Chapter 9 OverviewState, Society and the Quest for Salvation in India

I. The Fortunes of Empire in Classical India

A. The Mauryan Dynasty and the Temporary Unification of India

Aryans in India – small kingdoms

520 BCE Persian Emperor Darius conquers north-west India

Introduces Persian administrative techniques (ruling patterns)

327 Alexander of Macedon destroys Persian Empire in India

Troops mutiny, departs after 2 years - Political power vacuum

1. Kingdom of Magadha

Filled the power vacuum left by Alexander

Most important state in N. India

Conquered neighboring states – lead role in unification of India

Controlled Indian commerce passing through Ganges

2. Chandragupta Maurya

Overthrew Magadha rulers

Expanded kingdom to create 1st unified Indian empire

3. Chandragupta’s Government

Advisor Kautalya

Oversee trade, agriculture, tax collecting, maintaining order, foreign relations, waging war

Network of spies

Bureaucratic administrative system

Harsh political philosophy recorded in Arthashastra

4. Ashoka Maurya (268-232

B.C.E.)

Conquered the kingdom of Kalinga (along major trade route), 260 B.C.E.

Ruled with tightly organized bureaucracy

Established capital at Pataliputra

Oversaw implementation of his policies

Rocks and pillar edicts

Encouraged Buddhist values – fair, just and humane rule

Ashoka’s Mauryan Empire

Regions of India become well integrated

Subcontinent benefits from trade and stability

Irrigation systems = agricultural wealth

Roads built – inns, shaded areas, well

5. Decline of Mauryan Empire

Economic crisis after Ashoka’s death

High costs of bureaucracy, military not supported by tax revenue

Frequent devaluations of currency to pay salaries

Regions begin to abandon Mauryan Empire - disappears by 185 BCE

B. The Emergence of Regional Kingdoms and the Revival of Empire

Mauryan collapse

India did not crumble into anarchy

Local rulers form series of regional kingdoms

1. Bactrian Rule in NW India

Northwestern India

Ruled by Greek-speaking descendants of Alexander’s campaigns

Intense cross-cultural activity accompanies active trade

Link to China, Medit.

Taxila flourished

2. The Kushan Empire Nomadic conquerors

from Central Asia attack Bactria

Northern India/Central Asia (C. 1-300 CE)

Kanishka- pacified region between China and Persia

Maintained silk road network

3. The Gupta Dynasty Based in Magadha – wealthy

region

Founded by Chandra Gupta (no relation to Chandragupta Maurya), c. 320 CE

Samudra Gupta and Chandra II conquered regional kingdoms – formed alliances

Highly decentralized leadership

Brought stability and prosperity to subcontinent

4. Gupta Decline Frequent invasions of White Huns, 5th c. CE

High cost – resources depleted

Gupta Dynasty disintegrates along regional fault lines

After the fifth century C.E., Gupta dynasty continued in name only

Large regional kingdoms dominated political life in India

Smaller local kingdoms dominate until Mughal Empire founded in 16th c.

II. Economic and Social Distinctions

A. Towns and Trade Towns dotted Indian countryside

Northwest corner of subcontinent (closer to Persian Empire)

1. Towns and Manufacturing

Manufactured goods in big demand – large agricultural economy

Pots, textiles, iron tools, metal utensils

Developed in dense network of small workshops

Large scale businesses - Saddalputta

Trade intense, capitalizes on trade routes across India built by Ashoka

2. Long Distance Trade

Persian connection since Cyrus, Darius

Massive road-building projects under Persian rule

Alexander extends trade west to Macedon

Trade routes through Kush mountains, the silk roads

Cotton, Aromatics, black pepper, pearls and gems

3. Trade in Indian Ocean Basin

Seasonal sea trade expands - Spring/winter winds blow from south-west, fall/winter winds blow from north-west

Trade from Asia to Persian Gulf and Red Sea, Mediterranean

B. Family Life and Caste System

Moralist sought to promote stability

Encouraged respect for patriarchal families

Promote maintenance of social order

Nuclear family

1.Gender Relations Patriarchy entrenched

Mahabharata and Ramayana – women are weak-willed emotional creatures

Child marriage common (8 year old girls married to men in 20s)

Dominated in household affairs

Women encouraged to remain in private sphere

female subordination

2. Social Order Caste system from

Aryan times Brahmins (priests) Kshatriyas (warriors,

aristocrats) Vaishyas (Peasants,

merchants) Shudras (serfs)

3. Castes and Guilds Increasing economic diversification challenges simplistic

caste system

With trade and commerce new social groups of artisans, craftsmen, and merchants appeared

Jatis formed: guilds that acted as sub-castes

Families associate with others in like castes

Jatis enforced social order “outcastes” forced into low-status employment

4. Wealth and the Social Order

Vaishyas and shudras saw unprecedented wealth

Upward social mobility possible for Vaishyas, Shudras

Wealth challenges varna for status

Old beliefs and values of early Aryan society became increasingly irrelevant

III. Religions of Salvation in Classical India

A. Jainism and the Challenge to the Established Cultural Order

Social change generated resentment of caste privilige e.g. Brahmins free from

taxation

6th-5th c. BCE new religions and philosophies challenge status quo

Charvakas: atheists

Jainists, Buddhists

1. Vardhamana Mahavira

Vardhamana Mahavira (Jina) founded Jain religion in 5th century B.C.E.

Abandoned privileged family to lead ascetic life

Promotes 7th c. movement based on Upanishads

Emphasis on selfless living, concern for all beings

2.Jainist Ethics

Striving to purify one's selfish behavior to attain a state of bliss

Principle of ahimsa, nonviolence toward all living things

Jainists sweep earth, strain water, use slow movements to avoid killing insects

Too demanding, not a practical alternative to the cult of the brahmans

3.Appeal of Jainism Social implication: individual

souls equally participated in ultimate reality

Rejected caste, jati distinctions

Obvious appeal to underprivileged groups

Too extreme - no mass movement

Ahimsa continues to inspire modern movements (Ghandi, Martin Luther King Jr.)

B. Early Buddhism

Founder came from Kshatriya family

More practical that Jainism

Salvation comes from leading a balanced and moderate life

1. Siddhartha Gautama

Gave up his comfortable life to search for cause of suffering

c. 563-483 BCE

Encountered age, sickness, death, then monastic life

Abandoned comfortable life to become a monk

2. Gautama’s Search for Enlightenment

Wanders through Ganges valley searching for enlightenment

Intense meditation, extreme asceticism

49 days of meditation under bo tree to finally achieve enlightenment

Attained title Buddha: “the enlightened one”

3. Buddha and His Followers

Announced his doctrine at the Deer Park of Sarnath in 528 B.C.E.

Promotes law of righteousness

Organized a community of monks

“Decay is inherent in all component things! Work out your salvation with diligence”

4. Buddhist Doctrine: Dharma

The Four Noble Truths

1. All life involves suffering

2. Suffering is caused by desire

3. elimination of desire ends suffering

4. disciplined life in accordance to Noble Eightfold Path are the way to end suffering

Religious goal: personal salvation, or nirvana, a state of perfect spiritual independence

5. Appeal of Buddhism Appealed strongly to members of lower

castes because it did not recognize social hierarchies of castes and jati

less demanding than Jainism, which made it more popular

Used vernacular tongues, not Sanskrit

Holy sites venerated by pilgrims

The monastic organizations--extremely efficient at spreading the Buddhist message and winning converts to the faith

6. Ashoka’s Support Converted to Buddhism

Disillusioned after violent war with Kalinga

Banned animal sacrifices, mandated vegetarianism in court

Material support for Buddhist institutions, missionary activities

C. Mahayana Buddhism

Early Buddhism was not an easy path to salvation

Between 3rd century BCE – 1st century CE - Three new developments

1. Development of Buddhism

1. Buddha became a god

2. The notion of boddhisatva--"an enlightened being”

3. Monasteries began to accept gifts from wealthy individuals

2. Spread of Mahayana Buddhism Mahayana

(“greater vehicle”), newer development India, China, Japan,

Korea, central Asia

Hinayana (“lesser vehicle,” also Theravada), earlier version Ceylon, Burma,

Thailand

3. Nolanda Buddhist Monastery

Quasi-university: Buddhism, Hindu texts, philosophy, astronomy, medicine, logic

Peak at end of Gupta dynasty – attracted students from foreign lands

Helped spread Indian thought E.g. mathematical number zero

D. The Emergence of Popular

Hinduism

Like Buddhism, undergoes change to appeal to more people

Inspired by Upanishads and Vedas

Departed from older traditions

1. The Epics

Composition of epics from older oral traditions Mahabharata Ramayana

Emphasis on god Vishnu and his incarnations

2. The Bhagavad Gita Short poetic work:

dialogue between Krishna and warrior Arjuna

Illustrated expectations of Hinduism and promise of salvation

Fulfill caste duties

3. Hindu Ethics

Lead honorable life – 4 principal aims

Achieve salvation through meeting caste responsibilities (dharma)

Pursuit of economic well-being and honesty (artha)

Enjoyment of social, physical and sexual pleasure (kama)

Salvation of the soul (moksha)

4. Popularity of Hinduism

Gradually replaced Buddhism in India

Political support by Guptas

Brahmins given land grants

Buddhism in decline in India by 1000 C.E.

SUMMARY Rich agricultural economy leads to creation of large states

Interregional trade networks develop

Large empires not permanent, but social order maintained by caste system

Religious developments reflect social realities

Buddhism and Hinduism adapt to needs of growing class of commoners

Religion influence daily lives