Ch. 6 – The Great Communicators: Language and

the Media

Robert Wonser

Sexism and Language

• What’s in a Word?• Words are symbols with meaning• They define, describe and evaluate us and the world in

which we live• Power of words is that the members of a culture share

those meanings and valuations • Common language allows the members of society to

communicate and understand one another making order in society

• Language is a medium of socialization• When you learn the language of a culture you are also

learning how to think and behave as a member of that culture.

Sexism and LanguageConnotations• Governor—governess• Master—mistress• Patron—matron• Sir—madam• Bachelor—spinster

Generic He/Man• Policeman• Spokesman• Manpower• Social Man• Mankind• Workman’s compensation• “man the oars!”• He, him, his

Word Pairs:

Brothers and sisters

Husband and wife

Boys and girls

Hostess and host

Queen and king

Eve and Adam

Sexism and Language

• Which words connotations are better? • Did you notice the female ones are associated with

sexuality but for men they're associated with power, authority, or positively valued status?

• Over time some words become debased in a process known as semantic derogation– Ex: spinster used to mean “tender of a spinning wheel”

• In general, what do these examples tell us about the relative value and status of men and women in our society?

• Shrew and shrewd – what’s the difference and who gets labeled what?

• Some of these words are also combined with ageism.

Linguistic Sexism

• Semantic derogation is one instance of linguistic sexism.• Linguistic sexism refers to ways in which language

devalues members of one sex, almost invariably women.• In addition to devaluing women it also denotes their

“place” unequally as well as ignoring them altogether.• Mr., miss, and Mrs. No indication of male status but the

female denote how they are related to men. • He and man conjure of images of men• Is it misplaced to focus on sexist language? • Given that women are denigrated by language, it serves

not only to reflect but to reinforce inequality.• Changing sexist language as a means to eliminate

inequality.

Do Women and Men Speak a Different Language?

• What about linguist Deborah Tannen who maintains that men and women have different communication styles and different communication goals?

• Different cultures = different dialects, men and women = different genderlects.

• According to Tannen, women speak and hear language of intimacy and connection whereas men speak and hear a language of status and independence. The result? Misunderstanding.

• Is this correct? What about the situational factors? Ex: sex of the person with whom they are speaking, context of the conversation, and the perceived status of both the speaker and the listener.

• Research: main difference? Women more “active understanding” responses when the speaker was a female friend.

• Communication is an interactive process affected by a variety of factors, which gender is only one.

Gender Inequality in Everyday Communications

• According to research on cross-sex conversations, men often:– Do more of the talking (which is a direct result of having more

opportunities to express their opinions (e.g. business meetings).– More successful in getting conversation focused on topics they introduce.– When men speak, listeners of both sexes more actively listen– Nonverbal communication is dominant.

• Control more space, invade women’s space, touching and staring more.– Women in contrast, tend to avert their eyes when stared at by men, smile

and laugh more than men whether they are happy or not, a gesture that can be viewed as both social and submissive.

• What about the stereotype that women talk more than men? • In all female groups, women talk more than men in all male groups.• Topics: men Sports, work, activities held in common. Women

more personal topics. • same sex studies: women’s conversations are less individualistic than

men's’. • Interruptions in women's conversations? Common, but generally

supportive rather than aggressive.

Gender and the Media• According to the reflection hypothesis the media only give the pubic what it

expects, wants, or demands. • In other words, the media content mirrors the behaviors and relationships, and

values and norms most prevalent in society.• However, far from passively reflecting culture, the media actively shape and

create culture. • Ex: the nightly news – how much news can fit into 22 minutes? they set the

agenda for public opinion. “The way the media choose themes, structure the dialogue, and control the debate—a process which involves crucial omissions—is a major aspect of their influence.”

• In addition to their role as definers of the important, the media are also the chief sources of information for most people, as well as the focus of their leisure activity.

• Evidence indicates many media consumers (esp. heavy TV viewers) tend to uncritically accept media content as fact.

• Although there’s always intervening variables (e.g. kinds of shows, and behavior of real-life role models), the media do influence our worldview, including personal aspirations and expectations for achievements, as well as our perceptions of others.

• Symbolic annihilation refers to the media’s traditional ignoring, trivializing or condemning of women.

Gender Differences in Online Communication

• Internet is nearly evenly divided between women (45%) and men (55%).• Research indicates that online communication mirrors in-person

conversational styles:– Women’s email messages are longer and more detailed than men.– Women use more emoticons and more intensive adverbs (e.g. really, very).– They are also more supportive and agreeable.– Men make stronger assertions and use profanity, insults and sarcasm more than

women• Internet for sex?• Men (56.5%) were more likely than women (35.2%) to surf for sexually explicit

materials, men were more likely to look at pornographic sites and masturbate while women were more likely to engage in cyber-sex with an online partner.

• Explanation: women use communication to build social connections and rapport with others while men use communication more functionally or instrumentally.

• Research also indicates online communication is mitigated by other social factors: age, sex, income, educational attainment, status and type of message of both the sender and the receiver.

The Written Word - Gender messages in newspapers and magazines

• Regular reading of the newspaper in the U.S. has declined since the mid-1980s.

• More men than women read it; why?• Male centered stories. Women’s are in the back, “non-news”

section of the paper.• Trivialization of women in the stories that do focus on them. For

example: “the female attorney”, “the petite blonde”, “Dr. Smith, the wife of”, or “the feisty grandmother.” Such details were rarely provided for men.

• Are feminists depicted as a small but vocal radical fringe group that most members of the general public dislike as portrayed by the media?

• Most of the staff at major newspapers are men.• When women are on the staff they tend to have the same definitions

of what ‘experts’ are as men do, thereby seeking people like men to comment.

Gender and Magazines• Newspapers seek the masses, magazines are targeted to smaller

populations.• Traditionally women’s magazines have promoted a ‘cult of

femininity’ that is, the definition of femininity as a narcissistic absorption with oneself—one’s physical appearance, occupational success, and with success in affairs of the heart.

• Intensified focus on sex in both adult and teen magazines in recent years. Emphasis on boldness?

• Makeovers buy stuff, improve you because you are flawed!• Men’s magazines: finance/business/technology, sports/hobbies, and

sex.• Sex in women’s magazines is usually discussed in terms of

interpersonal relationships but in men’s magazines objectify and depersonalize sex.

• Like women’s magazines, men’s magazines only promote normative masculinity.

Television: The Ubiquitous Gender Socializer

• Most important media socializer.• Americans spend 33% of her/his leisure

time watching TV. More than any other leisure activity (including socializing with others; 7%!).

• Women watch more TV than men do, adults more than children (although TV watching consumes more time than any other non-school activity).

Prominent Messages in TV

• Women are less important than men.– Fewer women than men on prime-time TV (39% of all major

characters)• Characters played by women tend to be younger and

less mature than male characters and therefore less authoritative.– 65% of female prime-time characters are in their twenties and

thirites12% are in their forties and 22% of male primetime characters are in their forties.

• Young female characters are typically thin and physically attractive.– In general males are given more leeway in their appearance.

46% of women on TV compared with just 16% of men are thin or very thin.

Gender Messages on TV• There have been important changes in the portrayal of men and women in

recent years.• Female: more likely (than before) to work outside the home, be strong and

independent women who rely on themselves to solve problems. Shown interacting with other characters in an honest and direct way.

• males: more likely to be shown as ideal husbands and do their share of housework. Even though they’re less likely to be shown doing it vs women (1-3% compared to 20-27%).

• Gender stereotypes still persist: Preoccupied with romantic relationships, shown on the job or not, defined by marital status or occupation, using romantic charm or force to get what they want.

• Since the 1970s: the incorporation of women’s rights and gender equality themes, often presented from what could be considered a feminist perspective.

• Gender stereotypes frequently intersect with racial and ethnic stereotypes on TV.

• Racial or ethnic people are still underrepresented (male or female) on TV.• Over 80% of primetime characters are White, 12% are Black, 2% are Asian

American and 1% are Hispanic. [this data is a little dated: 90s]• Greatest strides towards equality: local newscasts.

Gender Messages in Advertisements

• Does Sexism sell?• Ads sell less a product and more a lifestyle,

needs and desires.• “advertisers portray an image that represents the

interpretation of those cultural values which are profitable to propagate.”

• For men: the message is to buy a particular product to get the “sweet young thing” associated with it, for women: buy the product in order to be the “sweet young thing.”

Sexism in Advertising• Sexism in advertising can be very subtle. • What does the way models pose tell us?

– Women in subordinate and men in dominant positions.• Killing Us Softy • Gender stereotyping is also prevalent.

– Ex: Occupation• Sexually exploitative use of women had increased in ads since 1970.• Women used as purely decorative.• Use of men as decorative has also increased.

– Men as either ‘Rambo’ or Himbo.• Evidence that the industry confuses gender equality with sexual permissiveness or

exploitation. • The Lolita syndrome – advertising’s increasing use of children, especially girls, in

sexually exploitative ways.• Emphasis on youth = denigration of the elderly (particularly women)• Rarities in ads: Hispanic Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans, gay and

lesbians or people with disabilities.• Average American sees more than 37,000 ads just on TV a year!

Images of Gender in the Media

• What are the effects? Do people believe what the media depicts? Some do…

• Research suggests: TV viewing may affect an individual’s self evaluation as well as more general perceptions about gender.

• Several factors that mediate TVs effects:• Age: the ability to correctly judge whether a program is fact

or fiction increases with age (by 10 or 11 most children can do this)

• Judgments about the program’s plausibility of a program’s content are unrelated to viewer age.

• Instead, plausibility is related to viewing frequency: heavy TV viewers tend to judge programs as more realistic than light viewers do.

• Same is true of gender stereotypes.

• Young women are more critical of TV than young men.• Does viewing gender stereotypes cause them? Or are

people who hold gender stereotyped beliefs more likely to watch more TV?

• Research indicates we seek out shows that confirm our stereotypes.

• One study: gender depictions in TV advertising may be understood as gender prescriptions by female viewers and may affect their real-life aspirations.

• Advertising portrayals of women affect sexual attitudes and beliefs.

• Evidence indicates that when TV provide “pro-social” content, they can effectively reduce gender stereotypes and other forms of prejudice. Effect is strongest for young children.

Violence and the Media• Does violent viewing cause violent behavior in viewers?• Strong relationship between violent viewing and violent behavior, particularly

among children and adolescents, but researchers—and representatives of the entertainment industry—are quick to point out that a correlation between two variables does not necessarily mean that one causes the other.

• Three theories to explain the relationship:• Cathartic effect – viewing violence can actually reduce the violent drives of viewers

because watching allows viewers to fantasize about violence, thereby releasing the tensions that may lead to real-life aggression.

– Ex: The Burning Bed• The Modeling Effect maintains that media violence teaches viewers to behave

violently through imitation, or modeling.• Catalytic effect maintains that if certain conditions are present, viewing violence

may prompt real-life violence. Violence in terms of probablistic causation rather than direct causation. The violent viewing “primes” the viewer for violent behavior and desensitizes the viewer to violence and its effects.

– Increases the probability of violent behavior:– Violence is portrayed as realistic, if violence rights a wrong, if the program contains

characters that are similar to those the viewer knows or has experienced, and if the viewers media exposure is heavy.

• Effects are worse on younger children.