Ch 3 Leadership Theories Draft

5/20/2018 Ch 3 Leadership Theories Draft

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Focus on downwards: Theories of managing the project team

Introduction

Discussion in a previous chapter identified that the team and its members are downwards

stakeholders. The team is often overlooked when considering the importance and expectations of

a projects stakeholders. There can be no doubt that the team and its individual members are

essential for the success of the project. The team will consist of staff (employees) who will

probably be working on the project for at least the length of one phase of the project, or even the

length of the project. This will depend on their skills and preferences as well as the preferences

of the PM and possibly the policy of the organization itself. In addition to the longer term

members, there will be others individuals or groups who contribute to the development of the

objectives of the project. They may be technical specialists, business analysts or other part-time

resources. The idea of team members as stakeholders is often overlooked. Managing the team is

about leading a group of people for the success of the project, leadership is an important aspect

of the consideration for managing the project team.

This chapter is organized as follows: firstly a discussion of the definition of team; followed by

a brief history of the concept of management; and then a selection of leadership theory

appropriate to managing project teams. The fourth section discusses team formation and the role

of individuals within teamwork. This is followed by a discussion on successful leadership

through encouraging teamwork. The next chapter discusses the more practical aspects of leading

teams: managing teams containing team members of diverse backgrounds and the essential

leadership skills of motivation, managing conflict, making decisions and giving feedback, all of


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which depend on an understanding of the theories of managing and leading discussed in this

chapter.

What is a team?

Thompson (2011) defines team as a group of interdependent individuals sharing the

responsibility of objectives and results. Their characteristics are:

Interdependence success requires the combination of both individual and team effort

with mutual responsibility.

Authority each member of the team reflects the authority of the team towards delivering

its objectives.

In a social context the group will be inspired and more effective because to the social

nature of the relationships built within the team.

A teams performance includes both individual results and collective work products (Katzenbach

& Smith, 1993). This means that teams are successful through both individual accountability as

well as mutual accountability. Successful teams develop a shared purpose, measured by specific

performance goals. Therefore the essence of a team is common commitment.

The teams leader can support good performance through:

Helping to set performance standards and direction,

Selecting members for skill or potential (where possible),

The importance of early kick-off meetings and clear rules of behaviour,

Ensuring the team gets essential and timely information,


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Ensuring regular meetings, formal and informal,

Reinforcement through positive feedback, reward and recognition.

Effective teams do not happen accidentally. They need:

Clear and agreed purpose and objectives,

Measures of progress and success,

Feedback: acknowledgement for success but also counselling and coaching when

necessary,

Recognition that they are a group of individuals who must deliver the outcome through

working together.

For the development of successful and high performing teams, leaders must apply skills and

approaches aided by an understanding of theories of management and leadership. Many of these

theories may seem contradictory or overlap with others. The secret to successful adaptation of

any of these theories is selection of a theory, or theories that fit best with the preferred style of

individual managers or leaders, with the situation or with the culture of the team or the

organization.

A History of Management

Theories of management that still impact today on the development of successful teams are:

Fayols Functions of Management: theory of business administration,

Scientific Management (Frederick Taylor),

Hawthorne Experiment and its findings,


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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs,

Herzbergs Hygiene theory,

McGregors Theory X and Theory Y.

Henri Fayol Functions of Management

The contributions of Fayols ideas to (administrative) management theory are twofold (Crainer,

2003). His ideas arose from these two principles:

Management processes and practices are universal applicable to any endeavour that

required a structured, planned approach,

Management is a discipline that could be defined in a rational way (and taught to others).1

Fayol defined the five functions of management. These are: forecast and plan, organize,

command or direct, coordinate, and control (in the sense that a manager must receive feedback

about a process in order to make necessary adjustments and must analyse the deviations).

His fourteen principles of management are still the focus of management efforts today:

Division of work. Work specialization is the best way to use the organizations resources.

Authority. Managers must be able to give orders. Authority and responsibility are closely

connected.

Discipline. Effective leadership leads to good discipline, both encouragement to follow

the organizations rules and ability to enforce them.

1Crainer (2003) attributes Fayols ideas as the basis for legitimacy of the modern Manager of Business

Administration (MBA).


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Unity of command. Every employee should receive orders from only one superior.

Unity of direction. Each group working to the same objective should be led by one

manager and one plan.

Subordination of individual interests to the general interest.

Remuneration. Workers must be paid a fair wage for their services.

Centralization. Decision making can centralized (to management) or decentralized (to

subordinates) the leader must decide on the best mix for success of the work.

Scalar chain. Authority moves from top management to the lowest ranks.

Communications should generally follow this chain.

Order. People and materials should be in the right place at the right time.

Equity. Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates.

Stability of tenure of personnel. High employee turnover is inefficient. Management

ensure effective resource planning.

Initiative. Employees should be encouraged to originate and carry out their creative

ideas.

Esprit de corps. Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the

organization.

Scientific Management (Frederick Taylor)

Fayols ideas are now central to thinking and teaching of management principles even though his

actual writing is relatively unknown (Crainer, 2003). The work of Frederick Taylor, on the other

hand, is well-known and highly referenced. Taylor was a self-styled consultant to management


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(Crainer, 2003), developing the Principles of Scientific Management2in 1911. These were based

on a search for the one best way to achieve efficiency through the development of repetitive

decomposed actions3.

The essence of Scientific Management was breaking down every task into its smallest

components, and then through measurement of the time each component takes, improving the

work instructions to reduce this production or development time. This meant that workers knew

exactly what was expected of them and that managers knew exactly how much should be

produced. It also meant more accurate piece work rates could be set with more reliable bonuses

and penalties(Crainer, 2003:45). Taylors other significant contribution to modern

organizations and projects was the introduction of time-consciousness, even to the extent that the

factory clock or siren set the start and finish times of a work day. Taylors ideas, along with their

focus on producing more products or results more efficiently and more cheaply, permeate much

of our modern work environment as well as being one of the core components for success in

projects. Henry Fords assembly line process for efficiently producing cheap automobiles was

one of the many applications developed from Taylors Scientific Management principles.

The Hawthorne Experiments and their findings

Taylors work established the role of management as measurement and through that, control and

supervision soon to become the realm of middle management. This focus on efficiency caused

2Taylor described Scientific Management as 75% science and 25% common sense (Crainer, 2003): 443This reductionist approach is still evident in PM practices. One clear example of this reductionist approach in

project management is the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), a structured approach for decomposition of projectscope into smaller more convenient work packages that enable more effective (and efficient) planning, resourcing,

costing and reporting.


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organizations to depersonalize workers, denying them of their individuality and flexibility in the

workplace (Crainer, 2003). The Human Relations model emerged in reaction to this perceived

dehumanization. The Hawthorne Experiments of Elton Mayo and his colleagues were an attempt

to develop and understanding of the human aspects of work and to balance the machine view of

workers resulting from Taylors theories and their application.

Mayos research resulted from his belief of the importance of application of Taylors scientific

approach to production, and a systematic ordering of the work (for effectiveness) with the third

component of teamwork (for efficiency). The Hawthorne Experiments were conducted at the

Hawthorne Works of the General Electric Company in Chicago between 1924 and 1932 and

examined the effects on productivity of changes to the physical environment.

Mayos research sought to understand the effects on job productivity of fatigue and monotony.

He changed the working conditions of the women who volunteered to be part of the experiment

by removing them from the general factory area under the supervision of a friendly observer. He

varied the length and frequency of rest breaks and work hours, and changed the temperature and

humidity of their work environment. During this process he ensured that the women were

consulted before each change. As a result of these activities and the changes in productivity he

developed a theory about human motivation. Isolated from the rest of the factors workforce, the

women had the freedom to develop relationships and to modify their working conditions and

methods as they wished. The conclusion that could be made from this research was that the

women were motivated to be more efficient through:

Group dynamics of members encouraging each other,


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Consultation of the team members,

Flexibility in their work practices: options discouraged by the Scientific Management

approach.

Other conclusions were that:

Teamwork is social. Informal groupings at work influence the habits and attitudes of the

worker.

Acknowledgement and recognition, security and sense of belonging contribute more to

workers morale and productivity than the physical environment.

A complaint can be a sign that the worker feels that his or her status is being threatened.

Collaboration must be planned and encouraged to take advantage of the power of team

culture and teamwork.

Maslows hierarchy of needs

The Hawthorne Experiments emphasized the importance of groups in organizations, and the

need to ensure that the goals and objectives of staff are not in conflict with those of the

organisation. Maslow proposed that people have different needs (and therefore different drivers

depending on their current life and emotional situations. He proposed five levels from lowest to

highest (Owen, 2012):

1. Physiological (food, health and clothing),

2. Safety (security),

3.

Belongingness and love (the need to belong to a group),


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4. Esteem (the need to be valued by oneself and others),

5. Self-actualization (the need to be all that one can be).

Maslow proposed that when someone has achieved one level, they will strive to meet the next

level of needs. Owen (2012) has adapted this model to the work environment so that the levels

will read as:

1.

Physiological (pay and conditions)

2.

Safety (job security)

3. Belongingness and love (the need to belong to a group, and leaving a legacy)

4. Esteem (recognition and acknowledgement)

5. Self-actualization (reaching ones full potential). This can be achieved through seeking

and succeeding at intellectual challenges stretch assignments, and working to improve

communication and political; awareness

Figure 1 illustrates the adaption of Maslows hierarchy.


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Figure 1: Maslow's hierarchy of needs adapted from Owen (2012)

Herzbergs Hygiene Theory

Maslows theory was the basis for Herzbergs development of the Hygiene Theory of

Motivation. This theory proposed that there are two sets of factors that can influence motivation

of workers:

Intrinsic factors or motivating factors, such as interesting or challenging work and the

opportunity to develop new skills and experiences.

Extrinsic factors or hygiene factors such as pay and conditions or comfortable work

environment.

The essence of Herzbergs theory is that individuals will be initially satisfied with additional pay


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or benefits, but this satisfaction is not sustainable: the worker could become dissatisfied with the

current situation. Achievement of a satisfactory standard will not positively motivate the worker

to greater contributions. The factors that do motivate are factors that encourage increased

contribution. (Herzberg, 1987) states that when a manager applies either negative physical or

psychological force to cause pain or discomfort, the worker may act as directed but reluctantly

and not consistently. Whereas a worker who is motivated will have an increased sense of

achievement and will often work longer hours to finish a challenging task because of this

motivation and sense of achievement. Figure 2 illustrates these concepts

Figure 2: Herzberg's Hygiene Theory

Herzberg (1987) has noted that this employee-centered style of management will not be

achieved by command or control or coercive practices but through changing the nature of the

work being done, through offering continuous challenging work and acknowledgement of

consequent achievement. Motivators will have a much greater impact on long-term satisfaction

and motivation of employees. The factors are summarized in the following Table 1:


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Table 1: Examples of motivators (Herzberg, 1987)

Principle MotivatorsRemoving some controls while retaining

accountability

Responsibility and personal achievement

Increasing the accountability of individuals for

their own work

Responsibility and recognition

Giving a person a complete natural unit of

work (module, division, area and so on)

Responsibility, achievement and recognition

Granting additional authority to employees in

their activity; job freedom

Responsibility, achievement and recognition

aking periodic reports directly available to

workers themselves rather than to supervisors

Internal recognition

Introducing new and more difficult tasks not

previously handled

Growth and learning

!ssigning individuals specific or speciali"ed

tasks enabling them to become e#perts

Responsibility, growth and advancement

McGregors Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X assumes that workers will avoid work whenever possible. Theory X contends:

People will only work if they are controlled and threatened,

The worker will not readily assume responsibility,

Workers have little ambition and must be closely supervised at all times.

Theory Y assumes, on the other hand, that employees want to be creative and self-directed; they

are generally enthusiastic about their work. Theory Y has the following alternative assumptions:

Physical and mental work can be as stimulating as play or rest;


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Command and control is not the only way to manage the output of workers.

Organisational aims and objectives can result in worker self-direction through designing

satisfying activities.

With the proper leadership, a worker can learn how to take responsibility, but also seek

responsibility.

Figure 3: Theory X and Theory Y

At some time in late 20thcentury there was a shift in emphasis from the idea of management as a

practice of leading teams to work effectively through planning, administration and control to a

split in defined roles of a manager and a leader (Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson, 2001). The best

description of the distinction is that managers do things right and focus on efficiency and

leaders do the right things and focus on effectiveness.


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Some Theories of Leadership

Literature about leadership abounds: a simple search on Amazon.com provides over 100 000

results. The sheer volume of information about leadership could be an indicator that we are still

not getting leadership right and that research and writing continues as part of a quest for the

answer on how to be a good leader. My contribution to this quest will be two-fold firstly to

discuss the example of an individual who is recognized by many (including me) as a good leader.

The second approach will be to discuss some of the theories of leadership and how they might

apply to managing teams.

The Leadership of Ernest Shackleton

Sir Ernest Shackleton led an expedition to Antarctica in 1914 in the shipEndurance. The

Endurancewas trapped in ice for almost two years, more than 1200 miles from civilization and

with no means of communication. The crew was forced to camp on the ice and to eat penguins,

seals and their dogs to survive. When the ice began to break up, finally destroying the

Endurance, Shackleton led his men in three small lifeboats to land on Elephant Island after

nearly a week in the freezing seas. Leaving most of the men sheltering in two lifeboats on the

Island, Shackleton proceeded to a whaling station on the island of South Georgia with five men

to seek help. On arrival at the whaling station, Shackletons next move was to organize the

rescue effort for his crew waiting on Elephant Island and make the return journey as soon as

possible (Morrell & Capparell, 2001).

The reason that Shackleton has been named the greatest leader ever is not just for the amazing

deeds already described, but also because he brought every crew member back to port alive, that


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they remained in good spirits throughout their ordeal and finally because of his persistence and

resilience in embarking on this third journey to Antarctica in the face of his previous two failures

and the inevitability of this expedition also failing after all he never actually reached his

objective!

Shackleton exhibited many of the skills that Fayol defined as the domain of management. He

meticulously planned the expedition, organized and coordinated the provisioning of the

expedition and acquiring crew members, and directed them in their tasks throughout the

expedition. Additionally the leadership themes that this story emphasizes includes:

He cared for his crews physical well-being,

He ensured that their emotional needs were met as much as he was able to in the

constraints of the environment he found them in,

He was both persistent and resilient at all times.

These themes will be echoed throughout this chapter.

In the preface to Morrell & Capparell (2001), his daughter, Alexandra Shackleton, lists the keys

to his success as:

The path to leadership learning from bad experiences, having diverse interests, reading

widely.

Hiring the best people he sought optimism and cheerfulness, gave them the best

compensation and equipment within his ability.

Creating a strong team spirit established routines, ensured everyone knew their own and

others roles and responsibilities, removed hierarchies that were not relevant, used


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informal gatherings and activities to build the team culture.

Ensured that each member gave their best led by example, Shackleton knew the

capabilities and weaknesses of his crew, he worked with individual crew members to

help them meet their full potential and helped them be successful.

Effective in a crisis took leadership in the crisis and inspired optimism in everyone, he

worked closely with those who were not happy, created a model for intellectual

leadership.

Formed special teams for special activities with regard to balance of expertise and

knowledge, encouraged the teams to work together,

Overcame obstacle always with the objective in mind took responsibility for achieving

the objectives, kept sight of the big picture while also focusing on the detail and the

people,

Left a legacy of successful leadership even when the project actually failed.

Born or Made?

Is there a set of characteristics that determine a good leader? Could it be a persons personality?

Do they have charisma? Or key behaviours? Or their style? Or are they admired for their

achievements and therefore chosen by their admirers (follower) to lead? Are leaders born? Or is

it possible to develop leadership?

The source of Ernest Shackletons leadership abilities seems to be both inherent (genetically and

from the approach to life of his own family) and learned (from his own experiences and

approaches). To answer the question: are good leaders born or made? I will explore some of the


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ideas encapsulated in the following theories of leadership:

Trait Theory,

Transactional Leadership,

Charismatic Leadership,

Situational Leadership,

Transformational Leadership,

Authentic Leadership.

Trait Theory

Leaders today have to work in the shadow of the greats: those outstanding leaders who have

been universally recognised as great leaders. The ranks of great leaders include Gandhi,

Abraham Lincoln, Dr Martin Luther King, Napoleon, Steve Jobs and, of course, Sir Ernest

Shackleton. These leaders have done great things. The major traits that they all seem to have in

common (Northouse, 2013) are:

Intelligence: strong verbal and reasoning skills,

Self-confidence: certainty about ones own skills and competences,

Determination: desire to achieve the goals: includes persistence, drive, resilience,

Integrity: credibility, honesty and trustworthiness,

Sociability: ability to form relationships, good interpersonal skills and ability to create

cooperative relationships with their followers.


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Trait Theory has a focus on personality traits. McCrae & Costa (1997) describe five traits4:

Extraversion: sociable, assertive and emotionally expressive,

Conscientiousness: thoughtful, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors,

organized and mindful of details,

Openness: imagination and insight, with a broad range of interests,

(Low) neuroticism: tend to experience emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness,

irritability, and sadness,

Agreeableness: includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection (Goldman,

1990).

These traits fit the great leader approach to understanding leadership. They focus only on what

a leader needs to have to become a good leader, and will serve as a benchmark to measure

improvement in leadership qualities. Trait Theory ignores the situations where individuals have

stepped into leadership roles temporarily, even though the individual does not display the

leadership traits just described. This is the theory of situation leadership, discussed later in the

chapter.

Transactional Leadership

Transactional leadership is based on expectation of reward such as meeting followers emotional

and material needs in return for contracted services or support or involvement in certain

activities (B. Bass, M, 1985). Generally the transactional leader will have a focus on:

Management by exception,

4This list of leadership traits bears a similarity to Emotional Intelligence.


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Procedures and efficiency,

Working to rules and contracts,

Managing current issues and problems,

Using reward and coercive power bases.

Some followers require this leadership approach and will often gravitate to leaders exhibiting

these behaviors, because the transactional leader tries to deliver what followers want (Yukl,

2002). Some circumstances may require a leader to show flexibility, in certain circumstances and

with certain groups the task-oriented approach will be favored, but in other circumstances with

other groups a more relationship-oriented approach is more effective.

Charismatic Leadership

Charismatic leaders are, or become, the embodiment of the values and beliefs of their followers,

they often appear at times of difficulty or stress where followers will look to these leaders for

resolution of difficulties or help them make sense of a situation (Northouse, 2013). In the world

of projects, it is unusual for the project manager or members of the project team to exhibit these

characteristics; but possible a senior stakeholder will, causing issues for the project manager and

for the effective working of the team.

Transformational Leadership

Transformational leaders will lead in a way that empowers their followers, seeking to enhance

self-sufficiency and to change their values and attitudes. It requires:

Long term strategic planning,


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Clear objectives and vision,

Leading by example walk the walk,

Efficiency of systems and processes.

This relational orientation goes beyond satisfying existing needs in their followers, and seeks to

engage the heart and mind of their followers (B. M. Bass, 1985).

The Leadership Grid developed by Blake & Mouton (1964) summarises the discussion of

behaviours and results orientation as opposed to people orientation. Figure 5 is adapted from the

original description.

Figure 4 Leadership Grid adapted from Blake & Mouton (1964)


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The result is five styles of leadership that relate to whether the leader has more concern for

results or more concern for people. The five styles are:

Authority/Compliance: heavy emphasis on what is required for success of the task.

Communication might just be instruction about the task. This style can be perceived as

overpowering and controlling.

Country Club: the emphasis is on relationships within the team or workgroup rather than

achieving objectives, creating a climate of agreement, support and care for the needs of

the team

Impoverished: minimal concern for either results or the welfare of the team. This leader

is uninvolved and indifferent, resigned and apathetic.

Middle of the Road: moderate concern for both results and the team, avoiding conflict,

seeking the middle-ground to achieve equilibrium.

Team Management: strong emphasis on both results and the relationship within the team,

encouraging teamwork and individual involvement in the work and making priorities

clear (Northouse, 2013).

The benefit of such a theoretical perspective is that leaders and project teams can identify their

own style and preferences. From that base they can move to more appropriate styles and

behaviours that will benefit the project, the team, the organization and the leader. Instinctively

we will recognise that the preferred style will be Team Management with high concerns for both

results and people, but there will be occasions that require other behaviours. Complex, high-

profile or urgent projects may require more focus on task and less on relationships, whereas other

more sensitive projects may respond better to a greater emphasis on relationships than on results.


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The leader needs to have made the assessment at planning and ensure that whatever approach is

selected has the agreement and support of the appropriate stakeholders.

Situational Leadership

Selection of leadership style (or leader) may need to vary depending on various factors:

Maturity of the team or individuals in the team,

Risk profile of the project or the organisation where decision making and change

initiatives are based on degree of risk involved,

Type of business creative business or supply driven?

How important is the change: is it change for changes sake or vital to the welfare of the

organisation?

How complex is the change: organizational culture may be long embedded and difficult

to change,

Nature of the task needing cooperation? Direction? Structure? (Yukl, 2002).

Leader behaviors may vary, depending on the maturity of the team (Hersey et al., 2001).

Leaders may have to vary styles of team leadership throughout the development of project

objectives depending on the level of skills and motivation of the team. This also takes into

consideration the changing nature of the team structure and how a team forms and adapts.

The behaviors defined in situational leadership are also a combination of task (directing) and

relationship (supporting) behaviors. Directing behaviors help the team through the provision of

instructions, detail, clear roles and responsibilities. Supporting behaviors encourage team


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contributions in decision-making and completion of the more complex tasks within the project,

through praise, listening and helping the team solve problems related to the work. The behaviors

are applied according to the leaders assessment of the teams competency and commitment, and

often the assessment of each individual in the team. The behaviors of situational leadership are

classified as follows (Yukl, 2002):

Directing (telling): Clear instructions for team or others,

Coaching (selling): Talking and listening. Helps team build confidence and motivation,

Supporting (participating): Team members still need active assistance for shared

decisions,

Delegating (autonomous): Team members have some responsibilities for planning and

decisions.

Figure 5 Situational leadership adapted from Hersey et al., (2001)


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Effective leaders understand that they will need to vary their leadership style to meet the needs of

their followers and the needs of the project. The Blake and Mouton Leadership Grid and the

Hersey and Blanchard Leadership Style Grid provide guidance for leaders who wish to improve

the effectiveness of their teams. They are both focussed on the recognition that a leaders role

will need to be both task-oriented and relationship-oriented at different times or for different

teams. Ultimately the message is that there is noone best wayto be a leader and effectiveness

depends on so many aspects from personality, to a focus on specific leadership styles and

behaviors.

Authentic Leadership

In reaction to loss of trust in political and business leaders and the perception of absence of

ethical decision-making, the concept of authenticity in leadership is emerging in the literature.

An authentic leader is one who is:

Self-aware,

Compassionate, honorable,

Ethical and authentic.

This type of leader behaves ethically and exhibits strong positive personal values, with courage

to lead and do the right thing. While recognising that sometimes difficult decisions must be made

regarding the success of the project, the leader will act with compassion and with regard to the

emotional well-being of followers and other stakeholders.

Beddoes-Jones, (2012) has summarized the qualities of authentic leadership into three pillars:

Self-awareness: understanding ones own strengths and weaknesses


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Ethics: operating with fairness, openness and trust

Self-regulation: discipline, flexibility and resilience

Authentic leadership in practice may mean asking and answering two basic questions

(Northouse, 2013): What is really going on? And what are we going to do about it?

Seeking the answers to these two questions within the framework of Beddoes-Jones (2012), will

provide guidance for how to do authentic leadership.5Whatever approach is used it is

important to remember that developing authentic leadership approaches is about life-long

learning and development.

Table 2 three pillars of authentic leadership (Beddoes-Jones, 2012)

5This chapter is intended to provide an overview of approaches to leadership that will be useful for those leaders

seeking to improve. There are some more detailed frameworks described that may prove useful for potential leadersseeking more detail. Two of these frameworks are the Authentic Action Wheel developed by Robert Terry (Terry,

1993) and the Authentic Leadership Approach (George, 2003).


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Conclusion

In this chapter the foundation theories of management and leadership were discussed. While it is

not intended to be a complete survey of all theories, there is a significant representative sample

included to form the basis for developing a personal management and leadership style. The most

important theme of leadership is that there is no one best way to lead or manage, and so by

understanding the origin and the application of the various theories a project manager can adapt

to any situation.

References

Bass, B., M. (1985).Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectation. New York: Macmillan.

Bass, B. M. (1985).Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations,: Free Press, New York.

Beddoes-Jones, F. (2012). Authentic Leadership: the key to building trust.

www.peoplemanagement.co.uk, August, 2012.

Blake, R. R., & Mouton, J. S. (1964). The Managerial Grid: the key to leadership excellence.Houston: Gulf Publishing.

Crainer, S. (2003). One Hundred Years of Management.Business Strategy Review, 14(2), 41 -

49.

George, B. (2003).Authentic Leadership: rediscovering the secrets to lasting value. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Goldman, L. R. (1990). An alternative "description of personality": The big-five factor structure.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1216-1229.

Hersey, P., Blanchard, K., & Johnson, D. E. (2001).Management of Organizational Behaviour

(7th ed.). London: Prentice Hall International.

Herzberg, F. (1987). One More Time: How do you motivate employees? In H. B. School (Ed.),

On Managing People(pp. 29 - 50): Harvard Business School

Katzenbach, J., R, & Smith, D., K. (1993). The Wisdom of Teams: Creating the HIgh-

Performance Organization. Boston, Massachusetts: Harvard Business School Press.


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McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal.American

Psychologist, 52, 509-516.

Morrell, M., & Capparell, S. (2001). Shackleton's Way: Leadership Lessons from the Great

Antarctic Explorer. London: Nicholas Brearly.

Northouse, P., G. (2013).Leadership: Theory and Practice: ebook downloaded October, 2013

Owen, J. (2012). The Leadership Skills Handbook(2nd ed.). London: Kogan Page.

Terry, R. W. (1993).Authentic Leadership: Courage in Action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Thompson, L. (2011).Making the Team: a Guide for Managers. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Yukl, G. (2002).Leadership in Organisations(5th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Documents

Ch 3 Leadership Theories Draft