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1 ROBINSONEVALUATION OF COMMERCIAL MILKS AND NON-MILKS

THE EVALUATION, PREPARATION, AND MANIPULATION OF COMMERCIALLY SOLD MILK AND NON-MILK PRODUCTS

CHAYNA ROBINSON

LAB PARTNER: ERYN ORTIZ

LAB SECTION THURSDAY 5:15-8, TA: ALEXA FARRAR

10/30/2014


PART I: THE EVALUATION, PREPARATION, AND MANIPULATION OF COMMERCIALLY SOLD MILK AND NON-MILK PRODUCTS

PART II: PURPOSE OF THE EXPERIMENT

A variety of milks and milk products dominate the commercial food industry for the

purpose of incorporating moisture into recipes for batters and dough, and as an important

ingredient in creamy soups, sauces, puddings and foams. They also serve as flavor contributors

to a wide variety of other commercially made products. Throughout this experiment, a variety of

tests were done to identify characteristics of multiple samples of milk. These tests included

sensory analysis to compare multiple commercial milk products, understanding consistency

differences with different flour to milk ratios, testing the effect of heat and acid on the proteins

casein and whey in fresh, whole milk, the preparation of white sauce and milk foams,

investigating the effect of temperature on whipped cream, preparing butter from whipping cream

and preparing vanilla puddings made with whole milk and non-dairy milk substitute.

PART III: METHODOLOGY

All experiments were conducted in the test kitchen of Grover Center by students enrolled

in Nutr 2200.

To begin, a sensory analysis for various commercial milk products was conducted to

compare the appearance, consistency, flavor, aroma, and composition with one another. Each

student was asked to sample all of the following milk products lined along the center island in

the test kitchen; Almond Breeze Original, Silk Coconut Milk, Silk Original Soy Milk, lactose-

free milk, hemp milk, condensed milk, Vitamin D milk, 2%, 1%, skim, cultured buttermilk,


unsweetened kefir, and goat’s milk and report on the appearance, aroma, flavor and consistency

after sampling, noting any compositional differences read from the labels of the milk containers.

Next, the effect of heat and acid on milk was tested, first of which was the effect of heat

on fresh milk. Using a one quart saucepan, 125 mL of whole milk was placed over low heat on

the stove uncovered, unstirred, and not boiling. The heating process continued until a thick skin

developed on the surface of the milk and precipitate was detected on the bottom of the saucepan.

The students were instructed to pay no attention to the milk while in the heating process

(Brannan, 2013; p 94).

Then the effect of acid on fresh milk was tested, first by measuring out one cup of whole

milk in a two cup glass measuring cup. The pH of the milk was determined using provided pH

strips and the value was recorded. Once recorded, 5 mL of vinegar was added and thoroughly

mixed with the milk. The milk then stood for two minutes and the pH was taken again. Along

with testing the pH, additional observations relating to the thickness of the milk and any curd

formations were asked to be taken in account. This process, of adding 5 mL of vinegar, letting

the milk sit, and retesting for pH, was repeated six times until a total of 35 mL of vinegar had

been used in 5 mL increments.

In the next experiment, basic white sauces or béchamel sauces were prepared. To prepare

the basic recipe, these basic ingredients were gathered; 2 tablespoons all-purpose flour, 2

tablespoons butter or margarine, ½ teaspoon salt and 1 cup whole milk. To begin preparing this

recipe, the butter was melted in a one-quart saucepan over low heat, and once melted, the flour

and salt were added and blended in order to form a roux. The roux was cooked for 3-5 minutes

until bubbly. The milk was then stirred in, blended well in order to prevent any clumps. Over


medium heat, the mixture continued to cook as it was stirred continuously. Once the sauce was

noticeably thicker, it was cooked for two additional minutes. After cooking, the mixture was

cooled to 120 degrees F and the viscosity was determined using a Brookfield Viscometer as well

as a line spread test. Temperatures were recorded for both.

Along with the basic béchamel, three other variations were prepared. The first of the

three was the same as the basic recipe except one tablespoon of all-purpose flour was used. The

second was the same as the basic recipe except three tablespoons of all-purpose flour were used.

And lastly, the final variation was the same as the basic recipe except one cup of skim milk was

used in place of the original whole milk. The line spread test and Brookfield Viscometer were

used to test the viscosity of all three additional variations.

To compare vanilla puddings using different types of milk, four variations were prepared.

The first was the original, and the base for all of the other variations. The ingredients for the

basic recipe included 1/3 cup granulated sugar, 3 tablespoons cornstarch, 1/8 teaspoon salt, 2

cups milk, 1 tablespoon butter, and 1 teaspoon vanilla extract. A two-quart saucepan was

obtained and the sugar, cornstarch, and salt were combined. Then the milk was gradually

incorporated and constantly whisked to prevent clumping. Over medium heat, the mixture was

constantly stirred and brought to a boil. Once boiling, it was cooked for one minute, making

certain that it was not over-cooked. After the one minute of cooking, the saucepan was removed

from the heat and the butter and vanilla were added in. The pudding was then taken off the heat,

poured into a glass container, covered with plastic wrap, and then placed in the refrigerator to

chill.


The same process was repeated three more times using three different variations, in

addition to the basic version. The first variation was the same as the basic recipe except

reconstituted dry milk was used instead of the whole milk. The second variation was the same

except soy milk was used instead of whole milk and the last variation used one cup of whole

milk instead of the original two cups, and then when the pudding was finished and of a very

thick consistency, 8 ounces of yogurt was stirred in. All variations were then sampled and the

appearance, flavor, and texture of each variation were recorded.

Lastly, to compare the preparation, stability, and characteristics of various milk foams,

five variations were prepared. The basic preparation is as follows; beat 125 mL of cream or milk

with electric mixer at high speed until the whipped cream began to thicken. Once noticeably

thicker, the speed was lowered and the beating continued until soft peaks began to form, making

sure not to overbeat. Whipping time, or the time it took to produce foam, was then recorded.

Next, the whipped foam was placed in a coffee filter lined, large funnel situated in a 100 mL

graduated cylinder. The height of the foam within the funnel was measured by probing with a

ruler and once more after 30 minutes. The volume of the liquid that accumulated over the 30

minutes was also measured and recorded.

Variation 1 used a cold bowl and cream. To begin, both a medium bowl and the beaters

were chilled. 125 mL of refrigerator-temperature whipping cream was placed into the chilled

bowl and the same procedures from the basic preparation followed.

Variation 2 used a warm bowl and cream. The same instructions for the basic preparation

were followed except the bowl, beaters and cream were all at room temperature.


Variation 3 used evaporated milk. Again, the steps for the basic preparation were

followed except 125 mL of undiluted evaporated milk was used. 5 mL of lemon juice was then

added to the evaporated milk at the beginning of the whipping process. The mixture was beat to a

stiff foam using a high speed electric mixer.

In variation 4, the steps for the basic preparation were followed except 125 mL of

reconstituted non-fat milk solids were used. 5 mL of lemon juice was then added to the milk

solids at the beginning of the whipping process, and then beaten to a stiff foam using a high

speed electric mixer.

The final variation, variation 5, used buttermilk and did not follow the same procedures

as the basic preparation. 250 mL of whipping cream was beat at room temperature using a high

speed mixer. It was beat until the butter separated from the buttermilk. The time of beating was

recorded, as well as the volume of the buttermilk and the weight of the butter.

The whipping time, height of the foam initially, height of the foam at 30 minutes and the

volume of the drainage at 30 minutes was recorded for each variation.

There were no major changes made to any of the general procedures for all experiments.

PART IV: RESULTS

The results for the first experiment were based primarily on sensory analysis of each

individual. The evaluations of different types of milks are listed in Table 1. Some commonalities

among the samples include a white or an off-white color. Ranging from very watery and very

thin (skim) to very thick and yogurt-like (Kefir), a caramel-like consistency (condensed milk)


and very thick and curdled (buttermilk), the appearance and consistency of the samples were

very different.

Table 1.Evaluation of Various Commercial Milk Products

Type of Milk Appearance Aroma Flavor ConsistencyAlmond Breeze Original

Cream colored Almondy, nutty Almond after-taste

Not too thick, but thicker than cow’s milk

Silk Coconut Milk

Pure white Coconut Sweet, coconut Thin liquid

Silk Original Soymilk

Pale yellow Faint aroma Soy flavor, faint vanilla taste

Thick liquid, consistency of baby formula

Lactose-free milk

White, milk-like Smells rancid Baby formula, off tasting

Thick, milk-like

Hemp milk Light brown Cut grass, earthy Nutty Like soy milk but thicker than milk

Heavy whipping cream

Off-white, chunky, creamy

Rotten milk Spoiled Thick, chunky

Condensed milk Golden, caramel colored, light brown

Rotten milk Caramel-like, sweet

Caramel consistency, thick, heavy, gooey

Vitamin D Off-white Milky (most rich)

Rich, most flavorful of cows’ milks

Thick

2% Off-white, less opague than whole milk

Milky Less rich than whole

Thinner than whole milk, but still thick

1% Off-white Milky Hardly any flavor

Thicker than skim

Skim Most off-white, least opague

Milky, least flavorful, most watery

Watery, hardly any flavor

Thin, watery

Cultured buttermilk

Thick, curdled, opague

Rotten yogurt Curdled Thick, creamy

Unsweetened Kefir

Thick, white Smells like yogurt

Yogurt Very thick, thickest of all samples

Goat’s milk Light orange/tan Sweet, milky Tastes like hay, like the goat’s diet

Somewhat thick


The results from the second part of the experiment in which the effect of heat was tested

on fresh milk concluded that a ‘skin’ or film of casein lined the surface of the milk, a whey

precipitate formed at the bottom of the saucepan, and lactose was the component that browned at

the bottom of the saucepan. The addition of heat caused the skin on top to thicken.

Next is the effect of acid on whole milk. The more vinegar that was added to the milk, the

lower the pH became. From 5 mL to 20 mL, the pH stayed at a constant 5.5. At 25 mL of vinegar

and 30 mL of vinegar, the pH dropped to 5.0. Finally, at 35 mL, the color on the pH strip read

between 4.5 and 5.0 so it was concluded as 4.7.

The thickness and curd formation both increased as the pH dropped and the amount of

acid (vinegar) increased. Initially, the pH of the milk was 6.5 and the pH of the vinegar was

initially 2.7.


Table 2.Relationships Between Acid and pH in Whole Milk

Amount of Vinegar Added pH Observations of Mixture

0 (Regular Milk) 6.5 Opaque, pure milk

5 mL 5.5 No effect

10 mL 5.5 Slight curding, very little curd formation

15 mL 5.5 Same as above, starting to stick to sides of glass, tiny

curds20 mL 5.5 Thickening, slight curds,

sticking to edges of glass25 mL 5.0 Thickening, curds sticking to

spoon and edges of glass30 mL 5.0 Cream consistency,

thickening, bigger curds, sticking to spoon/glass, less opaque when dripping off

spoon35 mL 4.7 Curds very evident, thick, less

opaque when coming off the spoon

Plain Vinegar 2.7 n/a

The results from the experiment in which the basic white sauces were made ranged

widely, so the averages were found and displayed in Table 4. Table 3 shows the original results

without averaging.


Table 3.Basic White Sauce Variations and Results

Variation Linespread Brookfield Viscometer

1 tbsp flour 13.5 78

1 tbsp flour 21.5 7 M

3 tbsp flour 20 7300

3 tbsp flour 10 1.75*10^8 cp

Original 6 4

Original 11.25 24

Skim 15 13,600

Skim 10.88 10 M

*Note. The information in Table 3 demonstrates exact data directly given by Nutr 2200 Students

Table 4Basic White Sauce Variations and Result Averages

Variation Linespread Brookfield Viscometer

1 tbsp flour 17.5 3.5 M

3 tbsp flour 15 87.5 M

Original 8.6 14

Skim 25.9 5 M

4*Note. The information in Table demonstrates exact data directly given by Nutr 2200 Students

The linespread results show that the original preparation of the white sauce was the

thickest, only scoring an 8.6. Next was the variation with 3 tablespoons of flour (15), 1

tablespoon of flour (17.5) and the thinnest was the variation with skim milk (25.9).

The Brookfield Viscometer results show that the 3 tablespoons of flour variation was the

most penetrable (87.5M) and the original was the least (14). The linespread and the Brookfield

results for the original and the 1 tablespoon flour variations match up, proving that the original

was the thickest and the 1 tbsp. flour version was the second thickest.


Next was the vanilla pudding experiment with the different types of milk. The basic

recipe was thick and pudding-like in consistency with a taste strong of vanilla extract. The

reconstituted dry milk created a thinner pudding than the original. Soy milk produced a pudding

that was thick and chunky, and the 1 cup whole milk with yogurt variation created an even

thicker, clumpier version of pudding. The flavor remained the same between all of the variations,

with a sweet vanilla flavor. The texture ranged from thin to very, very thick and the colors

remained pretty constant with the exception of the soy milk version which was a bit darker in

color than the others. Table 5 shows the observations recorded for each variation, including the

appearance, flavor, and texture.

Table 5.Appearance, Flavor and Texture of Pudding Variations

Variation Appearance Flavor Texture

Basic Thick, pudding-like Vanilla extract Creamy, smooth,

pudding consistency

Reconstituted dry

milk

Thin, cream colored Strong vanilla flavor Watery, soupy

Soy milk Darkest of the four,

chunky, goopy,

pudding clumps

Sweet Thick, chunky

1 cup whole milk with

yogurt

Pasty, very thick,

clumpy

Vanilla, sweet Very, very thick,

gelatin-like texture

Last are the results for the whipping times, heights and drainage volumes for the milk

foam experiment (Table 6) and their averages. Since multiple pairs of students performed each

treatment, both data sets are included, except for the NFDM and the buttermilk which only had

one set of data. The buttermilk data is displayed in Table 7.


From the shortest whipping time to the longest whipping time, the order is as follows:

NFDM with a one minute whipping time, the cold bowl variation with an average of 2.35

minutes, warm bowl (3.2 minutes) and the evaporated milk at a ten minute whipping time. The

average heights of the foams at 0 minutes were pretty similar among the variations with 5.5 cm

(cold bowl), 4.5 cm (warm bowl), 6.6 cm (evaporated milk) and 9 cm for NFDM.

Despite having the highest initial foam height, NFDM had the lowest average foam

height after 30 minutes at 0 cm. The others remained pretty similar; cold bowl at 4.75 cm, warm

bowl at 4.5 cm, and evaporated milk at 4.25 cm (on average).

Table 6.Different Treatments of Milk Foams and the Effects on Whipping Time, Height, and Drainage

Treatment Whipping Time(Data Set 1, Data Set 2, Average)

Height at 0 min(Data Set 1, Data Set 2, Average)

Height at 30 min(Data Set 1, Data Set 2, Average)

Drainage at 30Min

(Data Set 1, Data Set 2, Average)

Cold bowl 2.2 min, 2.5 min,

2.35 min

4 cm, 7 cm,

5.5 cm

3.5 cm, 6 cm,

4.75 cm

None, 1 mL,

0.5 mL

Warm bowl 2 min, 5 min,

3.2 min

5.8 cm, 3.2 cm

4.5 cm

5.4 cm, 3.6 cm.

4.5 cm

None, None,

n/a

Evaporated milk 12 min, 8 min

10 min

8.75 cm, 4.5 cm,

6.6 cm

8 cm, 0.5 cm,

4.25 cm

53 mL, 93 mL,

73 mL

NFDM 1 min 9 cm 0 cm 105 mL

The last treatment was that of the buttermilk in which a butter was produced. The

whipping time was 3 minutes, the weight of the butter produced was 91 grams and the volume of

the remaining buttermilk was 75 mL.


PART V: DISCUSSION

These tests were done to analyze the many properties of commercially sold milk and milk

products, as well as to prove that heat and acid have very different effects on milk. While

evaluating the milk products, it was common for the products that were not cow’s milk to be

thicker in consistency and more off-white in color than regular whole, 2%, 1% and skim milk.

Skim milk was the most watery of the cow’s milks and was reported to have the least amount of

flavor, which can most likely be contributed to its very small fat percentage at 0.2% milk fat.

The thickness of the non-dairy products can be explained by the ingredients listed on the

nutrition labels. The naturally occurring carbohydrates in dairy milk, such as lactose and its

monosaccharide components (glucose and galactose), are replaced by gums and starches that

enhance the cohesiveness and fluidity of the non-milk ‘milks’ (Feder, 2014).

At 9 g of total fat per serving, the lactose-free milk had the highest fat content of all the

samples tasted. It was reported that the lactose-free milk was thick, and ‘off’-tasting; rancid

even. This seemed interesting because it contains no lactose. Typically in milk, lactose breaks

down and produces lactic acid, which in turn makes the milk ‘spoiled’ by producing the casein

proteins that eventually form the curd. Since the lactose-free milk did not contain lactose, and

contained the most fat, I would assume that it was take the longest time to spoil but this was not

the result.

Since the milks were not cooled to slightly above freezing point, microorganisms picked

up from the environment may have quickly soured and cooled the milk. The milk was at room

temperature for the duration of the lab which may have increased the multiplication of spoilage

bacteria, inducing chemical changes in the milk (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2014).


The effect of heat on whole milk yielded results that were similar to what was expected.

The skin at the top of the pan upon heating was the casein proteins separating out from the rest of

the milk because casein is affected little by heat. The evaporation of water from the heated milk

in an open saucepan resulted in a concentration of casein, milk fat, and calcium and phosphate

salts at the surface (Brannan, 2013; p 93); this is the ‘skin’ as shown in Figure 1.

The precipitate at the bottom of the saucepan, shown in Figure 2, was a precipitate

formed by denatured proteins. Whey is affected greatly by heat, which is why it accumulated on

the bottom of the saucepan. When exposed to heat, the water in the shells of these proteins is

removed which is normally what keeps them stabilized (Brannan, 2013; p 93). When they lose

their stability, they precipitate to the bottom and may even scorch. The browning on the bottom

of the pan can be attributed to the sugar in the milk; lactose. Browning occurs when the sugars

become caramelized, which can also be observed in Figure 2.

Figure 1. Figure 2.Casein Skin Whey Precipitate and Caramelized Lactose


Whey was affected greatly by heat, but was affected very little by acid. The protein in

milk that was affected by the addition of acid was casein. When an acid interacts with casein

proteins, the micelles break open and attract to one another, resulting in the formation of curds.

In the experiment, very slight curds were formed around a pH of 10 mL. At 5 mL of acid, there

was no noticeable effect on the milk. Upon the addition of 10 mL of vinegar, the milk began to

get noticeably thicker and clumpier. By the time 35 mL of vinegar was added, the pH of the

solution had dropped from an almost neutral 6.5 (regular milk) to an acidic 4.7 and the curds

were very evident. The pH of the milk with a large addition of acid resulted in a pH that was

nearly in between of the milk by itself and the acid by itself.

Hypothetically, fresh milk has a pH of 6.6 to 6.7 on its own. At a pH of approximately

5.2, denaturation of protein begins to occur and at pH of around 4.6 (the isoelectric point of

casein) there is maximum denaturation, resulting in the formation of a gel like substance with

curds (Oregon State U., 2014). This data lines up closely to the data found in the experiment.

The different treatments of milk foams and the various results for whipping time, foam

height and drainage volume are indicative each milk’s foaming properties. The evaporated milk

took the longest to whip into foam, (10 minutes on average) and the NFDM, non-fat dry milk,

took the least amount of time (one minute). The lipid content in each of these milks has a large

influence of their foaming properties. For example, the non-fat milk would produce very stable

foams relatively quickly, whereas the evaporated milk with 19 g of fat per serving took

considerably longer. The milk fat, if present in higher amounts will negatively affect the stability

of the foam (Oetjen, 2014).


The stability of the foam is influenced by the interactions between the milk proteins and

the air. By whipping the milk, air is introduced, leading to an unstable interface between air and

water, which in turn needs to be stabilized by the absorption of ‘surface-active’ components (the

proteins) that attach themselves to the air bubbles, resulting in a stable foam (Huppert, 2014).

The addition or presence of lipid would disrupt this interaction, so smaller amount of fat is ideal

for preparing milk foams.

The cold bowl and the warn bowl had very little differences when it came to the

whipping time as well as the height and drainage data. From this, it can be concluded that

temperature has little to no effect on milk foams.

The differences in data among the groups performing the experiment for the same milk

could be due to the differences in bowl size, differences in precisely measuring the milk before

whipping, and possible differences in determining when the foams were ‘stiff’ and hit their

peaks.

Next was the pudding variations and the different consistencies produced. The

basic recipe, with the full amount of whole milk produced the most desirable pudding, thick and

pudding-like. The soy milk and the whole milk with yogurt variations created puddings that were

even thicker and ‘goopy’ in comparison to the original. As explained in the sensory analysis

portion, the non-dairy milk products were thicker than milk to begin with, so this could be an

explanation as to why the soy milk variation resulted in a very thick consistency. Since the

yogurt was also very thick to begin with, it would be safe to conclude that this is also why the

result was very paste-like and gummy. The dry milk produced a pudding that was very thin in

consistency, with a watery and soupy texture. The fact that the dry milk was a powder, and was


initially mixed with water; the milk that was produced was also relatively thin. If more powder

were added to the same amount of water, the reconstituted dry milk would have been a thicker

liquid which in turn may have produced a thicker pudding.

Last to discuss is the preparation of basic white sauce using four variations; the basic

preparation, using half the amount of flour (1 tbsp.), using an additional tablespoon of flour (3

tbsp.) and using a cup of skim milk instead of a cup of the original whole milk. The skim milk

recipe and the recipe with less flour than the original yielded results that were similar to what

was expected; they both should have been thinner than the original.

In theory, the flour should have acted as a thickening agent, and the recipe with more

flour should have been thicker than the original. The data shows that the recipe with an

additional tablespoon of flour was almost two times as thin as the original. Some possible

explanations as to why the results were different than expected can be due to some experimental

errors such as not appropriately measuring the flour. Some of the groups of students could have

measured the flour by sifting and some could have measured it by packing it into a tablespoon

measure. These two methods could result in two very different amounts of flour, weight wise.

Another error could have been not allowing the sauces to cool to 120 degrees F before testing the

viscosity. If the temperatures were not consistent among all of the sauces, it is difficult to

compare accurate data between them.

The data concluded from the Brookfield Viscometer also shows experimental error

because the numbers were very inconsistent with one another. The results should not have been

in the two-digit range such as what is listed in the data table for the original version. If all

students used the same spindle number and read the dial correctly, the viscometer readings


should have aligned with the data from the linespread tests in the same general trend, but this

was not the case.

VII: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

All in all, there is a wide variety of milk and non-milk products that dominate the market.

These milks behave in different ways when substituted for each other in basic recipes. Whole

milk creates an ideal texture for most sauces and puddings which is creamy and smooth. Non-

milk products used as substitutions for milk in the preparation of sauces and puddings creates a

final product that is thick and clumpy in texture.

Heat and acid have very different effects on the different proteins in milk; heat forms a

whey precipitate on the bottom of a heated saucepan and a film of casein on top. The addition of

acid causes casein to curd and has little effect on whey. The more acid that is added to milk, the

more acidic the milk will become. At around the isoelectric point of casein, 4.6, the proteins are

at their most denatured state and the curds are very evident.

The addition of flour to a basic white sauce is primarily used as a thickening agent and

variation with less create a thinner sauce. Replacing whole milk with skim milk in béchamel

sauces also yields a thinner sauce, most likely due to its lack of fat and its initially thinner

consistency.

Milk foams are created by the proteins in the cream interacting with water and air

molecules caused from agitation such as whipping. When lipids are added, the foam becomes

less stable and takes considerably longer to whip into foam. Buttermilk does not create foam due


to its high fat content, but instead produces a butter in which the fat globules clump together and

the air escapes, leaving a mass of butter instead of foam (Lower, 2014).

In conclusion, a variety of non-milk products now dominate the shelves of the grocery

store, but regular whole milks and creams have been proven to yield the most desirable end

products for recipes typically made. Non-dairy products are flavorful and offer a wide range of

tastes, from coconut to almond, and are thicker in texture which makes them less desirable in

puddings and other recipes when a texture that is not too thick is wanted.

Milk can be manipulated in many ways, such as being thickened by flour, whipped into a

foam or butter, curdled by acid and burnt by heat which makes it an ideal ingredient for a wide

variety of the foods that we eat.


References

Brannan, R.G. 2013. Laboratory Manual for NUTR 2200. 93-99

Feder, D. (2014). Dairy Deceptions. Prepared Foods, 183(5), 77-85. Retrieved November 13,

2014, from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.proxy.library.ohiou.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?

sid=afcee6b8-e4fb-4d38-81d6-fdc9503e53a8@sessionmgr113&vid=2&hid=113

Huppert, T. (2014, September 15). Milk Foam: Creating Texture and Stability. Retrieved

November 13, 2014, from http://www.scaa.org/chronicle/2014/09/15/milk-foam-creating-

texture-and-stability/

Learning, Food Resource [http://food.oregonstate.edu/], Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR.

(n.d.). Retrieved November 13, 2014.

Lower, C. (2014, October 2). Cream Science: On Whipping, Butter, and Beyond. Retrieved

November 13, 2014.

Milk. Encyclopædia Britannica, September, 2014

Oetjen, K., Bilke-Krause, C., Madani, M., & Willers, T. (2014). Temperature effect on

foamability, foam stability, and foam structure of milk. Colloids & Surfaces A: Phys.

Eng. Asp., 460, 280-285.

http://www.scaa.org/chronicle/2014/09/15/milk-foam-creating-texture-and-stability/

http://www.scaa.org/chronicle/2014/09/15/milk-foam-creating-texture-and-stability/

http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.proxy.library.ohiou.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=afcee6b8-e4fb-4d38-81d6-fdc9503e53a8@sessionmgr113&vid=2&hid=113

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chaynarobinsonportfolio.weebly.comchaynarobinsonportfolio.weebly.com/uploads/4/1/2/7/... · Web viewTo begin, a sensory analysis for various commercial milk products was conducted