Ch. 9Ch. 9 User-centered approaches User-centered approaches

to interaction designto interaction design

Kevin ClarkKevin ClarkMatt BergsteinMatt BergsteinCarol LawsonCarol Lawson

Angelo MitsopoulosAngelo MitsopoulosPhil TownsendPhil Townsend

IntroductionIntroduction

Involves finding out a lot about the users Involves finding out a lot about the users and their tasks and their tasks Recall Ch. 7 – Data gathering techniquesRecall Ch. 7 – Data gathering techniquesNaturalistic observation – studying people Naturalistic observation – studying people in their natural surroundings as they go in their natural surroundings as they go about their work.about their work.Discuss issues surrounding user Discuss issues surrounding user involvement, and principles of a user-involvement, and principles of a user-centered approach.centered approach.

Goals of the chapterGoals of the chapter

Goals:Goals: Advantages of involving users in the Advantages of involving users in the

developmentdevelopment The main principles of a user-centered The main principles of a user-centered

approachapproach Ethnographic-based methods aimed at Ethnographic-based methods aimed at

understanding users’ workunderstanding users’ work Participative design techniques that help Participative design techniques that help

users take an active part in design users take an active part in design decisions.decisions.

Why is it important to involve users Why is it important to involve users at all?at all?

To ensure that development continues to To ensure that development continues to take users into account.take users into account.

Helps developers understand their needs Helps developers understand their needs and goals.and goals.

Two important reasons for involving the Two important reasons for involving the user:user: Expectation managementExpectation management Ownership Ownership

Expectation ManagementExpectation Management

The process of making sure the users’ views The process of making sure the users’ views and expectations of the new product are and expectations of the new product are realistic.realistic.

Purpose – to ensure there are no new surprises Purpose – to ensure there are no new surprises for the users when the product arrives.for the users when the product arrives.

Tries to avoid the users feeling of “cheated”Tries to avoid the users feeling of “cheated”

Adequate and timely trainingAdequate and timely training

Better to exceed expectationsBetter to exceed expectations

OwnershipOwnership

Ownership – feeling that users have who Ownership – feeling that users have who are involved with and feel that they have are involved with and feel that they have contributed to the product’s development.contributed to the product’s development.

Degrees Of InvolvementDegrees Of Involvement

Co-opting users to the design teamCo-opting users to the design team

Informing users through newslettersInforming users through newsletters

Some think that short projects (web), Some think that short projects (web), users require too much time to involveusers require too much time to involve

Case Studies that disprove:Case Studies that disprove: Web shopping applicationWeb shopping application Video game website Video game website

What is a user-centered approach?What is a user-centered approach?

Means that real users and their goals are the Means that real users and their goals are the driving force behind development, not driving force behind development, not technologytechnologyLess a technique, more a philosophyLess a technique, more a philosophy3 Principles for a “useful and easy to use 3 Principles for a “useful and easy to use computer system”:computer system”: Early focus on users and tasksEarly focus on users and tasks Empirical measurementEmpirical measurement Iterative designIterative design

(Gould and Lewis, 1985)(Gould and Lewis, 1985)

Early Focus on Users and TasksEarly Focus on Users and Tasks

User’s tasks and goals are the driving force User’s tasks and goals are the driving force behind developmentbehind developmentUsers’ behavior and context of use are studied Users’ behavior and context of use are studied and the system is designed to support themand the system is designed to support themUsers’ characteristics are captured and Users’ characteristics are captured and designed fordesigned forUsers are consulted throughout development Users are consulted throughout development from earliest phases to the latest and their input from earliest phases to the latest and their input is seriously taken into accountis seriously taken into accountAll design decisions are taken within the context All design decisions are taken within the context of the users, their work, and their environmentof the users, their work, and their environment

Understanding Users’ Work:Understanding Users’ Work:applying ethnography in designapplying ethnography in design

Ethnography is a method that comes Ethnography is a method that comes originally from anthropology and means originally from anthropology and means “writing the culture”“writing the culture”

Aim is to make the implicit explicitAim is to make the implicit explicit

Force you to see and evaluate their Force you to see and evaluate their everyday situationseveryday situations

Experience rather than a data collection Experience rather than a data collection exerciseexercise

Ethnography in DesignEthnography in Design

Stock exchange exampleStock exchange example

Can warn against attempts to integrate Can warn against attempts to integrate new technologies into a workplace without new technologies into a workplace without thinking through the implications for the thinking through the implications for the work practicework practice

Ethnography is about being reasonable, Ethnography is about being reasonable, courteous and unthreatening, and courteous and unthreatening, and interested in what’s happeninginterested in what’s happening

Ethnographic Framework in DesignEthnographic Framework in Design

Distributed Co-ordinationDistributed Co-ordination Means and mechanisms by which tasks are Means and mechanisms by which tasks are

coordinated among userscoordinated among users

Plans and proceduresPlans and procedures Organizational support and how workflow models Organizational support and how workflow models

are used to support the workare used to support the work

Awareness of workAwareness of work How people keep themselves in touch with others’ How people keep themselves in touch with others’

work and how information is shared in the work and how information is shared in the workplaceworkplace

CoherenceCoherence

The Coherence Method: combines experiences of using The Coherence Method: combines experiences of using ethnography to inform design with developments in requirements ethnography to inform design with developments in requirements engineeringengineering

It is intended to integrate social analysis with object-oriented It is intended to integrate social analysis with object-oriented analysis from software engineering (which includes use cases)analysis from software engineering (which includes use cases)

It does not prescribe how to move from the social analysis to use It does not prescribe how to move from the social analysis to use cases, but claims that presenting the date from an ethnographic cases, but claims that presenting the date from an ethnographic study based around a set of “viewpoints” and “concerns” facilitates study based around a set of “viewpoints” and “concerns” facilitates

the identification of the product’s most important use casesthe identification of the product’s most important use cases http://www.acm.org/sigchi/chi97/proceedings/tuthttp://www.acm.org/sigchi/chi97/proceedings/tutorial/ts.htmorial/ts.htm

Viewpoints and ConcernsViewpoints and Concerns

Coherence provides a set of focus questions for each of Coherence provides a set of focus questions for each of the three dimensions (a.k.a. viewpoints) the three dimensions (a.k.a. viewpoints) The focus questions are intended to guide the observer The focus questions are intended to guide the observer to particular aspects of the workplace (see page 294, to particular aspects of the workplace (see page 294, Figure 9.1)Figure 9.1)Coherence also has a set of concerns and associated Coherence also has a set of concerns and associated questionsquestionsConcerns are a kind of goal, and they represent criteria Concerns are a kind of goal, and they represent criteria that guide the requirements activitiesthat guide the requirements activitiesThe concerns are addressed within each appropriate The concerns are addressed within each appropriate viewpointviewpointOnce a concerns is deemed relevant to a particular Once a concerns is deemed relevant to a particular viewpoint, then a more in-depth set of questions is used viewpoint, then a more in-depth set of questions is used to explore the concern further (see page 295 Figure 9.2)to explore the concern further (see page 295 Figure 9.2)

Some Common ConcernsSome Common Concerns

1.1. Paperwork and computer work—these are embodiments of plans Paperwork and computer work—these are embodiments of plans and procedures, and at the same time are a mechanism for and procedures, and at the same time are a mechanism for developing and sharing an awareness of work (see page 296 developing and sharing an awareness of work (see page 296 Figure 9.3 for an example)Figure 9.3 for an example)

2.2. Skill and the use of local knowledge—refers to the “workarounds” Skill and the use of local knowledge—refers to the “workarounds” that are developed in organizations and are at the heart of how that are developed in organizations and are at the heart of how the real work gets donethe real work gets done

3.3. Spatial and temporal organization—looks at the physical layout of Spatial and temporal organization—looks at the physical layout of the workplace and areas where time is importantthe workplace and areas where time is important

4.4. Organizational memory—formal documents are not the only way Organizational memory—formal documents are not the only way in which things are remembered within an organization. in which things are remembered within an organization. Individuals may keep their own records, or there may be local Individuals may keep their own records, or there may be local gurusgurus

Contextual DesignContextual Design

Is a technique that was developed to handle the Is a technique that was developed to handle the collection and interpretation of data from fieldwork with collection and interpretation of data from fieldwork with the intention of building a software-based productthe intention of building a software-based product

Provides a structured approach to gathering and Provides a structured approach to gathering and representing information from fieldwork such as representing information from fieldwork such as ethnography, with the purpose of feeding it into designethnography, with the purpose of feeding it into design

See page 297 Box 9.5 for project exampleSee page 297 Box 9.5 for project example

http://http://www.incent.com/cd/cdhow.htmlwww.incent.com/cd/cdhow.html

7 Parts to Contextual Design7 Parts to Contextual Design

Contextual InquiryContextual InquiryWork ModelingWork ModelingConsolidationConsolidationWork Redesign—involves changing work Work Redesign—involves changing work practicespracticesUser Environment Design—produces a User Environment Design—produces a prototype that is used with customersprototype that is used with customersMockup and Test with CustomersMockup and Test with CustomersPutting It into Practice—concerns the practicality Putting It into Practice—concerns the practicality of the working systemof the working system

Contextual InquiryContextual InquiryIs an approach to ethnographic study used for design that follows an Is an approach to ethnographic study used for design that follows an apprenticeship model: the designer works as an apprentice to the userapprenticeship model: the designer works as an apprentice to the user

The most typical format is contextual interview, which is a combination The most typical format is contextual interview, which is a combination of observation, discussion, and reconstruction of past eventsof observation, discussion, and reconstruction of past events

4 Main Principles to Contextual Inquiry4 Main Principles to Contextual Inquiry ContextContext—emphasizes the importance of going to the workplace and seeing what happens—emphasizes the importance of going to the workplace and seeing what happens Partnership Partnership —states that the developer and the user should collaborate in understanding —states that the developer and the user should collaborate in understanding

the workthe work Interpretation Interpretation —says the observations must be interpreted in order to be used in design, —says the observations must be interpreted in order to be used in design,

and this interpretation should also be developed in cooperation between the user and the and this interpretation should also be developed in cooperation between the user and the developerdeveloper

Focus Focus —“how do you know what to look for?”—a project focus is —“how do you know what to look for?”—a project focus is established to guide established to guide the interviewer, which will then be augmented by the individual’s own focus that arises from the interviewer, which will then be augmented by the individual’s own focus that arises from their perspective and backgroundtheir perspective and background

Differences in Contextual Inquiry Differences in Contextual Inquiry and Ethnographic studiesand Ethnographic studies

1.1. CI is much shorter than a typical ethnographic study. CI is much shorter than a typical ethnographic study. A contextual inquiry interview lasts about two or three A contextual inquiry interview lasts about two or three hours, while an ethnographic study tends to be longer, hours, while an ethnographic study tends to be longer, probably weeks or monthsprobably weeks or months

2.2. The interview is much more intense and focused than The interview is much more intense and focused than an ethnographic study, which takes in a wide view of an ethnographic study, which takes in a wide view of the environmentthe environment

3.3. In the interview, the designer is not taking on a role of In the interview, the designer is not taking on a role of participant observer, but is inquiring about the work. participant observer, but is inquiring about the work. The designer is observing, and is questioning The designer is observing, and is questioning behavior, but is not participatingbehavior, but is not participating

4.4. In the interview, the intention is to design a new In the interview, the intention is to design a new system, but when conducting an ethnography, there is system, but when conducting an ethnography, there is not particular agenda to be followednot particular agenda to be followed

Contextual Inquiry SessionContextual Inquiry Session

Data Collected by:Data Collected by: NotesNotes AudioAudio VideoVideo MentalMental Document ASAPDocument ASAP

Work ModelingWork Modeling

Customer Centered DesignCustomer Centered Design Shift from system to customer potentialShift from system to customer potential

What is work?What is work?

5 Aspects of Modeling Work5 Aspects of Modeling Work

Work Flow ModelWork Flow Model

Sequence ModelSequence Model

Artifact ModelArtifact Model

Cultural ModelCultural Model

Physical ModelPhysical Model

Work Flow ModelWork Flow Model

Diagram 9.5Diagram 9.5

People involved in work along with People involved in work along with communication and coordinationcommunication and coordination

Sequence ModelSequence Model

Detailed work steps to achieve a goalDetailed work steps to achieve a goal

Don’t ignore goalsDon’t ignore goals

Artifact ModelArtifact Model

Physical things needed to do the workPhysical things needed to do the work

Eg. Sticky notesEg. Sticky notes

Cultural modelCultural model

Shows constraints on system caused by Shows constraints on system caused by organized cultureorganized culture

Diagram 9.7Diagram 9.7

Physical ModelPhysical Model

Physical structurePhysical structure

Eg. Office, Show how everything is linkedEg. Office, Show how everything is linked

The Interpretation SessionThe Interpretation SessionCaptures work modelCaptures work modelCommunication contextual inquiryCommunication contextual inquiryInterviewerInterviewer

Conducts interviewConducts interview Whose models are being examined?Whose models are being examined? Team must questionTeam must question

Work ModelersWork Modelers Draw the modelDraw the model

RecorderRecorder Keeps notesKeeps notes

Rest of teamRest of team Participate Participate ObserveObserve

ModeratorModerator ManagesManages

Rat hole watcherRat hole watcher Steers away from distractionSteers away from distraction

Consolidating the ModelsConsolidating the Models

Effinity diagramEffinity diagram Diagram 9.9Diagram 9.9 Organize structure and themeOrganize structure and theme Built by inductionBuilt by induction ConsolidateConsolidate

Consolidated sequence modelConsolidated sequence model StructureStructure Common strategies Common strategies

Artifact modesArtifact modes How to organize and structureHow to organize and structure

Physical spacePhysical space Area of constraintArea of constraint

Cultural modelsCultural models Identify the influencesIdentify the influences

The Design RuleThe Design Rule

Where models are kept pinned on wallWhere models are kept pinned on wall

Contextual designContextual design

Involving users in design: Involving users in design: Participatory Design Participatory Design

Users are actively involved in developmentUsers are actively involved in development Users become equal partners in design teamUsers become equal partners in design team Two influences on this early work:Two influences on this early work:

Desire to be able to communicate about complex Desire to be able to communicate about complex systemssystems

Labor unions pushing for workers to have control Labor unions pushing for workers to have control over changes in their workover changes in their work

UTOPIA ProjectUTOPIA Project

Involving users is not simpleInvolving users is not simple Cultural differences become acute when Cultural differences become acute when

users and designers are asked to work users and designers are asked to work togethertogether

This confusion lead to the development of the This confusion lead to the development of the mockupmockup

Simulates the working situationSimulates the working situation

Makes effective use of users’ experienceMakes effective use of users’ experience

PICTIVEPICTIVE

Plastic Interface for Collaborative Technology Plastic Interface for Collaborative Technology Initiatives through Video ExplorationInitiatives through Video Exploration

Motives for development were to:Motives for development were to:Empower users to act as full participants in designEmpower users to act as full participants in design

Improve knowledge acquisition for designImprove knowledge acquisition for design What you need:What you need:

Video recorder, pens, pencils, paper, sticky notes, Video recorder, pens, pencils, paper, sticky notes, cards, etc.cards, etc.

PICTIVE cont’dPICTIVE cont’d

Users generate scenarios of what they want system Users generate scenarios of what they want system to doto do

Developers generate set of components that are Developers generate set of components that are relevantrelevant

Session divided into 4 main partsSession divided into 4 main partsAll stakeholders introduce themselves and stake in projectAll stakeholders introduce themselves and stake in project

Brief tutorials are given about different domainsBrief tutorials are given about different domains

Design brainstorming and manipulation of design objectsDesign brainstorming and manipulation of design objects

Walkthrough of design and decisions discussedWalkthrough of design and decisions discussed Video is a record-keeper of eventsVideo is a record-keeper of events

CARDCARD

Collaborative Analysis of Requirements and Collaborative Analysis of Requirements and DesignDesign

Similar to PICTIVE but more macroscopicSimilar to PICTIVE but more macroscopic Uses cards with pictures of screendumps and Uses cards with pictures of screendumps and

computerscomputers CARD is a form of storyboardingCARD is a form of storyboarding

CARD cont’dCARD cont’d

Cards manipulated to show workflow during Cards manipulated to show workflow during brainstorming sessionbrainstorming session

Cards can represent users’ goals or specific Cards can represent users’ goals or specific task elementstask elements

New cards can be generated at any timeNew cards can be generated at any time CARD can be used to compliment PICTIVECARD can be used to compliment PICTIVE

CARD being macroscopic and PICTIVE being CARD being macroscopic and PICTIVE being microscopicmicroscopic

Different levels of user involvementDifferent levels of user involvement

Each project determines the level of user Each project determines the level of user involvementinvolvement

Projects can use one or any combination of Projects can use one or any combination of the techniques discussedthe techniques discussed

Different techniques expand the level of user Different techniques expand the level of user involvementinvolvement

See Table 9.1 for a good comparisonSee Table 9.1 for a good comparison