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UNIT 1

SOCIOLOGICALPERSPECTIVES

Enrichment Readings

Chapter 1

An Invitation toSociology

Chapter 2

Sociologists DoingResearch

Chapter 1 – Peter L. Berger“Invitation to Sociology,”page 35

Chapter 2 – Donna Eder “School Talk,”page 66

3

An Invitation toSociologyAn Invitation toSociology

CHAPTER 1

4

Sections

Learning Objectives

1. The SociologicalPerspective

2. The Origins of Sociology

3. Theoretical Perspectives

After reading this chapter, you will be able to

❖ define sociology.

❖ describe two uses of the sociological perspective.

❖ distinguish sociology from other socialsciences.

❖ outline the contributions of the major pioneers of sociology.

❖ summarize the development of sociologyin the United States.

❖ identify the three major theoretical per-spectives in sociology today.

YourSociologicalImagination

USING

“Study shows juvenile delinquencyincreases as church attendance decreases”

If you saw this headline in your localpaper, you might be tempted to think“Well, duh . . . .” After all, applying a

little common sense to this topic wouldprobably lead you to draw exactly the sameconclusion. If you assumed, however, thatlower church attendance causes delinquency,you would be making a common mistake.Research shows that delinquency increasesas church attendance decreases because of athird factor—age. Older adolescents go tochurch less often and they are also morelikely than younger teens to be delinquents.What may seem to be a relationship betweenchurch attendance and delinquency is actu-ally caused by a third factor—age—that affects both of the other two factors.

Questioning and researching assumptionsis an important aspect of sociology. Bylearning to question conventional wisdom(what most people believe to be true) youwill be in a better position to make deci-sions or judgments. Your decisions will bebased on reality rather than on sociallyaccepted false beliefs. (This does not meanthat all conventional wisdom is false, ofcourse. But it is important to know that thefacts are accurate when policies affectingpeople’s lives are being made.)

Sociological research is relatively new. Infact, sociology is the “infant of the socialsciences.” You will see this as you becomeacquainted with the founders of sociology.Before turning to these pioneers, however,you need an introduction to the unique perspective of sociology. 5

Chapter OverviewVisit the Sociology and You Web site at soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 1—Chapter Overviews to preview chapter information.

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6 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

The Nature of Sociology

Aperspective is a particular point of view. Babies are usually brighterand better looking to their parents than they are to others.

Newlyweds nearly always find their spouses much more attractive than dotheir friends. We all see what is happening around us through our own per-spectives—our own points of view.

We normally do not realize how much of our attitudes and beliefs are de-termined by our perspectives. Sometimes, though, when our outlook is chal-lenged, we may be jarred into realizing how much we take it for granted. Asyou will see, sociology has its own perspective. To understand it, you musthave an idea of just what sociology is.

What is sociology? As a newcomer to the field, you may at first viewsociology as the study of human social behavior. As you go along, however,you will acquire a more precise understanding of sociology as the scientificstudy of social structure. (Social structure is discussed later in this section.)

What is unique about sociology? Sociology, as stated earlier, has itsown perspective. The sociological perspective never focuses on the indi-vidual. Psychologists may study the individual, but not sociologists. The viewthrough the lens of sociology always remains at the social, or group, level.

Sociology studies humansocial behavior. It as-

sumes a group, rather thanan individual, perspective.Sociologists look for the pat-terns in social relationships.Individuals can benefit byusing their sociological imag-inations to look at events intheir personal lives.

SectionPreviewSectionPreview

SectionSection

11The Sociological PerspectiveK e y T e r m s

• perspective • social structure• sociology • sociological imagination• sociological perspective

sociological perspectivea view that looks at behaviorof groups, not individuals

perspectivea particular point of view

sociologythe scientific study of socialstructure (human socialbehavior)

These elephant tusks were burned todiscourage trade in ivory. Whetheryou support this action dependsupon your beliefs about conservationand national sovereignty.

Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 7

Social Science Description Example

Sociology

Anthropology

Psychology

Economics

Political science

History

Sociology investigates human social behavior from a group rather than an individual perspective. It concentrates on patterns of social relationships, primarily in modern societies.

Anthropology investigates culture, the customary be-liefs and material traits of groups. It is the social sci-ence most closely related to sociology. Anthropolo-gists, however, concentrate on the study of preliterate societies (societies that do not use writing). Sociolo-gists focus on modern, industrial societies.

Psychology investigates human mental and emotional processes. While sociologists concentrate on the group, psychologists also study the development and function-ing of the individual.

Economics is the study of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

Political science investigates the organization, administration, his-tory, and theory of government. Political scientists are con-cerned, for example, with voting patterns and participation in po-litical parties.

History examines past events in human societies. Historians generally rely on newspapers, historical documents, and oral histories as sources of information.

Relationship between the employment of women and family size

Nature of the family in preliterate societies

Effects of birth order on emotional development

Annual income levels of American families

Relationship between a family's social class and voting behavior

Nature of family life in colonial society

The Social SciencesSocial science is a branch of learning that deals with human society. It includes a number of disciplines, whichwe generally refer to as the social sciences. These disciplines differ, but they share enough in common to over-lap. Descriptions of the major social sciences are presented in this table.


Sociologists do not focus on the behavior of individuals but on the pat-terns of behavior shared by members of a group or society. The person on the street might explain human behavior in individualistic or personal terms—a young man joins a gang

to prove his toughness; a woman divorces her husband todevelop her potential; a teen commits suicide to escape depression.

Sociologists attempt to explain these same events with-out relying on personal factors. They look for social rather

than personal explanations when they examine delinquency,divorce, or suicide. Sociologists might explain the events

in the following ways:

❖ Young men join gangs because they have beentaught by their society to be “masculine.”❖ More women divorce because of the social trendtoward sexual equality.❖ Teens commit suicide because of peer groupexpectations of performance, material possessions, andphysical appearance.

Sociologists do not speak of a young man, a marriedwoman, or a teenager. They concentrate on categories of

people—young men, married women, and teenagers.

1770

Industrial Revolution

American Revolution

French Revolution

Louisiana Purchase 1803

Francis Lowell’s company opens 1814

Indian Removal Act 1830

Harriet Martineau publishes Society in America 1837

Auguste Comte begins publishing Positive Philosophy, which identifies science of sociology 1830

Karl Marx publishes The Communist Manifesto, promoting a classless society 1848

Herbert Spencer publishes Social Statics 1850

Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species 1859

George Washington is president

1780 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860

Joining a gang provides some youngmen—and women— with a sense ofsecurity and belonging they haven’tfound elsewhere.

Time Line ofEarly Sociologists


The Importance of PatternsAs you well know, high school students in a classroom behave in differ-

ent ways. Some students listen to everything their teacher says. Some tune inand out, and others spend much of the time daydreaming. Yet, if you visitalmost any high school, you will find patterned relationships. Teachers walkaround the room, work with students, lecture, and give tests. Students followthe teacher’s lesson plan, make notes, and take tests. Although the personalcharacteristics of students and teachers may vary from school to school, stu-dents and teachers relate in similar patterned ways. It is the patterned inter-action of people in social relationships—what sociologists call socialstructure—that captures the attention of sociologists.

How do group behavior and individual behavior differ? Sociologistsassume that social relationships are not determined by the particular charac-teristics of the individuals involved. Emile Durkheim, a pioneering nineteenth-century sociologist, helped develop the sociological perspective. He argued,for example, that we do not attempt to explain bronze in terms of its sepa-rate parts (lead, copper, and tin). Instead, we consider bronze a totally new metal created by the combination of several other metals. We can-not even predict the characteristics of bronze from the traits of its parts. For example, bronze is hard, while lead, copper, and tin are soft and pliable. Themixing of the individual parts creates a new whole with new characteristics.Durkheim reasoned that a similar process happens with groups of people.

Indeed, people’s behavior within a group setting cannot be predicted fromtheir personal characteristics. Something new is created when individuals

Industrial Revolution World War I

World War II

Worldwide depression

Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation

1863

U.S. population passes 40 million 1871

Alexander G. Bell patents telephone 1876

W.E.B. Du Bois publishes The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study

1899

Model T Ford mass produced 1909

Titanic sinks 1912

19th Amendment gives women the right to vote in U.S.

1920

First U.S. scenic highway opens 1923

Mickey Mouse is “born” 1928

Jane Addams awardedNobel Peace Prize

1931

Max Weber publishes The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

1904

Haymarket Square Riot 1886

George Eastman introduces Kodak box camera

1888

First department of sociology is established at the University of Chicago

1892

Emile Durkheim publishes Suicide

1897

1860 1870 18901880 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950

social structurethe patterned interaction ofpeople in social relationships

This time line shows when importantdevelopments in sociology occurredin relation to well-known events inAmerican history. Entries markedwith a blue dot indicate importantsociology landmarks (The sociolo-gists on this time line are discussedin the next sections of this chapter.)How might the development of thebox camera in 1888 have influ-enced the growth of sociology as afield of study?


come together. For example, in 1999 the Denver Broncos won the Super Bowlchampionship. Following the game, a few otherwise law-abiding Bronco fans,as a group, disrupted the peace and challenged the police in ways they wouldnot have done as individuals.

Tragedy, as well as joy, can change group behavior. The intense rivalry be-tween the Texas A&M Aggies and the University of Texas Longhorns was ban-ished the year twelve Aggie students died while preparing for the traditionalfootball pregame bonfire. During the halftime, the Longhorn band played thesong “Amazing Grace” and taps, and saluted the victims and their families by re-moving their hats. At a joint Aggie-Longhorn candlelight vigil two nights beforethe football game, the A&M student body president said that the communal shar-ing of the grief changed the relationship between the two schools forever.

Why do people conform? Groups range in size from a family to an en-tire society. Regardless of size, all groups encourage conformity. We willstudy conformity in more detail later. For now, you need to know only thatmembers of a group think, feel, and behave in similar ways. For example,Americans, Russians, and Nigerians have eating habits, dress, religious be-liefs, and attitudes toward family life that reflect their group.

A n o t h e rT im e

A n o t h e r A NativeAmerican’sSpeech

Virginia colonists had offered to “properly edu-cate” some young Indian boys at the College ofWilliam and Mary in Williamsburg.To the surpriseof the colonists, the benefits of a white gentle-man’s education were not highly valued by thetribal elders. Below is a Native American’s reply tothe white men’s offer.

We know that you highly esteem the kindof learning taught in . . . [your] colleges.

. . . But you, who are wise, must know that dif-ferent nations have different conceptions ofthings; and you will not therefore take it amiss, ifour ideas of this kind of education happen not tobe the same with yours. We have had some expe-rience of it; several of our young people were for-merly brought up at the colleges of the northernprovinces; they were instructed in all your sci-ences; but, when they came back to us, they werebad runners, ignorant of every means of living inthe woods, unable to bear either cold or hunger,knew neither how to build a cabin, take a deer,nor kill an enemy, spoke our language imper-fectly, were therefore neither fit for hunters, war-riors, nor councellors; they were totally good fornothing.

We are howevernot the less obligatedby your kind offer,though we declineaccepting it; and, toshow our gratefulsense of it, if the gen-tlemen of Virginia willsend us a dozen of their sons, we will take care oftheir education, instruct them in all we know, andmake men of them.

Thinking It Over

1. Describe your reaction to this passage. Whatdoes it tell you about the importance of per-spective in interpreting the social world?

2. Describe a social encounter where you per-sonally experienced a “clash of perspectives”with someone from another culture.

3. Do you think your education is preparingyou to succeed in the world outside school?

Student Web Activity Visit the Sociology and You Web site at soc.glencoe.com and click onChapter 1—Student WebActivities for an activity onsocial patterns.

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sociological imaginationthe ability to see the linkbetween society and self

Conformity within a group occurs, in part, becausemembers have been taught to value the group’s ways.Members generally tend to conform even when theirpersonal preferences are not the same as the group’s.Some teens, for example, start smoking only to gaingroup acceptance.

Behavior within a group cannot be predictedsimply from knowledge about its individualmembers. This could be because members trulyvalue their group’s ways or because they give into social pressures. Like bronze, the group ismore than the sum of its parts.

Acquiring the SociologicalImagination

The sociological perspective enables us todevelop a sociological imagination. That is,knowing how social forces affect our lives canprevent us from being prisoners of thoseforces. C. Wright Mills (1959), an Americansociologist, called this personal use of soci-ology the sociological imagination—theability of individuals to see the relation-ship between events in their personal livesand events in their society.

What is gained by using our sociological imagination? People donot make decisions, big or small, in isolation. Historically, for example,American society has shown a strong bias against childless and one-childmarriages. Couples without children have been considered selfish, and anonly child has often been labeled “spoiled” (Benokraitis, 1999). These valuesdate back to a time when large families were needed for survival. Most peo-ple lived on family farms, where children were needed to help with thework. Furthermore, many children died at birth or in infancy. People re-sponded to society’s needs by having large families. Now, as the need forlarge families is disappearing, we are beginning to read about benefits ofone-child families—to the child, to the family, and to society. This change inattitude is reflected in the decrease in family size.

The sociological imagination helps us understand the effects of events,such as the social pressures just discussed, on our daily lives. With this un-derstanding, we are in a better position to make our own decisions ratherthan merely conform (Erikson, 1997; Game and Metcalfe, 1996).

This social awareness permits us to read the newspaper with a fuller un-derstanding of the events. Instead of interpreting a letter opposing welfare asan expression of someone with no compassion, we might instead see thewriter as a person who places great importance on independence and self-help. The sociological imagination questions common interpretations ofhuman social behavior. It challenges conventional social wisdom—ideas peo-ple assume are true.

To the outsider, these teenagers seemto be dressed alike. How does thisphoto show that a group is morethan the sum of its parts?


Job Opportunities in Sociology

SociologyTodayIn general, all employers are interested in four types of skills regardless of what specific career

path you choose. These skills are:

Because computers have revolutionized the office, for example, information analysis skills are be-coming much more important to managers in all types of organizations. The increasing complexity ofwork demands greater critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Knowledge is of limited use if youcan’t convey what you know to others.

The study of sociology helps students to develop these general skills, so it is a solid base formany career paths. For sociology majors, the following list of possibilities is only the beginning—many other paths are open to you.

❖ Social services—in rehabilitation, case management, group work with youth or the elderly,recreation, or administration

❖ Community work—in fund-raising for social service organizations, nonprofits, child-care orcommunity development agencies, or environmental groups

❖ Corrections—in probation, parole, or other criminal justice work❖ Business—in advertising, marketing and consumer research, insurance, real estate, personnel

work, training, or sales❖ College settings—in admissions, alumni relations, or placement offices❖ Health services—in family planning, substance abuse, rehabilitation counseling, health

planning, hospital admissions, and insurance companies❖ Publishing, journalism, and public relations—in writing, research, and editing❖ Government services—in federal, state, and local government jobs in such areas as

transportation, housing, agriculture, and labor❖ Teaching—in elementary and secondary schools, in conjunction with appropriate teacher

certification; also in universities, with research opportunities.

Doing Sociology1. Which of the above career paths is most interesting to you? What is it about this area that you

find interesting?2. Evaluate your current strengths and weaknesses in the four primary skill areas.3. Look at the employment opportunities in the Sunday edition of your local paper. Clip out ads for

jobs that you might qualify for with a sociology degree.

Adapted from Careers in Sociology, 4th ed., American Sociological Association, 1995.

❖ the ability to work with others❖ the ability to write and speak well

❖ the ability to solve problems❖ the ability to analyze information


Section 1 Assessment

1. Define sociology.2. Explain the significance of patterns for sociologists.3. Give an example from your life that illustrates conformity within a

group.4. How does the sociological imagination help people to understand the

effects of society on their personal lives?

Critical Thinking

5. Making Comparisons Examine the idea of perspectives byidentifying an issue that you look at in one way and your parent(s) orother adults look at in a different way. Write about the issue from bothperspectives.

Interpreting the Map

1. List the states with highest and lowest literacy rates.2. How does your state rate on literacy?3. What might be some reasons for adult illiteracy?

> 15%> 13%> 11%> 9%≤ 9%

Percentage of Americans Over20 Who Are Illiterate

Illiteracy RatesOne of the assumptions of conventionalwisdom is that nearly all American adultsknow how to read and write. Researchhas shown, however, that a large per-centage of adults are illiterate. Literacy isdefined as the ability to read at a fourth-grade level. This map shows, by state,the percentage of Americans over twentyyears old who are illiterate.

“

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It is doubtless impossibleto approach any humanproblem with a mind freeof bias.

Simone de Beauvoirfeminist author

Adapted from Doug Henwood. The State of the U.S.A. Atlas.


European Origins

Sociology is a relatively new science. It began in late nineteenth-centuryEurope during a time of great social upheaval. The social and eco-

nomic effects of the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution weretouching all aspects of life. People were moving from farms to factory life,losing a sense of community.

Some intellectuals were fascinated and troubled by the sudden changes.Auguste Comte, Harriet Martineau, and others began tograpple with ideas for bringing back a sense of com-munity and for restoring order. These ideas led tothe rise of the science of sociology. Examining thecentral ideas of the major pioneers of sociologywill help you better understand what sociology istoday.

What were Auguste Comte’s major ideas?Auguste Comte (1798–1857), a Frenchman, isrecognized as the father of sociology. As a childhe was often ill, but he proved early to be an ex-cellent student. He had difficulty balancing hisgenuine interest in school and his rebellious andstubborn nature. In fact, he was expelled forprotesting against the examination procedures at theelite Ecole Polytechnique.

As an adult, Comte’s main concern was theimprovement of society. If societies were to ad-vance, Comte believed, social behavior had to bestudied scientifically. Because no science of soci-ety existed, Comte attempted to create one him-self. He coined the term sociology to describe this science.

Comte wanted to use scientific observation in the study of social behav-ior. He called this positivism. He meant that sociology should be a sciencebased on knowledge of which we can be “positive,” or sure. Comte also dis-tinguished between social statics, the study of social stability and order, andsocial dynamics, the study of social change. This distinction between socialstability and social change remains at the center of modern sociology.

positivismthe belief that knowledgeshould be derived fromscientific observation

social staticsthe study of social stability and order

social dynamicsthe study of social change

SectionSection

22The Origins of SociologyK e y T e r m s

• positivism • class conflict• social statics • mechanical solidarity• social dynamics • organic solidarity• bourgeoisie • verstehen• capitalist • rationalization• proletariat

Sociology is a young sci-ence. It started with the

writings of European scholarslike Auguste Comte, HarrietMartineau, Herbert Spencer,Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim,and Max Weber. JaneAddams and W.E.B. DuBoishelped to focus America’s at-tention on social issues. AfterWorld War II, America tookthe lead in developing thefield of sociology.


Auguste Comte is considered to bethe founder of sociology. He wasthe first to advocate the scientificstudy of society.


Comte published his theories in a book titled Positive Philosophy, but hedied before people generally came to appreciate his work. His belief that so-ciology could use scientific procedures and promote social progress, how-ever, was widely adopted by other European scholars.

What were Harriet Martineau’s contributions?Harriet Martineau (1802–1876), an Englishwoman, is an-

other important figure in the founding of sociology.She was born into a solidly middle-class home.Never in good health, Martineau had lost hersense of taste, smell, and hearing before reach-ing adulthood. Her writing career, which in-cluded fiction as well as sociological work,began in 1825 after the Martineau’s family textilemill was lost to a business depression. Withoutthe family income, and following a broken en-gagement, Martineau was forced to seek a de-pendable source of income to support herself.

She became a popular writer of celebrity status,whose work initially outsold Charles Dickens’s.

Martineau is best known today for her transla-tion of Comte’s great book. Her English transla-tion remains even today the most readable one.Despite being severely hearing impaired, she alsomade original contributions in the areas of re-search methods, political economy, and feministtheory.

In Society in America, Martineau establishedherself as a pioneering feminist theorist. Because she saw a link betweenslavery and the oppression of women, she was a strong and outspoken sup-porter of the emancipation of both women and slaves. Martineau believedwomen’s lack of economic power helped keep them dependent. Bywriting about the inferior position of women in society, she helpedinspire future feminist theorists.

Why did Herbert Spencer oppose social reform? HerbertSpencer (1820–1903), the sole survivor of nine children, wasborn to an English schoolteacher. Spencer was taught exclu-sively by his father and uncle, mostly in mathematics and thenatural sciences. He did not enjoy scholarly work or the studyof Latin, Greek, English, or history, and therefore he decidednot to apply to Cambridge University, his uncle’s alma mater.As a result, his higher education was largely the result of hisown reading. Spencer’s career became a mixture of engineering,drafting, inventing, journalism, and writing.

To explain social stability, Herbert Spencer compared societyto the human body. He explained that, like a body, a society iscomposed of parts working together to promote its well-beingand survival. People have brains, stomachs, nervous systems,limbs. Societies have economies, religions, governments, fami-lies. Just as the eyes and the heart make essential contributionsto the functioning of the human body, religious and educational institutionsare crucial for a society’s functioning.

Harriet Martineau emphasizedsociology as a science andintroduced feminism. Herprofound deafness prevented herearning a living as a teacher soshe became an author.

Herbert Spencer was an earlyproponent of Social Darwinismand evolutionary social change.

“

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An unexamined idea, toparaphrase Socrates, isnot worth having.

Mark Van DorenAmerican poet


Spencer also introduced a theory of social change called Social Darwinism,based on Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. Spencer thought that evolu-tionary social change led to progress—provided people did not interfere. If leftalone, natural social selection would ensure the survival of the fittest society.On these grounds, Spencer opposed social reform because it interfered withthe selection process. The poor, he wrote, deserve to be poor and the rich tobe rich. Society profits from allowing individuals to find their own social-classlevel without outside help or hindrance. To interfere with the existence ofpoverty—or the result of any other natural process—is harmful to society.

When Spencer visited America in 1882, he was warmly greeted, particularlyby corporate leaders. After all, his ideas provided moral justification for theircompetitive actions. Later, public support for government intervention in-creased, and Spencer’s ideas began to slip out of fashion. Hereportedly died with a sense of having failed. His contri-bution in sociology was a discussion of how societiesshould be structured.

Who was Karl Marx? Karl Marx (1818–1883), a German scholar, did not consider him-self a sociologist, but his ideas have had a majoreffect on the field. Marx felt great concern forthe poverty and inequality suffered by the work-ing class of his day. His life was guided by theprinciple that social scientists should try tochange the world rather than merely study it.Marx’s friend and coauthor Friedrich Engelshelped put his ideas into writing.

Marx identified several social classes in nine-teenth-century industrial society. Among them werefarmers, servants, factory workers, craftspeople,owners of small businesses, and moneyed capital-ists. He predicted that at some point all industrialsocieties would contain only two social classes: thebourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie(burzh-wa-zee) are those who own the means for producing wealth in industrialsociety (for example, factories and equipment). The means for producing wealthare called capital. Thus, those who own them are also called capitalists. Theproletariat work for the bourgeoisie and are paid just enough to stay alive.

For Marx, the key to the unfolding of history was class conflict—a clashbetween the bourgeoisie, who controlled the means for producing wealth,and the proletariat, who labored for them. Just as slaves overthrew slaveowners, wage workers would overtake capitalists. Out of this conflict wouldcome a classless (communistic) society—one in which there would be nopowerless proletariat.

Planned revolution, Marx was convinced, could speed up the changefrom capitalism to communism. His political objective was to explain theworkings of capitalism in order to hasten its fall through revolution. He be-lieved, though, that capitalism would eventually self-destruct anyway.

What were Emile Durkheim’s greatest contributions? EmileDurkheim (1858–1917) was the son of a French rabbi. Durkheim was a bril-liant student even during his early school years. In college, he was so intenselystudious that his schoolmates nicknamed him “the metaphysician.”

proletariatworking class; those who labor for the bourgeoisie

class conflictthe ongoing struggle between the bourgeoisie(owners) and the proletariat(working) classes

capitalistperson who owns or controlsthe means for producingwealth

bourgeoisieclass owning the means forproducing wealth

Karl Marx was the social scientistwho underscored the importanceof conflict in social change. Partsof his writings were later used as abasis for communism.


According to Durkheim, society exists because of broad consensus,or agreement, among members of a society. In preindustrial times,societies were based on what sociologists call mechanical solidarity. With these societies, there was widespread consensusof values and beliefs, strong social pressures for conformity, anddependence on tradition and family. In contrast, industrial soci-eties are based on organic solidarity—social interdependencybased on a web of highly specialized roles. These specializedroles make members of a society dependent on one another for goods and services. For example, instead of being self-sufficient, people need bankers and bankers need customers.

Although early sociologists emphasized the need to make so-ciology scientific, they did not have the research tools that areavailable today. Later sociologists developed the methods to re-place speculation with observation, to collect and classify data,and to use data for testing social theories.

Durkheim was the most prominent of these later sociologists.He first introduced the use of statistical techniques in his ground-breaking research on suicide, which we will discuss in Chapter 2.In that study, Durkheim demonstrated that suicide involves more

than individuals acting alone and that suicide rates vary ac-cording to group characteristics. Durkheim showed that

human social behavior must be explained by social fac-tors rather than psychological ones.

Who was Max Weber? Max Weber (1864–1920)was the eldest son of a father who was a well-to-doGerman lawyer and politician. His mother, in starkcontrast, was a strongly devout Calvinist who re-jected the worldly lifestyle of her husband. Weberwas affected psychologically by the conflicting val-ues of his parents. Weber eventually suffered acomplete mental breakdown from which he recov-ered to do some of his best work. As a university

professor trained in law and economics, Weber wroteon a wide variety of topics, including the nature ofpower, the religions of the world, the nature of so-cial classes, and the development and nature of bu-reaucracy. His most famous book is The ProtestantEthic and the Spirit of Capitalism, published in 1906.

Through the quality of his work and the diver-sity of his interests, Weber has had the single mostimportant influence on the development of socio-

logical theory. Human beings act on the basis of their own understanding ofa situation, Weber said. Thus, sociologists must discover the personal mean-ings, values, beliefs, and attitudes underlying human social behavior. Weberbelieved that an understanding of the personal intentions of people in groupscan be best accomplished through the method of verstehen—understand-ing the social behavior of others by putting yourself mentally in their places.Putting yourself in someone else’s “shoes” allows you to temporarily shedyour values and see things from a different point of view.

Weber also identified rationalization as a key influence in the changefrom a preindustrial to an industrial society. Rationalization is the mind-set

mechanical solidaritysocial dependency based on a widespread consensus ofvalues and beliefs, enforcedconformity, and dependenceon tradition and family

organic solidaritysocial interdependency basedon a high degree ofspecialization in roles

verstehenunderstanding social behaviorby putting yourself in theplace of others

rationalizationthe mind-set emphasizingknowledge, reason, andplanning

Max Weber’s model of abureaucracy reflected greatlyincreased efficiency in businessand government. Today, however,bureaucratic is often used as asynonym for unimaginative,plodding, or despotic.

Emile Durkheim was the firstsociologist to use statistical methodsin the study of human groups. Hewas also the first to teach auniversity sociology course.


that emphasizes the use of knowledge, reason, and planning. It marked achange from the tradition, emotion, and superstition of preindustrial society.For example, agriculture became grounded in science rather than belief inluck, fate, or magic. In stressing rationality and objectivity, Weber pioneeredresearch techniques that helped prevent personal biases from unduly affectingthe results of sociological investigations.

Sociology in AmericaAlthough the early development of sociology occurred in Europe, the great-

est development of sociology has taken place in the United States. Because sociology has become a science largely through the efforts of American sociol-ogists, it is not surprising that the majority of all sociologists are from the UnitedStates. Sociological writings in English are used by sociologists throughout theworld, reflecting the global influence of American sociologists.

In 1892, the first department of sociology was established at the Universityof Chicago. From its founding up to World War II, the sociology departmentat the University of Chicago stood at the forefront of American sociology.After World War II, sociology departments at eastern universities such asHarvard and Columbia, midwestern universities such as Wisconsin andMichigan, and western universities such as Stanford and the University ofCalifornia at Berkeley emerged as leaders.

In later chapters we will be studying the works of major American soci-ologists. Two early contributors, however, who are often left out of the his-tory of American sociology are Jane Addams and W.E.B. DuBois. Although

Everyone manages his or her behavior to create adesired impression. What face have you put on

today?

“

“

What is not good for the hive is not good forthe bee.

Marcus AureliusRoman emperor


neither of these remarkable people were researchers or scientists, both weregreatly concerned with social problems in America.

Why should we remember Jane Addams? The best known of theearly women social reformers in the United States was Jane Addams(1860–1935). Although her mother died when she was two years old,Addams’s wealthy father provided a loving and comfortable home for her andher eight brothers and sisters. Addams was an excellent student. Her early ed-ucation emphasized practical knowledge and the improvement of “the orga-nizations of human society.” She attended the Women’s Medical College ofPhiladelphia but was compelled to drop out of the school because of illness.

When she was a child, Addams saw many examples of government cor-ruption and business practices that harmed workers. She never forgot theirsuffering. While on one of her European trips, she saw the work being doneto help the poor in London. With this example of social action, Addamsbegan her life’s work seeking social justice. She co-founded Hull House inChicago’s slums. Here, people who needed refuge—immigrants, the sick, thepoor, the aged—could find help.

Addams focused on the problems caused by the imbalance of poweramong the social classes. She invited sociologists from the University ofChicago to Hull House to witness firsthand the effects of industrialism on thelower class. In addition to her work with the underclass, Addams was activein the woman suffrage and peace movements. As a result of her tireless workfor social reform, Addams was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931—theonly sociologist to receive this honor. The irony is that Addams herself suf-fered a sort of class discrimination. She was not considered a sociologist dur-ing her lifetime because she did not teach at a university. She was considereda social worker (then considered a less prestigious career) because she wasa woman and because she worked directly with the poor.

Jane Addams was a socialreformer who spent her lifeworking on the social problemscreated by the imbalance of poweramong social classes.


According to George Ritzer,universities share some ofthe organizationalcharacteristics of popularfast-food restaurants.

Secondary Analysis:The McDonaldization ofHigher Education

Research is to sociology what lab experiments are to chemists.Through the research process sociologists gather information, or data,to help them understand how people behave in social settings. (In thenext chapter, you will learn more about how sociologists do research.)The research project described below will give you some idea of howsociologists use already-collected data to study human social behavior.

In this study, George Ritzer investigated how Max Weber’s processof rationalization (see pages 17–18) is being used by a popular fast-food company. Like Weber, Ritzer was interested in the movement oforganizations toward ever-increasing efficiency, predictability, calcula-bility, and control. After explaining each of these characteristics, Ritzerapplies rationalization to the field of education in what he calls the

“McDonaldization” of higher education.Efficiency refers to the relationship between

effort and result. An organization ismost efficient when the maxi-mum results are achieved withminimum effort. For example,fast-food restaurants are effi-cient in part because theytransfer work usually done byemployees to customers. Forexample, self-service drinkcenters allow customers to

get refills on drinks while dis-guising the fact they are waiting on

themselves. Calculability involves estima-tion based on probabilities. High calculabil-ity exists when the output, cost, and effort

associated with products can be pre-dicted. A McDonald’s manager trainsemployees to make each Big Mac

within a rigid time limit. Predictabiltypertains to consistency of results.Predictability exists when products turnout as planned. Big Macs are the sameeverywhere. Control is increased by re-


placing human activity with technology. McDonald’s drink machines stopafter a cup has been filled to its prescribed limit.

Because Ritzer believes that McDonald’s restaurants reflect the ra-tionalization process, he refers to the “McDonaldization” of society(1998). His sources of information include newspapers, books, maga-zines, and industry publications. Since many of you are now thinkingabout attending college, Ritzer’s findings on the “McUniversity” shouldbe of interest.

Increasingly, students and parents view a college degree as a ne-cessity to compete successfully in the job market. “Shopping” for theright college requires many of the consumer skills used in making anymajor purchase. This consumer orientation, Ritzer asserts, can be seenon most college campuses in the United States. For example, studentswant education to be conveniently located and they want it open aslong as possible each day. They seek inexpensive parking, efficient ser-vice, and short waiting lines. Students want high-quality service at thelowest cost. A “best buy” label in national academic rankings catchesthe attention of parents and students.

Public colleges and universities, Ritzer contends, are responding tothis consumer orientation. They are doing so in part because govern-ment funding for higher education is becoming more scarce. To meetreduced funding, colleges and universities are cutting costs and payingmore attention to “customers.” For example, Ritzer points to studentunions. Many of them are being transformed into mini-malls with fast-food restaurants, video games, and ATMs.

Ritzer predicts that a far-reaching, customer-oriented tactic will beto “McDonaldize” through new technology. The “McUniversity” will stillhave a central campus, but it will also have convenient satellite loca-tions in community colleges, high schools, businesses, and malls.“Students will ‘drop by’ for a course or two. Parking lots will be adja-cent to McUniversity’s satellites (as they are to fast-food restaurants) tomake access easy” (Ritzer, 1998: 156).

McDonaldization, Ritzer contends, will dehumanize the process ofeducation. Most instructors at satellites will be part-timers hired to teachone or more courses. They will come and go quickly, so students willnot have the opportunity to form relationships as with more permanentfaculty members. In order to make the courses alike from satellite tosatellite, course content, requirements, and materials will be highlystandardized, losing the flavor individual professors bring to theirclasses. Students will not be able to choose a particular instructor for acourse because there will be only one per satellite. Often, there maybe no teacher physically present at all. More courses will be deliveredby professors televised from distant places.

In spite of these predictions, colleges and universities will not be achain of fast-food restaurants or a shopping mall, Ritzer concludes.Institutions of higher education will retain many traditional aspects, butthere will undoubtedly be a significant degree of McDonaldization.

Working with the Research1. Do you think the bene-

fits of the“McUniversity” out-weigh the disadvan-tages? Why or why not?

2. What other industries orprofessions are beingaffected byMcDonaldization? Giveexamples.

22

What were the contributions of W.E.B. DuBois? W.E.B.DuBois (1868–1963), an African American educator and social ac-

tivist, also influenced the early development of sociology in theUnited States. DuBois attended an integrated high school inGreat Barrington, Massachusetts, and was the first black to re-ceive a diploma there. He earned a doctorate degree fromHarvard University in 1895 and taught at a number of predomi-

nantly black universities during his career.DuBois learned firsthand about racial discrimination and segregation

when he attended Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee, as an undergrad-uate student. Partly from this experience, and from teaching in rural, all-blackschools around Nashville, DuBois decided to attack the “Negro problem.”This racist policy was based on the assumption that blacks were an inferiorrace. DuBois analyzed the sophisticated social structure of black communi-ties, first in Philadelphia and later in many other places.

DuBois’s concern for his race did not stop at the borders of the UnitedStates—he was also active in the Pan African movement, which was concernedwith the rights of all African descendants, no matter where they lived. Whiledocumenting the experience and contributions of African people throughout theworld, DuBois died in the African country of Ghana, at the age of ninety-five.


1. Define the term positivism.2. Name and explain the theory of social change proposed by Herbert

Spencer.3. Give an example to illustrate Emile Durkheim’s idea of organic solidarity.

Critical Thinking

4. Evaluating Information Max Weber introduced the concept ofverstehen. How would you use this approach to social research if youwanted to investigate the importance of money to your peers? Explain.

DuBois used science and sociologyto disprove racist assumptions aboutAfrican Americans.

Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

W.E.B. DuBois focused on thequestion of race inside and outsidethe United States.


SectionSection

33Theoretical PerspectivesK e y T e r m s

• theoretical perspective • conflict perspective• functionalism • power• manifest functions • symbol• latent functions • symbolic interactionism• dysfunction • dramaturgy

The Role of Theoretical Perspectives

Perception is the way the brain interprets an image or event. Similarly,perspective is the way you interpret the meaning of an image or

event. Your perspective is influenced by beliefs or values you hold. It drawsyour attention to some things and blinds you to others. This is demonstratedin two drawings psychologists often use to illustrate the concept of percep-tion. (See Figure 1.1.) If you stare at the old woman long enough, she be-comes a beautiful young woman with a feather boa around her neck. If youstare at Figure 1.1b, it alternates between two facing profiles and a vase. Youcannot, however, see the old woman and the young woman or the faces andthe vase at the same time.

Which image is real depends on your focus—your perspective influenceswhat you see. One perspective emphasizes certain aspects of an event, whileanother perspective accents different aspects of the same event. When a per-spective highlights certain parts of something, it must place other parts in thebackground.

What is a theoretical perspective? A theoretical perspective is aset of assumptions about an area of study—in this case, about the workings

Sociology includes threemajor theoretical per-

spectives. Functionalismviews society as an inte-grated whole. Conflict theorylooks at class, race, and gen-der struggles. Symbolic inter-actionism examines howgroup members use sharedsymbols as they interact.


theoretical perspectivea set of assumptions acceptedas true

Fig. 1.1 These two famous images are used by psychologists to illustrate perception andperspective. What did you see first in Figure 1.1a—an old woman or a beautiful younglady? What did you see first in Figure 1.1b—a vase or two human faces?

a. b.


of society. A theoretical perspective is viewed as true by its supporters andit helps them organize their research.

Competing, even conflicting, theories in science usually exist at the sametime. Perhaps not enough evidence exists to determine which theory is ac-curate, or different theories may explain different aspects of the problem.This is even true in the so-called “hard” sciences like modern physics.Einstein’s theory of general relativity, for example, contradicts the widely ac-cepted Big Bang theory of the origin of the physical universe. Einstein him-self never accepted the quantum theory. Nonetheless, this theory has becomethe foundation of modern developments in such fields as chemistry and mol-ecular biology (Hawking, 1998). Today theories are being put forth that holdpromise for combining relativity and quantum theory. If theories still com-pete in physics, it should not be surprising that several major theoretical per-spectives exist in sociology.

1. What does your reaction to this map tell you about the power of the perspective you bring to asituation?

2. Look at world maps in your various social studies classes as you progress through the day.Where are North America and Europe located on these maps? What does that tell you aboutthe perspective of these map publishers and their customers?

World ViewWorld View A World Turned Upside DownWithout turning this book upside down, try to locatethe United States. If you find this view of the worlddisorienting because you are used to conventionalmaps, you may reject this new worldview. So it iswith any perspective. In this book you will be askedto abandon the conventional or psychological per-spective in favor of the sociological perspective.

Interpreting the Map


Sociology has three overarching theoretical perspectives: functionalism,conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Each of these perspectives pro-vides a different slant on human social behavior. The exclusive use of anyone of them prevents our seeing other aspects of social behavior, just as onecannot see the old woman and the young woman at the same time. All threeperspectives together, however, allow us to see most of the important di-mensions of human social behavior.

FunctionalismFunctionalism emphasizes the contributions (functions) of each part

of a society. For example, family, economy, and religion are “parts” of asociety. The family contributes to society by providing for the reproduc-tion and care of its new members. The economy contributes by dealingwith production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.Religion contributes by emphasizing beliefs and practices related to sacredthings.

How does functionalism explain social change? Functionalists seethe parts of a society as an integrated whole. A change in one part of a so-ciety leads to changes in other parts. A major change in the economy, forexample, may change the family—which is precisely what happened as aresult of the Industrial Revolution. Before the Industrial Revolution, whenmost people made their living by farming, a large farm labor force wasneeded. Families fulfilled this need by having many children. The needdisappeared as industrialization proceeded, and smaller families becamethe norm.

Functionalism assumes that societies tend to return to a state of sta-bility after some upheaval has occurred. A society may change overtime, but functionalists believe that it will return to a stable state. It willdo this by changing in such a way that society will be similar to whatit was before. Student unrest and other protests duringthe late 1960s illustrate this. The activities of protestershelped bring about some changes:

❖ Many Americans became suspicious of thefederal government’s foreign policy.

❖ Schools and universities became moreresponsive to students’ needs and goals.

❖ Environmental protection becamean important political issue tomany Americans.

These changes, however, have not rev-olutionized American society. Theyhave been absorbed into it. As a result,our society is only somewhat differentfrom the way it was before the studentunrest. In fact, most of the stu-dent radicals are now part of themiddle-class society they oncerejected.

functionalismapproach that emphasizes the contributions made byeach part of society

Because of social and economicchanges, norms that dictatewomen’s roles have changed greatlyover the years. Functionalists studyhow a change in one part of asociety affects other parts.


Do all functions have a positive effect? Most aspects of a societyexist to promote a society’s survival and welfare. It is for this reason that allcomplex societies have economies, families, governments, and religions. Ifthese elements did not contribute to a society’s well-being and survival, theywould disappear.

Recall that a function is a contribution made by some part of a society.According to Robert Merton (1996), there are two kinds of functions.Manifest functions are intended and recognized. Latent functions are un-intended and unrecognized. One of the manifest functions of school, for ex-ample, is to teach math skills. A latent (and positive) function of schools isthe development of close friendships.

Not all elements of a society make a positive contribution. Elements thathave negative consequences result in dysfunction. Dysfunctions of bureau-cracies, for example, include rigidity, inefficiency, and impersonality. Whenyou go to the division of motor vehicles to register your car or get your driv-er’s license, the clerk may treat you like a “number” rather than as an indi-vidual. You don’t like his bureaucratic inflexibility and impersonality.

How does functionalism view values? Finally, according to function-alism, there is a consensus on values. Most Americans, for example, agree onthe desirability of democracy, success, and equal opportunity. This consen-sus of values, say the functionalists, accounts for the high degree of cooper-ation found in any society.

manifest functionsintended and recognizedconsequences of an aspect of society

latent functionsunintended and unrecognizedconsequences of an aspect ofsociety

dysfunctionnegative consequence of anaspect of society

How does this photo emphasize theapproach to studying society that istaken by the conflict perspective?

Functionalism

1. A society is a relatively inte-grated whole.

2. A society tends to seek relativestability.

3. Most aspects of a societycontribute to the soci-ety’s well-being andsurvival.

4. A society rests onthe consensus of itsmembers.

Conflict Perspective

1. A society expe-riences incon-sistency and conflictevery-where.

2. A soci-ety iscontinu-ally sub-jected tochange.

3. A society involvesthe constraint and coercionof some members by others.

SymbolicInteractionism

1. People’s interpretations ofsymbols are based on themeanings they learn fromothers.

2. People base their interactionon their interpretations ofsymbols.

3. Symbols permit people to haveinternal conversations. Thus,they can gear their interactionto the behavior that they thinkothers expect of them and thebehavior they expect of others.

Figure 1.2 Focus on Theoretical PerspectivesAssumptions of the Major Theoretical Perspectives. This table compares the most important assumptions

of the functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist perspectives. Do you believe, as the functionalists do,that society is relatively well integrated? Or do you support the conflict theorists’ assumption that society ex-periences conflict on all levels?


Conflict PerspectiveThe conflict perspective emphasizes conflict, competition, change, and

constraint within a society (Giddens, 1987, 1997). Understanding the conflictperspective is easier when you understand functionalism, because the as-sumptions behind these two perspectives are the reverse of each other. Thisis shown in Figure 1.2 above.

What is the role of conflict and constraint? Functionalists see a basicagreement on values within a society. This leads them to emphasize the wayspeople cooperate to reach common goals. The conflict perspective, in con-trast, focuses on the disagreements among various groups in a society or be-tween societies. Groups and societies compete as they attempt to preserveand promote their own special values and interests.

Supporters of the conflict perspective, then, see social living as a contest.Their central question is “Who gets what?” It is those with the most power—the ability to control the behavior of others—who get the largest share of

conflict perspectiveapproach emphasizing the role of conflict, competition,and constraint within a society

powerthe ability to control thebehavior of others


whatever is considered valuable in a society. Those with the most power havethe most wealth, prestige, and privileges. Because some groups have morepower than others, they are able to constrain, or limit, the less powerful.

How does the conflict perspective explain social change? Manyconflicting groups exist in a society. As the balance of power among thesegroups shifts, change occurs. For example, the women’s movement is at-tempting to change the balance of power between men and women. As thismovement progresses, we see larger numbers of women in occupations oncelimited to men. More women are either making or influencing decisions inbusiness, politics, medicine, and law. Gender relations are changing in otherways as well. More women are choosing to remain single, to marry later inlife, to have fewer children, and to divide household tasks with their hus-bands. According to the conflict perspective, these changes are the result ofincreasing power among women.

The number of Americans paying for an on-line Internet service isskyrocketing. The Internet began as a way for military and scientific

users to share information after a nuclear war. ARPAnet (the Internet’sforerunner) was formed in 1969 with only four connected computers. By2000, an estimated 55 percent of Americans had access to the Internet.According to some estimates, there will be more than 500 million usersworldwide by the year 2003.

Because of its rapid spread through American society, cyberspacetechnology is a timely example for showcasing the usefulness of thethree theoretical perspectives. The viewpoints of functionalism, conflicttheory, and symbolic interactionism contribute to an understanding ofthe social implications of this new technology in very different ways.

Functionalism. Functionalists see cyberspace technology as hav-ing both positive and negative consequences. On the one hand, com-puter links bring advantages. Parents can work at home and spendmore time with their children. Individuals with disabilities can do jobsat home that would be denied them otherwise, thus becoming morefully integrated into society. On the other hand, there are dysfunctions.Young people may have easy access to pornographic material, whichcan distort their view of the opposite sex. Hate groups can be formedby strangers who live hundreds or thousands of miles apart. Theiranonymity may encourage them to engage in antisocial or violent be-havior that they would otherwise avoid.

Conflict Theory. The Internet is clearly changing American soci-ety. The Internet, conflict theorists point out, is contributing to the in-creasing speed of technological change. An advocate of conflicttheory might investigate the social instability created by this rapidchange. Workers may be let go by corporations in increasing numbersas more tasks are performed by computers.

Conflict theory could guide an investigation comparing the num-bers of computers used in school districts of varying socioeconomiclevels. Computer literacy is becoming an essential skill for obtaining awell-paying job. Thus, students who attend wealthy schools with

SociologyLooks at theInternet


Which perspective is better? There is no “better” theoretical perspec-tive. Each perspective highlights certain areas of social life. The advantagesof one perspective are the disadvantages of the other. Functionalism explainsmuch of the consensus, stability, and cooperation within a society. The con-flict perspective explains much of the constraint, conflict, and change. Eachchapter, throughout the text, will illustrate both perspectives, as well as theperspective discussed next—symbolic interactionism.

Symbolic InteractionismBoth functionalism and conflict theory deal with large social units, such

as the economy, and broad social processes, such as conflict among socialclasses. At the close of the nineteenth century, some sociologists began to

access to computers have an advan-tage over students in poorerschools.

Symbolic Interactionism. Sym-bolic interactionists are interested inhow the Internet can affect a child’ssocial development. The popularityof cartoon characters on television isreinforced by web pages that allowchildren to join fan clubs, interactwith other fans, and view video clipsof their favorite cartoon characterswhenever they want. The popularcartoons The Simpsons and SouthPark feature children behaving inways unacceptable in nearly allAmerican homes. Television pro-vides limited exposure to thesecharacters, but the Internet allows them to become an important part of achild’s daily life. What children come to accept as desirable behavior isbeing based increasingly on their interpretations of the symbols and be-haviors represented by these characters. Symbolic interactionists mightconclude that to the extent this occurs, the Internet lessens adult influenceon children.

Analyzing the Trends1. Which perspective would you choose to conduct an in-depth study of

the Internet’s effect on society? Explain why you chose this perspective.2. Do you think that the Internet has some dysfunctions that Americans

should consider? Consider the advantages and disadvantages of theInternet on society.

25%

25%

40%

94%

00

105 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

Years from first appearance of technology

A major interest of sociologists todayis how the use of technology affects and reflects society. One apparent change is the speed in which new technologyis accepted and integrated into everydayliving. This graph compares how quicklydifferent inventions and technologies havebecome part of American households.

Per

cen

tag

e o

f h

om

es60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

25%

50%

75%

100%

Personal computersCell phones

Home telephonesInternet


change their approach to the study of society. Instead of concentrating onlarge social structures, they began to recognize the importance of the wayspeople interact. Two sociologists, Charles Horton Cooley and GeorgeHerbert Mead, developed the insight that groups exist only because theirmembers influence each other’s behavior. These early American sociologists,in short, created symbolic interactionism, a perspective that focuses on theactual interaction among people.

What is the significance of symbols in symbolic interactionism? Tounderstand social interactionism, we need to talk first about symbols. A symbol is something chosen to represent something else. It may be an ob-ject, a word, a gesture, a facial expression, a sound. A symbol is somethingobservable that often represents something not observable, something that isabstract. For example, your school’s team mascot is often used as a symbol ofschool loyalty. The American flag is used as a symbol of the United States.

The meaning of a symbol is not determined by its own physical character-istics. Those who create and use the symbols assign the meanings to them. Ifpeople in a group do not share the same meanings for a given symbol, confu-sion results. For example, if some people interpreted the red light of a trafficsignal to mean go, while others interpreted it to mean stop, chaos would result.

The importance of shared symbols is reflected in the formal definition ofsymbolic interactionism. It is the theoretical perspective that focuses on in-teraction among people—interaction based on mutually understood symbols.

What are the basic assumptions of symbolic interactionism?Herbert Blumer (1969a, 1969b), who coined the term symbolic interaction-ism, outlined three assumptions central to this perspective. (Refer to Figure1.2 on page 27.)

First, according to symbolic interactionism, we learn the meaning of asymbol from the way we see others reacting to it. For example, Americanmusicians in Latin America soon learn that when audience members whistleat the end of a performance, they are expressing disapproval. In other words,their whistling is a symbol of disapproval, as booing is in the United States.

According to conflict theory, the interests of groups will clash at times. If questioned, the menaround the water cooler may offer a functionalist interpretation of their pastime—talking sports

brings them together. Women who are not “sports savvy” may see their exclusion from such officetalk more from a conflict perspective.

symbolanything that stands forsomething else and has anagreed-upon meaningattached to it

symbolic interactionismapproach that focuses on the interactions among people based on mutuallyunderstood symbols


Second, once we learn the meanings of symbols, we base our behavior(interaction) on them. Now that the musicians have learned that whistlingsymbolizes a negative response, they will definitely avoid an encore if thecrowd begins whistling. (They would likely have the opposite response in theUnited States, where the symbol of whistling has a very different meaning.)

Finally, we use the meanings of symbols to imagine how others will re-spond to our behavior. Through this capability, we can have “internal con-versations” with ourselves. These conversations enable us to visualize howothers will respond to us before we act. This is crucial because we guide ourinteractions with people according to the behavior we think others expectof us and we expect of others. Meanwhile, these others are also hav-ing internal conversations. The interaction (acting on each other) thatfollows is therefore symbolic interaction.

In an attempt to better understand human interaction, ErvingGoffman introduced dramaturgy, which depicts human interactionas theatrical performance (Goffman, 1961a, 1963, 1974, 1979, 1983;Lemert and Branaman, 1997). Like actors on a stage, people presentthemselves through dress, gestures, tone of voice. Teenagers some-times act in a particular way in order to attract the attention of some-one they want to like them. Goffman calls this presentation of selfor impression management.


1. What is a theoretical perspective?2. Indicate whether the following statements represent functionalism (F),

the conflict perspective (C), or symbolic interactionism (S).a. Societies are in relative balance.b. Power is one of the most important elements in social life.c. Religion helps hold a society together morally.d. Symbols are crucial to social life.e. Many elements of a society exist to benefit the powerful.f. Different segments of a society compete to achieve their own self-

interest rather than cooperate to benefit others.g. Social life should be understood from the viewpoint of the

individuals involved.h. Social change is constantly occurring.i. Conflict is harmful and disruptive to society.

3. Does dramaturgy explain human interaction in a way that is meaningfulto you? Why or why not?

Critical Thinking

4. Analyzing Information Think of an aspect of human social behavior(for example, dating or team sports) that you would like to know moreabout. Which of the three theoretical perspectives would you use tohelp you understand this aspect of behavior? Explain your choice.

dramaturgyapproach that depicts humaninteraction as theatricalperformances

According to symbolicinteractionism, social life can belikened to a theatrical performance.Don’t we convey as much aboutourselves in the way we dress as dothe actors above?

“

“

A person gets from asymbol the meaning heputs into it, and what isone man’s comfort andinspiration is another’sjest and scorn.

William ShakespeareEnglish playwright

Section 1: The Sociological PerspectiveMain Idea: Sociology studies human social be-havior. It assumes a group, rather than an indi-vidual perspective. Sociologists look for thepatterns in social relationships. Individuals canbenefit by using their sociological imaginations tolook at events in their personal lives.

Section 2: The Origins of SociologyMain Idea: Sociology is a young science. Itstarted with the writings of European scholars likeAuguste Comte, Harriet Martineau, HerbertSpencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and MaxWeber. Jane Addams and W.E.B. DuBois helpedto focus America’s attention on social issues. AfterWorld War II, America took the lead in develop-ing the field of sociology.

Section 3: Theoretical PerspectivesMain Idea: Sociology includes three major theo-retical perspectives. Functionalism views societyas an integrated whole. Conflict theory looks atclass, race, and gender struggles. Symbolic inter-actionism examines how group members useshared symbols as they interact.

a. mechanical solidarity

b. positivismc. social structured. bourgeoisiee. sociology

f. symbolg. latent functionh. conflict perspectivei. presentation of selfj. theoretical

perspective

Reviewing Vocabulary

Complete each sentence using each term once.

32

CHAPTER 1 ASSESSMENT

Summary

1. is a set of assumptions ac-cepted as true by supporters.

2. The perspective that emphasizes conflict iscalled .

3. is an unintended and unrecog-nized consequence of some element of a society.

4. is the way that people attemptto make a favorable impression of themselvesin the minds of others.

5. The patterned interaction of people in social re-lationships is called .

6. is the study of social structurefrom a scientific perspective.

7. The use of observation, experimentation andother methods to study social life is known as

.8. A is something that stands for

or represents something else.9. is social unity based on a con-

sensus of values and norms, strong social pres-sure to conform and a dependence on familyand tradition.

10. The are members of an indus-trial society who own the means for producingwealth.

Reviewing the Facts

1. According to C. Wright Mills, what is the socio-logical imagination?

2. Explain “sociology” as defined in this chapter.

Self-Check QuizVisit the Sociology and You Website at soc.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 1—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare forthe chapter test.

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe29.php?&st=233&pt=3&bk=14

3. What did Herbert Spencer believe about the re-lationship between people, progress and socialchange?

4. List and explain the three sociological perspec-tives.

5. What are manifest functions and latent func-tions? Provide an example of each.

6. Using the chart below, give a major idea ex-pressed by each of the sociologists listed.Briefly explain each idea. The first one hasbeen completed. Use this as your model andcomplete the chart.

Thinking Critically

1. Applying Concepts Give three examples ofhow the sociological perspective can be appliedto your life.

2. Analyzing Information Using your ownwords, define the term sociology imagination.What is the relationship to the sociological per-spective?

3. Making Inferences Select two early sociolo-gists discussed in your text and construct a dia-logue between them about the current socialissue of homelessness.

4. Summarizing Information You have been se-lected to be on a panel to discuss illiteracy inyour community. The panel also includes aneconomist, a psychologist, and an anthropolo-gist. As a sociologist, what areas of this topicwould be of most interest to you? Considerwhat aspects would be of interest to each ofthe other panel members. Complete the chart tosummarize the aspects of interest to you andthe other panel members.

5. Making Comparisons Both a sociologist and apsychologist would be interested in the ACT(achievement) and SAT (assessment) test scoresof high school students. Consider how the sci-entific interest of the sociologist would differfrom that of the psychologist. Compare the sim-ilarities and contrast the differences.

6. Categorizing Information Merton’s theory ofmanifest and latent functions (see page 26)could be easily applied to high schools. Usingyour particular school as a model, identify threemanifest functions of high schools and three la-tent functions of high schools.

7. Evaluating Information You must select oneof the job opportunities in sociology listed onpage 12 for your career. Which one would youchoose? Suggest ways in which the job fits yourpersonality, abilities, interests, and ambitions.

8. Analyzing Information Spitting in public isnot an appropriate behavior, but people “spit”all the time. When we drink soda, we usuallyleave a little spit in the can. When we kisssomeone, we are transmitting spit. We don’tthink of it in these terms, because in somecases we call spit by a more scientific term—saliva. How would the sociologist perspectivehelp to understand and explain why we flipback and forth between the two terms?

Sociology Projects

1. Theoretical Perspectives Based on what youread about the Internet from the functionalist,conflict, and symbolic interactionist perspec-tives, how is each perspective useful in under-standing the popularity of the Internet? Write abrief statement describing how each perspectivewould approach this issue. You might see

33

Sociologist Major Idea Brief Explanation

Karl Marx

Max Weber

Auguste Comte

Emile Durkheim

class conflict Struggle between bourgeoisie class (owners) and the proletariat class (workers)

Panel Member Aspects of Interest

Sociologist (you)

Economist

Psychologist

Anthropologist

CHAPTER 1 ASSESSMENT

34

positive or negative effects, depending uponyour interpretation. (For instance, the conflictperspective may focus on the fact that the un-derprivileged classes would not have full accessbecause of the cost of the hardware and there-fore decreased power.)

2. Developing a Commercial Develop a com-mercial for sociology using a video camera.Think of the field of sociology as a product tosell. Market it as “a way to improve your under-standing of the world around you.”

3. Observations Go to a public place (such as amass, school cafeteria, or restaurant) and dis-creetly observe people there for 15 minutes. Itis important that you do not appear to be spy-ing on individuals, both because it may be in-terpreted as being rude and also because itwould probably affect their normal behaviors.Write down your observations, noting such de-tails as the type of dress, general interactions,and level of activity. Do not assume any valuejudgments about your subjects; just make fac-tual observations.When you return home, rewrite your observa-tions applying the sociological concepts in thischapter. Consider and list the ways your secondanalysis is different from the first. Compare andcontrast them. How does sociology help to de-scribe what you observed? What might youwant to study from your observation?

4. Sociology and Careers Research one of thecareer options for sociology majors that interestyou. Look for such important information as theeducation requirements, income expectations,

and management opportunities. Write a shortreport on the advantages and disadvantages ofthat particular career in sociology.

Technology Activities

1. In this chapter, you learned about several of thefounders of sociology and their contributions tothe field. To learn more about these sociologistsand others, go to the Dead Sociologists webpage at http://raven.jmu.edu/~ridenelr/DSS.Select three sociologists named on the web sitewho were not included in the textbook and cre-ate a database including their year of birth,place of birth, and primary contributions theymade to sociology.

2. Use the Internet to do further research on thepioneers of sociology. Design a poster repre-senting the pioneers in sociology. Describeeach one’s basic ideas, including their theoriesand information attained through research. Youmay want to start your research at the DeadSociologists web page listed above.

3. Write or use the Internet to contact theAmerican Sociological Association and requestthe booklet “Majoring in Sociology.” Using stan-dard grammar, spelling, sentence structure, andpunctuation, prepare a report for your classfrom the information. (The address is AmericanSociological Association, 1722 N. Street NW,Washington, DC 20036. For Internet access, theURL is www.asanet.org.)

http://www.asanet.org

http://raven.jmu.edu/~ridenelr/DSS


Enrichment ReadingEnrichment ReadingInvitation to Sociology by Peter L. Berger

Chapter 1

The sociologist . . . is a person inten-sively, endlessly, shamelessly interestedin the doings of men. His natural habi-

tat is all the human gathering places of the world,wherever men come together. The sociologistmay be interested in many other things. But hisconsuming interest remains in the world of men,their institutions, their history, their passions. Andsince he is interested in men, nothing that men docan be altogether tedious for him. He will natu-rally be interested in the events that engage men’sultimate beliefs, their moments of tragedy andgrandeur and ecstasy. But he will also be fasci-nated by the commonplace, the everyday. He willknow reverence, but this reverence will not pre-vent him from wanting to see and to understand.He may sometimes feel revulsion or contempt.But this also will not deter him from wanting tohave his questions answered. The sociologist, inhis quest for understanding, moves through theworld of men without respect for the usual lines ofdemarcation. Nobility and degradation, powerand obscurity, intelligence and folly—these areequally interesting to him, however unequal theymay be in his personal values or tastes. Thus hisquestions may lead him to all possible levels of so-ciety, the best and the least known places, themost respected and the most despised. And, if heis a good sociologist, he will find himself in allthese places because his own questions have sotaken possession of him that he has little choicebut to seek for answers. . . .

The sociologist moves in the common worldof men, close to what most of them would callreal. As a result, there is a deceptive simplicityand obviousness about some sociological investi-gations. One reads them, nods at the familiarscene, remarks that one has heard all this beforeand concludes that people have better things todo than to waste their time on truisms—until one

is suddenly broughtup against an insightthat radically ques-tions everything onehad previously as-sumed about this fa-miliar scene. This isthe point at whichone begins to sensethe excitement of sociology.

It can be said that the first wisdom of sociologyis this—things are not what they seem. This . . . isa deceptively simple statement. It ceases to be sim-ple after a while. Social reality turns out to havemany layers of meaning. The discovery of eachnew layer changes the perception of the whole.

People who feel no temptation before closeddoors, who have no curiosity about human be-ings, who are content to admire scenery withoutwondering about the people who live in thosehouses on the other side of that river, shouldprobably . . . stay away from sociology. Andpeople whose interest is mainly in their ownconceptual constructions will do just as wellto turn to the study of little white mice.Sociology will be satisfying, in the long run, onlyto those who can think of nothing more en-trancing than to watch men and to understandthings human.

Source: Excerpted from Invitation to Sociology. NewYork: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1963.

conceptual construction

personal idea of reality

degradation

low esteem, corruption

demarcation

setting apart, separation

What Does It Mean

Read and ReactHow is this excerpt different in style frommost articles by scientists? Why do you thinkthe author chose this style to describe his fieldof study?

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