air America in 1950 August (when CIA secretly purchased

assets of Civil Air Transport (C.A.T.) to conduct covert air transport capability

operations under United State of America's policy objectives), also spilled over its

involvement in supporting the French War against communist insurgents in Indo

China. The United States of America's interest in Laos has been mainly due to its

geostrategic location in Southeast Asia which embarked it as the crux of this Cold

War in Southeast Asia and also enforced the Domino Theory Principle. 11 However

after the 1954 Geneva Conference, the independence of Laos removed the

geopolitical designs of America from Laos leading to the side effects of Golden

Triangle which by now emerged as the major opium producing area in the Southeast

Asian region of the world (See Leary M. William).

Laos was initially a low key Frencl1 protectorate and was ceded to France in

the late 191h century by the Siamese King who intended to keep Thailand a foreign

free domain country. This was established under a series of Treaties between 1893

and 1907. The main interest of France in Laos was opium export. The historic Geneva

Conference of 1954, confirmed Laos as an independent state but politically unstable

Laos had become a geopolitical tool of United States of America and led CIA and

Hmong tribesmen on one side, their mercenaries and Royal Lao Government on the

other side along with Cllinese backed communist Pathet Lao regime. By 1973, the

United States of America's strategic withdrawal from Vietnam also reflected in Laos.

While the Post Vietnam war era witnessed the emergence of Golden Triangle

in Southeast Asia, the focus of Cold War shifted to Afghanistan from that of Laos and

also did the geopolitics of opium which changed its domicile. The Soviet-Afghan War

( 1979-1989) resulted in the emergence of Golden Crescent in the Southwest Asian

region of the World. The mode of narco-trafficking in this region has been on

landward as well as maritime routes.

II This principle was first applied 1954 to Southeast Asia by US President, Dwight Eisenhower supposing a notion that if one country becomes a communist. other nations in the regions would follow suit analogous to Dominoes falling in a line.

41

Thus transboundary air narco-trafficking had historic geopolitical roots as it

has been used as a tool and a soft weapon to cripple and oust the political milieu of

nations.

VII. OPIUM GEOPOLITICS: Opium geopolitics commencement can be

attributed from India. In India, the spread of opium as a folk medicine and as a

recreational drug became recorded historically in Mughal Indian cities. Till 1600, the

opium spread from Eastern Mediterranean to China. An extended opium zone in Asia

was based on limited opium trade by the intra-Asian networks. However, this trend

was replaced by European opium commerce from 1640 to 1773 where opium was a

profitable low-weight, high value good. As an addictive drug, opium became basic

food stuff with inelastic demand. In 1729, when Chinese emperor banned opium

production in China, the British merchants procured defacto monopoly over opium

trade from 1773 to 1830. The British could achieve highest profits as opium was

considered a commodity of mass consumption than that of a luxury good. Thus under

British East India Company, opium became a major trade commodity. From 1729 to

1839 British export of opium increased form 13 tons to 2558 tons. Hi~h imperial

opium trade continued till 1907 where opiu~.n and its derivatives such as morphine and

heroin were equated with coffee and tea. Late 19th century witnessed a global anti­

opium movement. From 1909 to 1925, the League of Nations adopted restrictions

over opium use initiating a major decline in legal opium production. This pre-war

complex multilateral diplomacy bestowed mixed result. One hand opium restriction

reduced both production and consumption, whereas on the other hand, the rise of

criminal syndicates took roots. The multilateral cooperation to arrest opium abuse

despite its drawbacks was a pioneering move as it did break a century long opium

abuse tradition and for the first time in 18th century illegal opium production and

consumption declined from 41,600 tons in 1907 to 16,000 tons in 1934.

After the II World War (1940-47), there was another benchmark for the

decline in opium consumption. Cold War opium politics post World War II era (1948-

1972) increased with steady increase in opium production. This was the period when

United States of America and Iran expanded their opiate consumption. In this period,

remote tribal areas were eternally intervened leading to the rise of opium warlords

who provided logistics, arms, political protection on the basis of opium production in

Myanmar and Afghanistan. From 1973 to 1979, United States of America's

42

administration under Bush and Reagan, made efforts to control narco-trafficking.

However, these efforts were misplaced as local enforcement models were implicated

on a global scale. The three opium wars under Nixon, Bush and Reagan saw an opium

increase from 1,000 tons to 4,000 tons from 1970 to 1989. Both licit and illicit opium

crop failure in a production zone creates shortage of supply, thereby leading to price

rise fostering increased production in the next crop cycle. United States of America's

administration, failed to analyse the intricate dynamics of the worldwide opium

marketing systems. These drug syndicates rose to power both in Golden Triangle and

Golden Crescent. The rise of Khun Sa in Myanmar and emergence Gulbuddin

Hekmatyar in Afghanistan witnessed these parallel power figures in opium trade as

well as opium politics. These drug lords thrived on a vast Western growing market.

The rise of Golden Triangle and Golden Crescent continued from 1989-1994

uninterruptedly leading to heroin abuse in new areas of Europe and Asia. What United

States of America failed on arresting global proliferation of opium, Turkey achieved a

short term opium reduction ·in opium supply by its local Bilateral (political)

Suppression. China's historical experience by opium coercion has been perfect as it

has reduced opium consumption and production, providing an example as how an

efficient state can combat narco-trafficking indirectly by contrrJlling opium supply.

State's role in controlling narco-trade and market response of opium

syndicates is however complex and directly proportional. State sponsored opmm

production can be well traced in Thailand as of 1960's, Laos in 1970s, Afghanistan in

1980s, and Myanmar in 1990's. Similarly, state control over opium producing regions

by restraining official consumption over narcotics will accentuate long term reduction

in narco-cultivation and nacre-trafficking. The multilateral efforts initiated by the

League of Nations in order to reduce to global opium production were successful as in

the period 1906 to 1934 when illicit opium production reduced from 41,600 tons to

16,000 tons respectively. However, the market's response to multilateral efforts of

opium reduction has not been even due to its complex market dynamics especially

dealing with its supply reduction reactions. Though supply side solution of opium has

been disarrayed with respect to illicit opium control, the opium demand reduction

strategy (such that of Chinese coercion and mass education in order to curtail opium

consumption), has been China's renewed efforts to arrest to opium debacle.

Opium addiction in China can be traced into the Ching Dynasty which was

established by Manchus from Manchuria at the end of 1800 with a territorial expanse

43

of 4 million miles and a population of 450 million people (See Walkank et a!., 1992).

The Manchu emperors under the region of Chien Lung (1736-1795) expanded their

domain into Turkmenistan, Burma, Tibet and even Nepal. However, the success of

Ching dynasty was threatened from the sea faring Western powers. Imperial China

had an orthodox stand and dealt severely with people promoting the adoption of

foreign ideas and over suggesting innovation. By the start of 191h century, the Chinese

population over 300 million was under economic pressure of unemployment (due to

Jack of industry or trade), leading to break down of Jaw and order and widespread

rural discontent (due to scarcity of land). This was underlined by a corrupt

bureaucratic and military system. The localized revolts started erupting in various

parts of empire. It was under such a political environment that the Western powers

started arriving in China. The Portuguese were the first in establishing their presence

in China by stationing at Macao and monopolizing foreign trade from Guangzhou

(Canton). This was followed by Spanish, then British and finally the French. Chinese

maritime trade was carried through tributes where foreign merchants were virtually

subjugated culturally and politically.

The Manchus gave high importance to the Northern frontier than that of its

Eastern and Southern coastal frontier. This was because the Manchus considered

Russians as the most powerful inland neighbour and had realistic political

negotiations with Russia. The Treaty ofNerchinsk (1689)12 and the Treaty ofKiakhta

(1727) 13 were drafted between China and Russia in order to curb the border tensions

between Siberia and Manchuria on the Northeast Chinese border and of the Eastern

wing of the Sino-Russian border (See Shard K. Soni, 2002). The Western maritime

trade was resisted by the Chinese and was strictly confined to Guangzhou province

apart from other 12 licensed Chinese merchants firms. The Chinese maintained its

stand on anti-Western maritime trade by claiming to be self sufficient with its

products being superior to the Western trade products. Chinese tea was one of the

most sought after trade commodity to Europe and America in 181h century, apart from

Chinese silk and porcelain. An unfavourable balance of trade occurred as the West

could not offer anything in substantially reciprocal to China due to the fact that China

12 This was the prior most treaty signed between Russia and China on August 27, 1689 in Nerchinsk to resolve the military dispute over Amur River. This treaty was later revised and Aigun Treaty ( 1858) and Beijing Treaty ( 1860) forming the present border between Russia and China.

44

was still in its pre-industrial stage. As a result a remedial third party trade was

developed by the British which exchanged their merchandise in India and Southeast

Asia for raw materials and semi-processed goods to China such as raw cotton and

opium which had a ready market in Guangzhou. Under Ching government, opium was

prohibited into the Chinese territory. Opium traffic became ceaseless under the

corrupt bureaucracy and profit seeking merchants, known as Cohong. A drastic opium

prohibitory law was adopted to the extent that an Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu

was especially appointed in 1839 to Guanghou province to control the illicit opium

traffic in China which was encouraged by the British Lin Tse-Hsui played an active

role in an anti-opium drive by aiming to root out corrupt officials on a domestic front

and tackling Britain stringently on an international front. Lin-Tse-Hsu's efforts also

included correspondence to Queen Victoria of England representing Britain seizures

in opium trade. His argument included that Britain must recognize the fatal effects of

opium as it has seen in its own country and to its opium exports oriented countries

such as China as well.

Another bone of contention which also created rough relations with China and

Bfllain was the judicial treatment of the British citizens who were criminally accused.

The British refused to adhere to the handing over of British citizens to be tried on

criminal grounds by the Chinese, law enforcement authorities. This grievance of Lin's

take-no-prisoner's enforcement of Chinese laws, and also the lack of treaty relations

between Britain and China all reached a war contending situation. When the English

refused to withdraw from opium trade in China, Lin retaliated by not only seizing

illegal stocks of opium owned by Chinese dealers but also confiscated around 20,000

chests of illicit opium having 95 tons of opium and turning back English merchant

vessels in November 1839. This low-level conflict inspired the English to a full large­

scale opium war by June 1940. The British won over by the "ill-equipped for-war­

Chinese" The old-style Chinese weapons and artillery against the British gunships and

the technological superiority of British arms defeated Chinese repeatedly till the

Chinese were deliberated to agree for an infamous peace treaty of Nanking in 1842.

The Treaty of Nanking was considered the most humiliating and the most unequal

treaties from the Chinese standpoint weighing completely towards the British favour.

The British exercised their rudimentary demand of "extra territoriality" where all

13 Signed in 1728 (between Russia and Qing Empire) defining the order with China and

45

British citizens were handled under the British law for criminal accounts on Chinese

territory. The British established themselves as the "most favoured nation" while

trading with China under which the British gained access to five open ports for trade

such as Hong Kong, Canton, Shanghai, Foochow, Ningpo and Amoy. This clause

guaranteed Britain any type of trading rights without any trade restrictions such as

duties or tariffs. Thus from 1842, after Treaty of Nanking, the Chinese "most

favoured nation status" was extended to France and United States of America as well.

The Treaty of Nanking was designed for the British to increase their trade with

China but over the time, due to an enclosed trade bureaucracy and taxing system of

China, the anticipated huge profits by British did not materialise. The Britishers

condemned China for treaty violations as opium trade according to them had been

restricted. Under such an unfriendly environment another war like situation emerged.

In China opium has also been used as a trans-continental trade commodity. It

had not only been used for medicinal purposes but had been abused for recreation and

as a geopolitical weapon. Actually, opium was first introduced to China by 800 A.D.

by Arab travelers. Its use as an important form of medicine was not later than 1oth

century (Edkins, 1894). From 1620, Chinese had medicinal knowledge of opium but

late 1 ih century onwards, opium was being smoked excessively that it received the

Emperors prohibition orders by 1729 (Spinse, 1875). It was only by late 18th century

that the British individual entrepreneurs started shipping Indian cultivated opium into

China. The addictive tendency of opium ensured steady demand and profits from

opium trade. The population of most accessible trade areas such as ports, coastal areas

and navigable rivers had the most dominant opium addicts.

The late 17th century China was also under economic stagnation coupled with

a 100 million population getting steadily addicted to opium smoking. "In the early

16th century Chinese had imported 240 tons of opium annually and by 1836 the

imports had risen to more than 2,000 tons and were still rising. In 1836, there were an

estimated 12.5 million smokers in China (Wakeman F., 1978).

"Opium sales had risen from 2,330 chests in 1785 to 64,968 chests in 1810. In 1835, around 17,257 chests were forced into China once the British gained monopoly of opium trade. Opium profits soared to 40,000 chests by 1848 and 75% of India's opium was traded through Hong Kong with a value of 6 million pounds per annum." (Wakeman F., 1978).

establishing trade agreements.

46

The population of China had reached 430 million by 19th century. The reason

why opium found its inroads to China was more economic. The Chinese exported

silk, porcelain, tea and other luxury goods to the West in lieu of silver (due to the tael

currency system) in China. At the domestic front, inflation in China trebled the prices.

The Chinese land revenue system also contributed to this because land taxes

were assessed in silver but paid in copper. As a result the weight of taxes increased

without any correspondence to the increase in state income under these circumstances,

the Chinese nobility geared resistance to opium. Under the Imperial Commissioner

Lin, the Second Opium War became inevitable in 1856, where a joint Anglo-French

military operation was launched against China resulting in the capture of Tienstin in

Tianjin. The French joined the war on pretext of the assassination of a French

missionary and the British joined the war as the Chinese seized the British ship named

Arrow carrying opium trade. The war culminated in 1860 by the Treaty of Tienstin

which opened eleven more ports to Western trade granting more trade rights to the

Western powers at the cost of Chinese people. (Russia, France and United States of

America were also a party to the treaty called Treaty of Aigun signed on 28th May

1853, under which Russia gained control on the bank of Amur River, a non-freezing

area on the Pacific coast. However, the Second Opium War was enough to collapse

the Chinese Imperial Government for China could never match the naval as well as

the military superiority of the British.

Both the opium wars especially the second, led to the defacto legalization of

opium in China. 1880 onwards, post opium wars China started, growing opium poppy

extensively and importation of opium of especially in provinces like Szechuan, and

Yunnan. Once the domestic market picked up in China, it gained self-sufficiency at

the cost of the entire Chinese population and their indulgence in opium. Till late 18th

century onwards (about 1860), opium consumption was concentrated along cities, on

the coastal and along navigable rivers but gradually as the cultivation of opium

increased in Western provinces, the local consumption of opium was concentrated

around the opium cultivated area such as Szechuan and Yunnan.

As a result, the British geopolitics in China culminated with immediate effect

and legalization of opium curtailed opium abuse in China. The opium geopolitics in

China in 18th century was based on land based and maritime narco-trafficking and the

dawn of 201h century witnessed air narco-trafficking. The area of narco-trade was well

established in Southeast Asia as a well designated concept of the Golden Triangle to

47

highlight the covert air narco trafficking. By this time even the scale of geopolitics

had changed and opium surfaced not as an economic tool but as a military and

political tool as well.

In early 1986, opium geopolitics in Afghanistan commenced when the Arabs

speaking Pashtun and Dari were inducted into the Afghani jihad against Soviets.

Afghanistan was considered as a university introducing a new ideology and school of

thought. In every Islamic movement, there were Arab Afghans suggesting The Divine

Hand has been subjected to rigid tribal identities of Afghan societies. The coup d'etat

brought People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (P.D.P.A.) to power in 1978,

inspired the Mujahideen leaders to form their alliance in neighboring Pakistan and

Afghan became anti-communist. This situation suited United States of America for

many reasons.

While Afghan Islamists supported Pakistan against India, Pakistan gave refuge

to Afghanistan on the basis of Saudi Arabian aid. Meanwhile United States of

America confronted Soviet through Afghanistan as a surrogate. From 1986-1908,

American Support to Afghan Mujahidden reached US $ 1 billion. The Operation

Cyclone under Ji1nmy Carter in 1981 was about combined cash funds provided by the

C.I.A. and Saudi Arabia transferred into special accounts to I.S.I. director Gen Lt.

Akhtar Abul Rehman Khan. China, Egypt, Israel, Great Britain and United States of

America were main suppliers of arms to Afghanistan and these were however

outdated United States of America kept its embassy open in Kabul until Soviet

withdrawal in 1989. This became Afghanistan's blind-spot of America.

Afghan campaign was a payback for Soviet support for Vietcong that had

resulted defeat of United States of America in Vietnam. The Afghanistan's realization

of American strategy of flooding Afghanistan with arms became a blow back when

World Trade Centre was bombed on 26 February 1993. Afghanistan was a golden

opportunity for America to weaken the Soviet empire. The C.I.A. by this time had

enough experience in Korea, Cuba and Vietnam by now to get result in the right way

with no one taking a long term view. Afghanistan was against Soviet with the military

aid from America. Soviet withdrawal from Afghan in 1989 saw American's sudden

withdrawal from Afghanistan. America did so in stages. In 1992, measures to

neutralise Arab Afghans started. This happened when the Inter Services Intelligence

(I.S.I), Pakistan's intellgence service, was pushed to mass arrest of Arabs and also

when Arabs left as Afghans started fighting with each other. Arab's withdrawal from

48

Afghanistan was also due to the pressure on Pakistani security forces from

Washington, Cairo and other countries. With this, Arab veterans (about 5000) started

drifting away to Third World Countries particularly Yemen, Algeria Sudan, Bosnia,

Chechina and Tajiks.

The Islamic agenda of jihad in Afghanistan was applauded and revitalized by

the democratic parliaments of West. The Americans won the proxy war against Soviet

at the cost of Islam in Afghanistan.

Unfortunately, Afghanistan could not translate the Mujahideen 14 jihad to

peace. After the Soviet withdrawal, chaos spread throughout Afghanistan as it was

confused whether the war against Soviets was religious or political. At this stage from

1992 to 1996, the Najibullah government sought the intervention of United Nations.

The shaky coalition of Mujahideen became disunited, government disparate,

disillusioned and disintegrated causing lawlessness. It was here and then when

Taliban (Tclib is an Arabic word meaning student), emerged.

The Taliban's young leaders were essentially Afghan refugees of the

Mujahideen war against the Soviet Union or displaced war stuck population stuck in

Afghanistan. The "Umma" movement had bought with it, strict application of Muslim

Law as the daily life of the refugee camps had been dominated by Madarsas (Islamic

religious schools that had been established in Afghan refugee camps in "Pakistan in

1980s). The Taliban leader, Sheikh Mohamed Omar Akhund took advantage of the

weakening leadership of President Burhamuddin Rabbani. From taking over as

policing from Mujahideen in 1992, the Taliban took gradual control of Afghanistan

Westward and Northward. On 27 September, 1996, Taliban seized Kabul. Taliban

followed a purely military course of action in order to avoid failure ever since 1996,

despite the fact that war seemed endless. The cause was however different as

Taliban's regime was oppressive and dictatorial.

However under Taliban, Afghanistan plunged into medievalism. The anti­

Soviet jihad proved as a false dawn to the Islamists, for the Arabs particularly because

jihad could not prevent the Islamist's strategy of getting rooted into tribal structures.

Also· the reward for religious obedience or the strict persistence of Islam was

unforgettable as Afghanistan found itself devastated and war-torn. The inherent

susceptibility to tribalism, in Afghan emerged immediate after victory against Soviets.

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However, political stability could have been achieved for an accurate dawn of

peace and rehabilitation could have occured in Afghanistan, only if the leaders

struggled for principles instead of power keeping them above tribal warfare for a

greater political agenda. It could be reasonable to argue if Afghanistan became a

failed state instead of a buffer state on the lines that its accepting jihad was more

graceful than letting America overtly involve inside Afghanistan against Soviets.

Rather than seeking centralized state power for them, Afghanistan chose to

prevent the expansion of the Soviet power.

Moreover, jihad was geopolitically used (See Roy Olivier definiton onji~ad as

an affair between the believer and his God and not between the believer and his

enemy: where there is no obligation to obtain a result and that its an act of faith,

1994). Hence, Afghanistan became more like a bear trap, trapping Soviets, for

America, finally neutralizing the Cold War of the superpowers. The side-effect of

which can be attributed to the emergence of Golden Crescent in Southwest Asia.

The following chapter examines the socio-economic issues of transboundary

narco-trafficking while keeping in mind its geopolitical nexus.

14 Umma: the global community of Muslims, which transcends nationality and nation sates and limit all Muslims into a single community.

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