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Guided effort leads to a bright futureUTUT

IX-XII

CBSE ICSE

State

Entrance

X - ICSE - HISTORY & CIVICSVOLUME 1

Table of Contents

Volume 1 of 2 Universal Tutorials – X ICSE – History

Table of Contents – History I: THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1857-1917) ............................................................ 1

CHAPTER 1: THE FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1857) ........................................................................ 1 Introduction: ............................................................................................................................... 1 Causes of the First War of Independence .................................................................................. 2

Political: ................................................................................................................................ 2 Socio-Religious: .................................................................................................................... 4 Economic: ............................................................................................................................. 5 Military: ................................................................................................................................. 7

Consequence of the First War of Independence ........................................................................ 9 End of the Company’s Rule: ................................................................................................. 9 Queen Victoria’s Proclamation: ............................................................................................. 9 End of Mughals and Peshwas: ........................................................................................... 10 Change in relations with Princely States: ............................................................................ 10 Policy of Divide and Rule: ................................................................................................... 10 Racial Antagonism: ............................................................................................................. 10 Foreign Policy: .................................................................................................................... 10 Religious Changes: ............................................................................................................. 11 Changes in the Army: ......................................................................................................... 11 Economic Exploitation: ....................................................................................................... 11 Rise of Nationalism: ............................................................................................................ 11 Widening of the Gulf between Hindus and Muslims: ........................................................... 12 Solved Exercise: ................................................................................................................. 12 Previous Year’s Board Question: ........................................................................................ 17 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ..................................................................... 19 Work Sheet: ........................................................................................................................ 20

CHAPTER 2: GROWTH OF NATIONALISM .............................................................................................. 21 Introduction: ............................................................................................................................. 21 Factors Promoting Growth of Nationalism ............................................................................... 21

Economic Exploitation: ....................................................................................................... 21 Repressive Colonial Policies: .............................................................................................. 22 Socio-Religious Reform Movements: .................................................................................. 23 Role of the Press: ............................................................................................................... 24

Foundation of the Indian National Congress ............................................................................ 25 Indian National Association (1876) ..................................................................................... 25 East India Association (1866) ............................................................................................. 25

The Indian National Congress ................................................................................................. 26 Immediate Objectives: ........................................................................................................ 26 First two Sessions of the Congress and their Presidents: ................................................... 26 Solved Exercise: ................................................................................................................. 27 Previous Year’s Board Question: ........................................................................................ 32 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ..................................................................... 36 Work Sheet ......................................................................................................................... 37

CHAPTER 3: FIRST PHASE OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1885–1907) ..................................... 38 Introduction: ............................................................................................................................. 38 Objectives: ............................................................................................................................... 39 Methods of Struggle: ................................................................................................................ 39

First Set of Methods: ........................................................................................................... 39 Second Set of Methods: ..................................................................................................... 39

Contribution of Early Nationalist Leaders: ................................................................................ 39 Dadabhai Naoroji (1825–1917) ........................................................................................... 39

Universal Tutorials – X ICSE – History Volume 1 of 2

Surendranath Banerjee (1848–1925) .................................................................................. 40 Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866–1915) .................................................................................. 41 Solved Exercise: ................................................................................................................. 42 Previous Year’s Board Question: ........................................................................................ 44 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ..................................................................... 44 Work Sheet ......................................................................................................................... 45

CHAPTER 4: SECOND PHASE OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905–1916) ................................. 47 Introduction: ............................................................................................................................. 47 Partition of Bengal: .................................................................................................................. 47

Causes: .............................................................................................................................. 47 Perspective by the Nationalists: .......................................................................................... 48

Surat Split of 1907 ................................................................................................................... 48 The Assertive Nationalists: ...................................................................................................... 49

Objectives: .......................................................................................................................... 49 Methods: ............................................................................................................................. 49

Contributions of Assertive Nationalists ..................................................................................... 51 Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856 – 1920) .................................................................................... 51 Bipin Chandra Pal (1856 – 1932) ........................................................................................ 51 Lala Lajpat Rai (1865–1928) ............................................................................................... 52 Solved Exercise: ................................................................................................................. 53 Previous Year’s Board Question: ........................................................................................ 55 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ..................................................................... 58 Work Sheet ......................................................................................................................... 59

CHAPTER 5: THE MUSLIM LEAGUE AND THE LUCKNOW PACT -1916 ..................................................... 61 The Formation of the Muslim League: ..................................................................................... 61

Factors Leading to the Formation of the Muslim League .................................................... 61 Objectives of the Muslim League: ....................................................................................... 64

The Lucknow Pact: .................................................................................................................. 64 Significance of the Lucknow Pact: ...................................................................................... 65 Solved Exercise: ................................................................................................................. 65 Previous Year’s Board Question: ........................................................................................ 67 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ..................................................................... 68 Work Sheet ......................................................................................................................... 69

II. MASS PHASE OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1915-1947) ........................................ 71 CHAPTER 6: MAHATMA GANDHI AND THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT .......................................................... 71

Non–Cooperation Movement: .................................................................................................. 72 Causes: .............................................................................................................................. 72 Programmes: ...................................................................................................................... 73 Suspension: ........................................................................................................................ 74 Impact of the Non-Cooperation Movement: ........................................................................ 74

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1934)............................................................................. 75 Causes: .............................................................................................................................. 75 Dandi March ....................................................................................................................... 77 The Programme of the Movement: ..................................................................................... 77 Gandhi-Irwin Pact: .............................................................................................................. 77 Second Round Table Conference (Sept. 7 to Dec. 1, 1931) : ............................................. 78 Impact of the Civil Disobedience Movement: ...................................................................... 78 Solved Exercise: ................................................................................................................. 78 Previous Year’s Board Question: ........................................................................................ 80 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ..................................................................... 84 Work Sheet ......................................................................................................................... 85

CHAPTER 7: QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT ................................................................................................... 87

Table of Contents


Causes: ................................................................................................................................... 87 Failure of the Cripps’ Mission: ............................................................................................. 87 Japanese Threat: ................................................................................................................ 87

Quit India Resolution: .............................................................................................................. 88 Significance: ............................................................................................................................ 88

Solved Exercise: ................................................................................................................. 88 Previous Year’s Board Question: ........................................................................................ 89 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ..................................................................... 92 Work Sheet ......................................................................................................................... 92

CHAPTER 8: FORWARD BLOC AND THE INA ........................................................................................ 94 Forward Bloc ........................................................................................................................... 94

Objectives ........................................................................................................................... 94 Indian National Army (INA) ...................................................................................................... 94

Objectives ........................................................................................................................... 95 Contribution of Subhash Chandra Bose ................................................................................... 95

Solved Exercise: ................................................................................................................. 95 Previous Year’s Board Question: ........................................................................................ 96 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ..................................................................... 97 Work Sheet ......................................................................................................................... 97

CHAPTER 9: INDEPENDENCE AND PARTITION OF INDIA ......................................................................... 99 Cabinet Mission Plan ............................................................................................................. 100

Clauses ............................................................................................................................ 100 Mountbatten Plan: .................................................................................................................. 101

Clauses:............................................................................................................................ 101 Acceptance: ...................................................................................................................... 102

The Indian Independence Act, 1947 ...................................................................................... 102 Clauses ............................................................................................................................ 102 Solved Exercise: ............................................................................................................... 104 Previous Year’s Board Question: ...................................................................................... 105 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ................................................................... 108 Work Sheet ....................................................................................................................... 108

III. THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD ................................................................................... 110 CHAPTER 10: THE FIRST WORLD WAR ............................................................................................. 110

Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 110 The First World War ............................................................................................................... 110

Causes ............................................................................................................................. 110 Results: ............................................................................................................................ 112 Solved Exercise: ............................................................................................................... 114 Previous Year’s Board Question: ...................................................................................... 115 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ................................................................... 120 Work Sheet ....................................................................................................................... 120

CHAPTER 11: RISE OF DICTATORSHIPS ............................................................................................. 122 The Rise of Fascism in Italy ................................................................................................... 122

Causes ............................................................................................................................. 123 The Rise of Nazism in Germany ............................................................................................ 124

Causes ............................................................................................................................. 124 A Comparative Study: ............................................................................................................ 126

Mussolini’s Fascist and Hitler’s Nazi Ideologies: ............................................................... 126 Solved Exercise: ............................................................................................................... 126 Previous Year’s Board Question: ...................................................................................... 128 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ................................................................... 130


Work Sheet ....................................................................................................................... 130 CHAPTER 12: THE SECOND WORLD WAR ......................................................................................... 132

Introduction: ........................................................................................................................... 132 The World War II: ................................................................................................................... 132

Causes: ............................................................................................................................ 132 Spread of the War............................................................................................................. 135 Consequences: ................................................................................................................. 135 Solved Exercise: ............................................................................................................... 138 Previous Year’s Board Question: ...................................................................................... 139 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ................................................................... 142 Work Sheet ....................................................................................................................... 142

CHAPTER 13: UNITED NATIONS ........................................................................................................ 144 Introduction: ........................................................................................................................... 144 United Nations: ...................................................................................................................... 144

Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 144 Organs of the United Nations ............................................................................................ 145 Solved Exercise: ............................................................................................................... 148 Previous Year’s Board Question: ...................................................................................... 149 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ................................................................... 151 Work Sheet ....................................................................................................................... 152

CHAPTER 14: MAJOR AGENCIES OF THE UNITED NATIONS ................................................................. 154 Introduction: ........................................................................................................................... 154 Major Agencies of the United Nations: ................................................................................... 154

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF): ....................................................................... 154 World Heath Organisation (WHO): ................................................................................... 155 United Nations Educational, Scientific And Cultural Organisation: .................................... 156 Solved Exercise: ............................................................................................................... 157 Previous Year’s Board Question: ...................................................................................... 158 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ................................................................... 159 Work Sheet ....................................................................................................................... 160

CHAPTER 15: NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT .......................................................................................... 162 Non-Aligned Movement ......................................................................................................... 162

Meaning ............................................................................................................................ 162 Objectives: ........................................................................................................................ 162 Panchsheel: ...................................................................................................................... 162 Role of Jawaharlal Nehru ................................................................................................. 163 Architects of NAM: ............................................................................................................ 164 Solved Exercise: ............................................................................................................... 164 Previous Year’s Board Question: ...................................................................................... 165 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ................................................................... 167 Work Sheet ....................................................................................................................... 167

Table of Contents

Volume 1 of 2 Universal Tutorials – X ICSE – Civics

Table of Contents – Civics THE UNION LEGISLATURE ..................................................................................... 169

CHAPTER 1: THE UNION PARLIAMENT ............................................................................................ 169 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 169 Federal Setup in India ............................................................................................................ 170

Importance of Federal Set–Up .......................................................................................... 170 The Union Legislature: ........................................................................................................... 170

The Lok Sabha: ................................................................................................................ 170 The Rajya Sabha ................................................................................................................... 173

Composition ...................................................................................................................... 173 Qualifications of Membership ............................................................................................ 173 Election ............................................................................................................................. 173 Term ................................................................................................................................. 173 Presiding Officer: .............................................................................................................. 174

Powers and Functions of the Union Parliament ..................................................................... 174 Legislative Powers: ........................................................................................................... 174 Financial Powers: ............................................................................................................. 174 Judicial Powers: ................................................................................................................ 174 Electoral Functions: .......................................................................................................... 174 Amendment of the Constitution: ........................................................................................ 174 Control over Executive: ..................................................................................................... 175

Exclusive powers of the Two Houses .................................................................................... 175 Exclusive Powers of Rajya Sabha .................................................................................... 175 Exclusive powers of the Lok Sabha .................................................................................. 175 Solved Exercise: ............................................................................................................... 175 Previous Year’s Board Question: ...................................................................................... 183 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ................................................................... 192 Work Sheet ....................................................................................................................... 193

THE UNION EXECUTIVE .......................................................................................... 195 CHAPTER 2: THE PRESIDENT AND THE VICE PRESIDENT .................................................................. 195

The President ........................................................................................................................ 195 Qualifications for Election ................................................................................................. 195 Composition of the Electoral College of the President ...................................................... 195 Reason for Indirect Election .............................................................................................. 196 Term of Office ................................................................................................................... 196 Procedure for Impeachment of the President.................................................................... 196 Powers of the President .................................................................................................... 196

The Vice President ................................................................................................................ 198 Qualifications for Election: ................................................................................................ 198 Term of Office ................................................................................................................... 198 Powers of the Vice President ............................................................................................ 198 Solved Exercise: ............................................................................................................... 198 Previous Year’s Board Question: ...................................................................................... 204 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ................................................................... 207 Work Sheet ....................................................................................................................... 208

CHAPTER 3: PRIME MINISTER AND COUNCIL OF MINISTERS ............................................................. 210 The Prime Minister ................................................................................................................. 210

Appointment ..................................................................................................................... 210

Universal Tutorials – X ICSE – Civics Volume 1 of 2

Position and Powers of the Prime Minister ....................................................................... 210 Council of Ministers ............................................................................................................... 211

The Cabinet ...................................................................................................................... 212 Collective and Individual Responsibility of the Members of the Cabinet ................................. 213 Distinguish between the Council of Ministers and the Cabinet: .............................................. 213

Solved Exercise: ............................................................................................................... 213 Previous Year’s Board Question: ...................................................................................... 219 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ................................................................... 223 Work Sheet: ...................................................................................................................... 223

THE JUDICIARY ........................................................................................................ 225 CHAPTER 04: THE SUPREME COURT .............................................................................................. 225

The Supreme Court ............................................................................................................... 225 Composition: ..................................................................................................................... 225 Qualifications of Judge: .................................................................................................... 225 Appointment: .................................................................................................................... 225 Term of Office: .................................................................................................................. 225 Independence of Judiciary from the control of Executive and Legislature: ........................ 226 Jurisdiction and Functions of The Supreme Court ............................................................ 226 Solved Exercise: ............................................................................................................... 228 Previous Year’s Board Question: ...................................................................................... 232 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ................................................................... 236 Work Sheet: ...................................................................................................................... 237

CHAPTER 05: THE HIGH COURTS AND SUBORDINATE COURTS ........................................................ 238 High Court ............................................................................................................................. 238

Composition ...................................................................................................................... 238 Qualifications of Judge ..................................................................................................... 238 Appointment of High Court Judges ................................................................................... 238 Jurisdiction and Functions of High Court .......................................................................... 239

Subordinate Courts ................................................................................................................ 239 Distinction between Court of the District Judge and Session Court: ................................. 239 Lok Adalat: ........................................................................................................................ 240 Solved Exercise: ............................................................................................................... 240 Previous Year’s Board Question: ...................................................................................... 243 Review Exercise - Class Work / Home Work: ................................................................... 246 Work Sheet ....................................................................................................................... 247

Syllabus


SYLLABUS-2018 There will be one paper of two hours duration carrying 80 marks and an Internal Assessment of

20 marks. The paper will be divided into two parts, Part I and Part II. Part I (30 marks) will contain short answer questions set from the entire syllabus. Candidates will be required to answer all questions. Part II (50 marks) will consist of Section A and Section B. Candidates will be required to answer

two out of three questions from Section A and three out of five questions from Section B. The sections will correspond to the sections indicated in the syllabus.

Section A: Civics

1) The Union Legislature: a) Meaning of the federal setup in India

b) Lok Sabha: Term, composition, qualifications for membership. i) Parliamentary procedures: A brief idea of sessions, quorum, question hour, adjournment

and no–confidence motion. ii) Speaker: Election and function.

c) Rajya Sabha: Composition, qualifications for membership, election, term, Presiding Officer. d) Powers and functions of Union Parliament: (legislative, financial, judicial, electoral,

amendment of the Constitution, control over executive) e) Exclusive power of the two Houses. 2) The Union Executive: a) The President: election, term of office, powers. Qualifications for election, composition of Electoral College, reason for indirect election, term

of office, procedure for impeachment. Powers - Executive, legislative, financial, judicial, discretionary and emergency. Position of

the President in a Parliamentary setup. b) The Vice-President: Qualifications for election, term of office and powers. c) Prime Minister and Council Ministers: Appointment, formation of Council of Ministers,

tenure, functions - Policy making, administrative, legislative, financial, emergency. Position and powers of the Prime Minister. Collective and individual responsibility between Council of Ministers and Cabinet.

3) The Judiciary: a) The Supreme Court: Composition, qualification of judges, appointment, independent of judiciary from control of

executive and legislature; Powers of the Supreme Court; Jurisdiction and functions; Original, Appellate, Advisory, Revisory, Judicial Review and Court of Record, Enforcement of Fundamental Rights and Writs.

b) The High Courts: Composition, qualifications of judges, appointment, Jurisdiction and functions; Original,

Appellate, Revisory, Judicial Review, Court of Record. Enforcement of Fundamental Rights and Writs.

c) Subordinate Courts: Distinction between Courts of the District Judge and Sessions Courts. Lok Adalats: Meaning and advantages.


Section B: History

I) The Indian National Movement (1857-1917): 1) The First War of Independence, 1857 Only the causes (political, socio-religious, economic and military) and consequences will be

tested. [The events, however need to be mentioned in order to maintain continuity and for a more comprehensive understanding.]

2) Factor Leading to the Growth of Nationalism: economic exploitation, repressive colonial policies, socio-religious reform movements (brief

mention of contribution of Raja Rammohan Roy and Jyotiba Phule), and role of the Press. Foundation of the Indian National Congress – The Indian National Association (Surendranath

Banerjee) and the East India Association (Dadabhai Naoroji) as precursors. Immediate objectives of the Indian National Congress. The first two sessions and their presidents should be mentioned.

3) First Phase of the Indian National Movement (1885–1907): Objectives and methods of struggle of the Early Nationalists. Any two contributions of

Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee and Gopal Krishna Gokhale. 4) Second Phase of the Indian National Movement (1905-1916): Brief mention of the causes of the Partition of Bengal and its perspective by the Nationalists.

Brief mention of Surat Spolit of 1907, objectives and methods of struggle of the Radicals. Any two contributions of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai.

5) The Muslim League: Factors leading to the formation of the Muslim League and objectives.

Brief mention of the significance of Lucknow Pact – 1916. II) Mass Phase of the National Movement (1915-1947): 6) Mahatma Gandhi and the National Movement: causes (Khilafat Movement, Rowlatt Act,

Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy), programme and suspension, Chauri Chaura incident, and impact of the Movement;

7) Quit India Movement: the Civil Disobedience Movement causes (Reaction to the Simon

Commission, Declaration of Poorna Swaraj at the Lahore Session of 1929), Dandi March, programme and impact of the movement, Gandhi-Irwin Pact and the Second Round Table Conference; the Quit India Movement causes (failure of Cripps Mission, Japanese threat), Quit India Resolution and the significance of the Movement.

8) Forward Bloc and The INA: Forward Bloc (Objectives and contribution of Subhas Chandra

Bose). 9) Independence and Partition of India: Cabinet Mission Plan, (clauses, responses of the

Congress and the Muslim League), Mountbatten Plan (clauses and its acceptance) and the Indian Independence Act of 1947 (clauses only).

Syllabus


III) The Contemporary World: 10) The First World War:

Causes (Militant Nationalism, Armament Race, Division of Europe and Sarajevo Crisis) and results (Treaty of Versailles, Territorial rearrangements, Formation of League of Nations).

11) Rise of Dictatorships:

Causes for the rise of Fascism in Italy and the rise of Nazism in Germany. A comparative study of Fascist and Nazi ideologies.

12) The Second World War:

Causes (Dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles, Rise of Fascism and Nazism, Policy of Appeasement, Japanese invasion of China, Failure of League of Nations and Hitler’s invasion of Poland). Brief mention of the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Consequences (Defeat of Axis Powers, Formation of the United Nations and Cold War)

13) United Nations:

The purpose, objectives and principles of the UN. The composition and functions of the General Assembly, Security Council, and the

International Court of Justice. 14) Major agencies of the United Nations: UNICEF WHO and UNESCO - functions only. 15) Non-Aligned Movement:

Brief meaning, Objectives, Panchsheel, Role of Jawaharlal Nehru, Name of the Architects of NAM.

Chapter 1: The First War of Independence (1857) 1

Volume 1 of 2 Universal Tutorials – X ICSE – History 1

I: The Indian National Movement (1857-1917) .

Chapter 1: The First War of Independence (1857) .

Introduction: The first hundred years of British rule in India i.e. from 1757 to 1857, were marked by British

conquests and rapid expansion of their dominion in India. The combined effect of British expansionist policies, economic exploitation and administrative

changes adversely affected all segments of Indian society. The ruling classes were dispossessed of their power; the peasantry was deprived of its land

rights; and the artisans lost their livelihood. The middle and upper-classes of Indian society, particularly in northern India, were annoyed

because of their exclusion from the well-paid higher posts in the administration. Men who followed cultural or religious activities, like priests and scholars, found themselves

without income as they lost their patrons; the Indian rulers, princes and zamindars; who had themselves lost their authority. The company’s Indian soldiers were discontent with their low pay, hard life and the ill-treatment meted out to them by the British officers.

→ Introduction

→ Causes of the First War of Independence

→ Political

→ Socio-Religious

→ Economic

→ Military

→ Consequences of the First War of Independence

→ End of the Company’s Rule

→ Queen Victoria’s Proclamation

→ End of the Mughals and Peshwas

→ Change in relations with Princely States

→ Policy of Divide and Rule

→ Racial antagonism

→ Foreign Policy

→ Religious changes

→ Changes in the Army

→ Economic exploitation

→ Rise of Nationalism

→ Widening of the Gulf between Hindus and Muslims

2

2 Universal Tutorials – X ICSE – History Volume 1 of 2

Thus, by 1857, conditions were ripe for a mass uprising and the accumulated grievances of the people burst forth in the form of the First War of Independence.

Causes of the First War of Independence Political:

The political reasons which antagonised the Indian rulers were the following:

Policy of Expansion: Since the Battle of Plassey (June 1757), the East India Company’s territorial power

increased rapidly. The British tried to expand their political power in India four ways, i.e. by outright wars, by

the system of Subsidiary Alliance, by adopting the Doctrine of Lapse and on the pretext of alleged misrule.

By Outright Wars: To expand their territorial power in India and to safeguard their economic and political

interests the British waged many wars. The Battle of Buxar (1764) established the British as masters of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. As a result of their success in Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767 to 1799), the East India Company

annexed most of the territories of the Mysore State. After the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-18), the Peshwa’s entire dominions and all

Maratha territory north and south of the Narmada River were acquired by the British. The Punjab was annexed in 1849 after the Sikhs were defeated in the Second Anglo-Sikh

War. From 1823 to 1856, the British further extended their empire by conquering Sindh, territories

of Assam, Arakan and Tenasserim and Pegu in Myanmar.

By Subsidiary Alliance: Some Indian States were brought under the British control without actually annexing them.

This was done by following the Subsidiary Alliance, introduced by Lord Wellesley. Under this system, the Indian rulers, who agreed to the Subsidiary Alliance -

accepted the British as the supreme power; surrendered their foreign relations to the East India Company and agreed that they

would not enter into any alliance with any other power and would not wage wars; accepted a British Resident at their headquarters and agreed not to a employ any

European in their service without consulting the Company; agreed to maintain British troops at their own cost; and virtually lost their independence.

By 1856, practically all the Indian States had either been annexed or had entered into alliances with the Company.

The British had become the supreme power and the Indian princes were reduced to puppets.

By Using the Doctrine of Lapse: Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India, annexed many Indian States to the

Company using the Doctrine of Lapse.



According to this Doctrine, heirs adopted without the consent of the Company, could inherit only the private property of the deceased ruler, and not his territory, which would come under the Company’s rule.

When the ruler of Jhansi died in 1853, leaving no natural heir, the widowed Rani was pensioned and their adopted son, Anand Rao, was not recognised as a lawful successor to the throne.

The other prominent States which became victims to the Doctrine were Satara, Jaitpur, Sambalpur, Udaipur and Nagpur.

The principle of Lapse was also applied to take away the titles and pensions of the rulers of some States. Regal titles of the Nawabs of Carnatic and Tanjore were taken away. This caused discontent among the rulers as well as among the people in general.

On the Pretext of Alleged Misrule: In 1856, Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh to the Company’s dominions on the pretext of

alleged misrule. The annexation of Awadh was arbitrary as the British seemed to have broken their promises

made to the ruling chiefs. This caused resentment among the Indians in general and Awadh in particular. Lord Dalhousie justified the annexation of Awadh on the pretext of “the good of the

governed.” But the people of Awadh, on the contrary, had to face more hardships. They had to pay higher land revenue and additional taxes on food, houses, ferries and justice.

The dissolution of the Nawab of Awadh’s army and administration threw thousands of nobles, officials and soldiers out of jobs. The British confiscated the estates of the taluqdars or zamindars. The dispossessed taluqdars became the opponents of the British rule.

The company’s sepoys, of whom 75,000 were from Awadh, were the worst affected. These soldiers had helped the British to conquer the rest of India. But they did not like that their homelands should come under the foreign sway. The annexation of Awadh also affected the soldier’s financial position. They had to pay higher taxes on the land their families held in Awadh.

Disrespect Shown to Bahadur Shah: Bahadur Shah Zafar, the Mughal ruler, was under the protection of the Company and

received a pension from the British. In 1849, Lord Daihousie announced that successors of Bahadur Shah Zafar would not be

permitted to use the Red Fort as their palace. They were required to shift to a place near the Qutab Minar.

In 1856, Lord Canning announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah, his successors would not be allowed to use the imperial titles with their names and would be known as mere princes.

This decision of the British hurt the feelings of the Muslims. Consequently, Zeenat Mahal, the wife of Bahadur Shah, began plotting against them.

Treatment Given to Nana Saheb and Rani Laxmi Bai: Nana Saheb was the adopted son of Baji Rao II, the last Peshwa. The British refused to

grant Nana Saheb the pension they were paying to Baji RaoII. Nana Saheb was forced to live at Kanpur, far away from his family seat at Poona. This was widely resented in the Maratha region.

Nana Saheb had inherited wealth from the former Peshwa, which he utilised in sending emissaries to different parts of the country for generating awareness among the Indians about the British policies.

4


Rani Laxmi Bai of Jhansi, who became the victim of the Doctrine of Lapse, became a bitter enemy of the British as her adopted son was not accepted as the heir to the throne.

Absentee Sovereignty of the British: Absentee Sovereignty means that India was being ruled by the British government from

England, at a distance of thousands of miles. Absentee Sovereignty of the British rule was resented by the Indians.

The earlier rulers like the Mughals, who had conquered India, had in course of time, settled in India. The revenues they collected from the Indians were spent in India only.

But in the case of Britain, the Indians felt that they were being ruled from England and India’s wealth was being drained to England and not utilised for their welfare.

Socio-Religious: The British government’s attempt to interfere in the social and religious life of the Indians led to

the widespread fear among the masses.

Interference with Social Customs: Some of the social reforms introduced by the British in India were aimed at improving the

conditions of the people.

However, while introducing such reforms the feelings of the people were not taken into consideration.

The result was that the reforms like the abolition of Sati (1829), the introduction of the Widow Remarriage Act (1856) and the opening of Western education to girls were not welcomed by the masses.

Policy of Racial Discrimination: The British officers were rude and arrogant towards the Indians.

They believed that they were superior to Indians and followed a policy of contempt towards the Indians.

They dubbed the Muslims as cruel and unfaithful. Some European officers ill-treated and insulted Indians.

Such acts of unjust discrimination alienated the British from the Indian masses.

Activities of Missionaries: The British were different from Indians in race, religion and sentiments.

In the 18th century, the British showed a friendly attitude towards Indian religions.

They had no particular zeal for their own religion and the Company even acted as a trustee of some Hindu temples.

However, in the 19th century, this attitude underwent a change. The British began to interfere with the local religious and social customs.

They denounced idol worship and dubbed local beliefs as ignorance.

After 1813, there was an increase both in the numbers and activities of the Christian missionaries.

The Indians thought that the Government was supporting missionaries who would convert them to Christianity.



Taxing Religious Places: Religious sentiments of the Indians were hurt by the official policy of taxing lands belonging

to temples and mosques. Such lands had been exempted from taxation by previous Indian rulers.

The families dependent on these lands, began to propagate that the British were trying to undermine the religions of India.

Apprehensions about Modern Innovations: The introduction of modern innovations such as railways and telegraphs was misunderstood

by the people. There were rumours that the telegraph poles were erected to hang people who were against

the British rule. Similarly, the orthodox Indians noted that in the railway compartments the higher castes

and the lower castes were made to sit side by side. They believed that the British had introduced such practices to defy their caste and religion.

Fears Regarding Western Education: The Western system of education was introduced in a number of schools. In 1829, the Bengal Government established an English class in the Calcutta Madrasa,

which was a Muslim institution. Later, English classes were introduced in Benaras Sanskrit College. The shifting of emphasis from oriental learning to Western education was not received well

by the people, especially the Pandits and the Maulvis. They saw in it an attempt to discourage traditional Islamic and Hindu studies.

People started suspecting that the aim of Western education was not to promote literature and sciences but to encourage their children to become Christians.

Law of Property: The Religious Disabilities Act of 1850 changed the Hindu Law of Property. It enabled a

convert from Hinduism to other religions to inherit the property of his father. The Hindus regarded this as an incentive to give up one’s religious faith.

Oppression of the Poor: The complex judicial system enabled the rich to oppress the poor. Flogging, torture and imprisonment of cultivators for their inability to pay arrears of rent, land

revenue and interest on debt were quite common. Thus, the growing poverty made the poor desperate and led them to join a general uprising

in the hope of improving their lot.

Economic: The most important reason for the popular discontent was the economic exploitation by the

British. The economic exploitation took the following forms:

Exploitation of Economic Resources: Agricultural India was made an economic colony to serve the interests of industrial England. India was forced to export, at cheaper rates, raw materials like raw cotton and raw silk that

the British industries needed urgently; plantation products (like indigo and tea); and food grains which were in short supply in Britain.

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India was made to accept readymade British goods either duty-free or at nominal duty rates, while Indian products were subjected to high import duties in England.

The Indian handmade goods were unable to compete with the cheaper, machine-made British products. This ruined the Indian industry, deprived the artisans of their income and reduced the avenues of employment for labour.

On the other hand, export of raw materials and food grains deprived India of her agricultural surplus and raised the prices of raw materials.

Thus, the change in the nature of India’s trade became an instrument for exploiting India’s resources.

Drain of Wealth: Till the Battle of Plassey (1757), the European traders used to bring gold into India to buy

Indian cotton and silk. However, after the conquest of Bengal, the British stopped getting gold into India.

They began to purchase raw material for their industries in England from the surplus revenues of Bengal and profits from duty-free inland- trade.

Thus, began the process of plundering India’s raw materials, resources and wealth by Britain.

The transfer of wealth from India to England for which India got no proportionate economic return, is called the Drain of Wealth.

The drain included the salaries, incomes and savings of Englishmen, the British expenditure in India on the purchase of military goods, office establishment, interest on debts, unnecessary expenditure on the army, etc.

Decay of Cottage Industries and Handicrafts: Heavy duties on Indian silk and cotton textiles in Britain destroyed Indian industries. On the other hand, British goods were imported into India at a nominal duty. By the middle of the 19th century, export of cotton and silk goods from India practically

ceased. The art of spinning and weaving, which for ages had given employment to thousands of

artisans, became extinct. The misery of the artisans was compounded by the disappearance traditional patrons and

buyers – the chieftains and zamindars.

Economic Decline of Peasantry: The peasants were discontent with the official land revenue policy and the consequent loss

of their land. In fact, it was the peasantry that bore the heavy burden of taxes to provide money for the

trade of the Company, for the cost of administration and the wars of British expansion in India.

For example, in Bengal, the land revenue was double the amount collected under the Mughals. Not even a part of this revenue was spent on the development of agriculture or on the welfare of the cultivator.

Increase in the land revenue forced many peasants into indebtedness or into selling their lands.

The traditional zamindars were replaced by merchants and moneylenders. These new landowners had no concern for the peasants.

They pushed rents to exorbitant levels and evicted their tenants in case of non-payment. The economic decline of the peasants affected cultivation and led to many famines.



Decline of Landed Aristocracy: The landed aristocracy which included the taluqdars and the hereditary landlords were

deprived of their estates. According to the provisions of the Inam Commission (1852), 20,000 estates were

confiscated when the landlords failed to produce evidence like title-deeds by which they held the land.

These confiscated lands were sold by public auction to the highest bidders. Such estates were usually purchased by merchants and moneylenders who did not understand the needs of the tenants and exploited them.

This drove the landed aristocracy to poverty without benefitting the peasantry which suffered under the weight of exorbitant land revenue.

Growing Unemployment: The traditional rulers had given financial support to scholars, preachers and men of arts. The

coming of the British led to the decline of such rulers and gradually their patronage came to an end.

Thus, all those who depended on their patronage were impoverished. When the native States were annexed to the British dominion, thousands of soldiers and

officials in administrative, military and judicial posts became unemployed because British policies excluded Indians from high posts.

All these people became bitter enemies of the British rule in India.

Inhuman Treatment of Indigo Cultivators: Indigo trade was highly profitable to the British but the conditions under which the peasants

had to work were inhuman. The peasants were forced to cultivate only indigo in the fields chosen by the British planters. If they planted anything else, their crops were destroyed, and their cattle were carried off as

punishment.

Poverty and Famines: British economic exploitation, decay of indigenous industries, high taxation, the drain of

wealth, stagnation of agriculture and exploitation of the poor peasants reduced the Indians to extreme poverty.

Famines ravaged the country in the second half of the 19th century. There were twelve major and numerous minor famines between 1765 and 1857.

The famines were the result of drought, other natural calamities as well as bad administration.

The British government did nothing to lessen people’s misery.

Military: Several factors contributed to the change in the attitude of the Indian soldiers towards the

Company. These included the following:

Ill-treatment of Indian Soldiers: The East India Company established the British Empire in India with the help of Indian

soldiers. Despite the fact that Indian soldiers were as efficient as their British counterparts, they were

poorly paid, ill-fed and badly housed.

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British military authorities forbade the sepoys from wearing caste or sectarian marks, beards or turbans; and they showed disregard for the sentiments of the sepoys.

Bleak Prospects of Promotions: All higher positions in employment were reserved for the British, irrespective of their

performance. Even the Indian soldiers formerly occupying high positions in the armies of native princes

could not rise above the rank of a Subedar. The future of the Indian soldiers was bleak without chances of promotions.

Deprivation of Allowances and Lower salaries: The extension of British dominion in India adversely affected the service conditions of the

sepoys. They were required to serve in areas away from their homes without extra payment and

additional Bhatta (foreign service allowance). The Post Office Act of 1854 withdrew the privilege of free postage enjoyed by sepoys. The wages of the Indian soldiers were inadequate to support their families. On the other hand, the British soldiers received more than eight times the salary of the

Indian soldiers.

Faulty Distribution of Troops: Places of strategic importance like Delhi and Allahabad had no British armies and were

wholly held by the Indian soldiers. Besides, England was engaged in several wars outside India, e.g., the Persian (Iranian)

War, the Crimean War and the Chinese War. Indian soldiers had the feeling that the British were in difficulty and the safety of her Indian

empire depended on them. They were, therefore, determined to strike.

General Service Enlistment Act: According to traditional belief, it was a taboo for a Brahmin to cross the seas. The British Parliament passed the General Service Enlistment Act’ in 1856. As per this Act,

Indian soldiers could be sent overseas on duty. The Act did not take into account the sentiment of the Indian soldiers. The Brahmin soldiers

saw in this a danger to their caste. This led to a feeling of resentment among them.

Larger Proportion of Indians in the British Army: The number of British troops in India was never very large with the British in the ratio as low

as one in four thousand. Dalhousie had recommended that more British soldiers should be recruited in the army. This could not come through. Thus, it made it easier for the large number of Indian soldiers to take up arms against the

British.

Poor Performance of British Troops: The British army suffered major reverses in the First Afghan War (1838-42), in the Punjab

Wars (1845-49) and in the Crimean War (1853-56). In 1855-56, the Santhal tribesmen of Bihar and Bengal armed with axes and bows rose up

against the British, temporarily sweeping away the British rule from their area.



Though the British suppressed the Santhal Uprising, the disasters they suffered broke the myth that the British were invincible.

It further revealed to the Indian soldiers that the British army could be defeated by the determined Indian army.

Immediate cause of the Revolt of 1857 In 1856 the government decided to replace the old fashioned musket brown Bess by the

Enfield Rifle. Jho loading process of the ER involved brining the cartridge to the mouth and biting off the

top greased paper with the teeth. In January 1857 a rumour spread in the Bengal regiments that the greased cartridge

contained the fat of pig or cow The pig is forbidden to Muslims and the cow is sacred to Hindus so the sepoys were now

convened that the introduction of a greased cartridges was a deliberate move to defile Hindu and Muslim religion

This sparked off the mutiny.

Consequence of the First War of Independence Even though the uprising of 1857 was suppressed, it shook the British rule in India to its very

foundation. It brought about far reaching effects on Indian socio-political life. These were:

End of the Company’s Rule: The most significant result of the uprising of 1857 was the end of the rule of the East India

Company and assumption of the Government of India directly by the Crown. This was done by the Government of India Act of 1858 which had the following provisions:

It transferred the power to govern India from the East India Company to the British Crown. While the authority over India was earlier in the hands of the Directors of the Company and

the Board of Control, now the power was to be exercised by the Secretary of State for India, aided by a Council.

The Secretary of State was a member of the British Cabinet and was responsible to the Parliament.

Thus, the ultimate power over India remained with the British Parliament. The Secretary of State was to be assisted by a 15-member India Council. Seven of them

were to be elected by the Court of Directors and rests of the eight members were to be appointed by the Crown. Of these, more than half of the members were to be persons who had served or resided in India for at least 10 years.

Secretary of State’s salary and allowances were to be paid out of the revenues of India. Actual governance was to be carried on, as before, by the Governor-General who was also

given the title of Viceroy or Crown’s personal representative. Lord Canning was the first Viceroy under this Act.

Appointments to the Civil Service were to be made by open competition under rules made by the Secretary of State.

Queen Victoria’s Proclamation: The Queen’s Proclamation incorporating the transfer of governance from East India Company

to the British Crown was made public at Allahabad, on November 1, 1858, by Lord Canning, the first Viceroy of India.

The proclamation promised that the Government of India would:

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follow a policy of non-intervention in social and religious matters of Indians; treat all subjects – Indians and Europeans – as equals (education and ability would be the

basis of all appointments); grant a general pardon to all those who had taken part in the War except those who were

found guilty of murder of British subjects; do its best to advance the industries in India; and promote works of public utility in India so as to ensure the material as well as the moral

progress of the people.

End of Mughals and Peshwas: With the death of Bahadur Shah II, who was deported to Yangon, the Mughal dynasty came to

an end. Nana Saheb, the last Peshwa, had taken an active part in the uprising and had fled to Nepal

after the failure of the uprising. So the office of the Peshwa also came to an end. Thus, ended two of the most formidable foes of the British – the Marathas and the Mughals.

Change in relations with Princely States: The Policy of Annexation and the Doctrine of Lapse were abandoned. Some of the Indian

princes had remained loyal to the British and had helped them in suppressing the uprising. Their loyalty was rewarded with the announcement that their right to adopt heirs would be

respected and the integrity of their territories guaranteed against future annexation. In 1876, Queen Victoria assumed the title of the “Empress of India.” The Indian princes willingly became junior partners or agents of the British Crown because

they were promised that they would continue as rulers of their States.

Policy of Divide and Rule: After 1858, the British continued their policy of ‘divide and rule’ by turning the princes against

the people, province against province, caste against caste, group against group and above all, Hindus against Muslims.

They alienated the people from their rulers by giving them special protections and concessions. The Government cleverly used the attractions of government service to create a split along

religious lines among the educated Indians. The British also encouraged hatred and ill-feeling among the Hindus and the Muslims so that

they could never challenge the British Empire in India.

Racial Antagonism: The British believed in their racial superiority and they thought that a social distance was to be

maintained to preserve their authority over the Indians. Railway compartments, parks, hotels, clubs, etc., reserved for ‘Europeans only’ were visible

manifestations of this racialism.

Foreign Policy: India’s foreign policy was dictated by the interests of the British Government. It fulfilled the two aims of the British\

protection of its Indian Empire; and expansion of British economic and commercial interests in Asia and Africa.

The cost of implementation of these policies was borne by the Indians.



Religious Changes: The British rulers declared emphatically their policy of non-interference in the religious affairs,

customs and traditions of the Indians.

Changes in the Army: The Indian army was reorganised after 1858, to prevent the reoccurrence of another uprising,

in the following manner: The strength of European troops in India was increased. The ratio of European to Indian

troops was fixed at 1:2 (Bengal army) and 2:5 (Madras and Bombay armies). Practically the same ratio was maintained till the First World War. The general principle adopted was that the number of Indian sepoys should not exceed twice that of the European troops.

European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions. The earlier policy of excluding Indians from the officer corps was strictly maintained. To desist the Indian soldiers from rising again against the British rule, the sophisticated

weapons and ammunition were never placed under the charge of Indians. All Indian artillery units, with the exceptions of a few mountain units, were disbanded. Discrimination on the basis of caste, region and religion was practised in the recruitment to

the army. The organisation of the Indian section of the army was based on the policy of ‘balance and

counterpoise’ or ‘divide and rule’ so as to prevent another anti-British uprising. In order to discourage nationalism, measures such as introduction of caste and community

in most regiments were taken. Newspapers, journals and nationalist publications were prevented from reaching the soldiers

to keep the Indian army separated from the life of the rest of the population.

Economic Exploitation: The uprising of 1857 ended the era of territorial expansion and ushered in the era of economic

exploitation in the following manner: India was turned into a typical colonial economy, exporting raw material and importing

finished goods. The salary and allowances of the Secretary of State and members of the India Council, the

civil servants and military officers were a large drain on the country’s resources. Peasants were impoverished under the British rule. The indigo peasants of Bihar revolted on

a large scale in 1866-68. Rural artisan industries such as handicrafts, spinning and weaving collapsed. The Indians had to pay heavy interests and dividends on the British capital invested in India.

The British invested their surplus capital in India in railways, plantations, coalmines, jute mills, shipping, etc.

Rise of Nationalism: The uprising of 1857 was the first struggle of the Indian people for freedom from British

imperialism. It paved the way for the rise of the national movement. The sacrifices made by revolutionaries like Rani Laxmi Bai, Nana Saheb and Mangal Pandey

served as a source of inspiration for the future freedom fighters. The heroic struggle also established valuable traditions of resistance to the British rule.

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Widening of the Gulf between Hindus and Muslims: During the First War of Independence, both the Hindus and the Muslims showed great

enthusiasm and zeal to fight against the alien government. But after the uprising, the gulf between the two communities widened. This was the

consequence of the British policy of ‘Divide and Rule’ by which they sowed the seeds of dissension between the two communities.

It was a deliberate attempt so that the two communities might never come together to pose a threat to the British rule in India.

SOLVED EXERCISE:

Short Answers: (2 Marks) 1) Name any two States that fell victim to Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse?

Ans: The prominent States to fall Victim to the Doctrine were Satara, Jhansi and Nagpur. 2) What was people’s reaction to the introduction of railways in the mid 1850s?

Ans: In railway compartment people of all castes had to sit together. This was regarded as an attempt to interfere with the caste-rules.

3) What were people’s apprehensions regarding the introduction of telegraph service in India?

Ans: There were a rumours that the telegraph poles would be used for hanging people who were against Company’s rule in India.

4) What was the main grouse of the Rani of Jhansi against the British? Ans: When the ruler of Jhansi died in 1853 leaving no child, the widowed Rani was pensioned. Their

adopted son, Anand Rao, was not recognized as a lawful successor to the throne. The application of the Doctrine of Lapse caused discontentment not only among the rulers, but also among the people in general.

5) How did the indignities hurled at Indians alienate the British from the Indian masses? Ans: The British officers were rude and arrogant towards the Indians. They believed that they were

superior to Indians and followed a policy of contempt towards the Indians. They dubbed the Muslims as cruel and unfaithful. Some European officers ill-treated and insulted Indians. Such acts of unjust discrimination alienated the British from the Indian masses.

6) What were people’s fears regarding the introduction of Western Education? Ans: Shifting of emphasis from oriental learning to Western education was not well received by the

people, especially the Pandits and Maulvis. They saw in it an attempt to discourage Hindu and Islamic studies. There was also the fear that the object was not so much the promotion of literature and science as inducing the people to become Christians.

7) How did the British rulers cripple Indian handicrafts? What were its consequences? Ans: Heavy duties on Indian silk and cotton textiles in Britain destroyed Indian industries. On the other

hand, British goods were imported into India at a nominal duty. By the middle of the 19th century, export of cotton and silk goods from India practically ceased. The art of spinning and weaving, which for ages had given employment to thousands of artisans, became extinct. The misery of the artisans was compounded by the disappearance traditional patrons and buyers – the chieftains and zamindars.

8) What did the British do to reduce the landed aristocracy to poverty? Ans: The landed aristocracy which included the taluqdars and the hereditary landlords were deprived

of their estates. According to the provisions of the Inam Commission (1852), 20,000 estates were confiscated when the landlords failed to produce evidence like title-deeds by which they held the land. These confiscated lands were sold by public auction to the highest bidders. Such estates were usually purchased by merchants and moneylenders who did not understand the



needs of the tenants and exploited them. This drove the landed aristocracy to poverty without benefitting the peasantry which suffered under the weight of exorbitant land revenue.

9) Mention any two grievances harboured by the Indian soldiers which created an atmosphere favourable to the Great Uprising of 1857.

Ans: i) Ill-treatment of Indian soldiers: The East India Company established the British Empire in India with the help of Indian soldiers. Despite the fact that Indian soldiers were as efficient as their British counterparts, they were poorly paid, ill-fed and badly housed. British military authorities forbade the sepoys from wearing caste or sectarian marks, beards or turbans; and they showed disregard for the sentiments of the sepoys.

ii) General Services Enlistment Act: According to traditional belief, it was a taboo for a Brahmin to cross the seas. The British Parliament passed the General Service Enlistment Act’ in 1856. As per this Act, Indian soldiers could be sent overseas on duty. The Act did not take into account the sentiment of the Indian soldiers. The Brahmin soldiers saw in this a danger to their caste. This led to a feeling of resentment among them.

10) What advantages did the Indian soldiers have because of disproportion between Indian and British troops in 1857?

Ans: The number of British troops in India was never very large with the British in the ratio as low as one in four thousand. Dalhousie had recommended that more British soldiers should be recruited in the army. This could not come through. Thus, it made it easier for the large number of Indian soldiers to take up arms against the British.

11) What impact did the poor performance of the British Troops have on the morale of the Indian soldiers?

Ans: The British army suffered major reverses in the First Afghan War (1838-42), in the Punjab Wars (1845-49) and in the Crimean War (1853-56). In 1855-56, the Santhal tribesmen of Bihar and Bengal armed with axes and bows rose up against the British, temporarily sweeping away the British rule from their area. Though the British suppressed the Santhal Uprising, the disasters they suffered broke the myth that the British were invincible. It further revealed to the Indian soldiers that the British army could be defeated by the determined Indian army.

12) What assurance did the Queen’s Proclamation of 1858 give to the Indian people regarding (a) religious freedom, and (b) appointment to public offices?

Ans: a) Queen Victoria in her Proclamation of 1858 promised not to interfere with the religious beliefs of the people of India.

b) The Queen also promised equal treatment to all her subjects, Indians and Europeans. All appointment, declared the Queen, would be strictly on the basis of education, ability and integrity.

Long Answers: (3 & 4 Marks) 13) Using the following points explain the causes which led to the First War of Independence

in 1857: a) British policy of Annexation (territorial expansion) b) Treatment meted out to the Mughal Emperor and Nana Saheb Ans: Political Causes: It was but natural that the expansion of British dominion would cause uneasiness throughout

India. The discontent arose from many factors: a) The Doctrine of Lapse: Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India, annexed many

Indian States to the Company using the Doctrine of Lapse. According to this Doctrine, heirs adopted without the consent of the Company, could inherit only the private property of the deceased ruler, and not his territory, which would come under the Company’s rule. When the ruler of Jhansi died in 1853, leaving no natural heir, the widowed Rani was pensioned and their adopted son, Anand Rao, was not recognised as a lawful successor to the throne. The

14


other prominent States which became victims to the Doctrine were Satara, Jaitpur, Sambalpur, Udaipur and Nagpur. The principle of Lapse was also applied to take away the titles and pensions of the rulers of some States. Regal titles of the Nawabs of Carnatic and Tanjore were taken away. This caused discontent among the rulers as well as among the people in general.

The rulers of Indian States believed that their States were annexed not by the application of Doctrine of Lapse but due to the ‘lapse of all morals’ on the part of the British.

Annexation of Awadh: In 1856, Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh to the Company’s dominions on the pretext of alleged misrule. The annexation of Awadh was arbitrary as the British seemed to have broken their promises made to the ruling chiefs. This caused resentment among the Indians in general and Awadh in particular.

Lord Dalhousie justified the annexation of Awadh on the pretext of “the good of the governed.” But the people of Awadh, on the contrary, had to face more hardships. They had to pay higher land revenue and additional taxes on food, houses, ferries and justice.

The dissolution of the Nawab of Awadh’s army and administration threw thousands of nobles, officials and soldiers out of jobs. The British confiscated the estates of the taluqdars or zamindars. The dispossessed taluqdars became the opponents of the British rule.

The company’s sepoys, of whom 75,000 were from Awadh, were the worst affected. These soldiers had helped the British to conquer the rest of India. But they did not like that their homelands should come under the foreign sway. The annexation of Awadh also affected the soldier’s financial position. They had to pay higher taxes on the land their families held in Awadh.

In fact, Awadh played a major role in the uprising of 1857. b) Disrespect Shown to Bahadur Shah: Bahadur Shah Zafar, the Mughal ruler, was under the

protection of the Company and received a pension from the British In 1849, Lord Daihousie announced that successors of Bahadur Shah Zafar would not be

permitted to use the Red Fort as their palace. They were required to shift to a place near the Qutab Minar.

In 1856, Lord Canning announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah, his successors would not be allowed to use the imperial titles with their names and would be known as mere princes. This decision of the British hurt the feelings of the Muslims. Consequently, Zeenat Mahal, the wife of Bahadur Shah, began plotting against them

Treatment Given to Nana Saheb: Nana Saheb was the adopted son of Baji Rao II, the last Peshwa. The British refused to grant Nana Saheb the pension they were paying to Baji Rao II. Nana Saheb was forced to live at Kanpur, far away from his family seat at Poona. This was widely resented in the Maratha region. Nana Saheb had inherited wealth from the former Peshwa, which he utilised in sending emissaries to different parts of the country for generating awareness among the Indians about the British policies. Nana Saheb travelled between Delhi and Lucknow to gather support for the movement.

14) Social and religious causes were also at work in causing the great upsurge of 1857. In this context briefly describe:

a) Interference with Social Customs b) Oppression of the Poor c) Activities of Missionaries Ans: Socio-religious and Causes: Social and religious factors were also at work in causing uneasiness among the people. a) Interference with Social Customs: Some of the social reforms introduced by the British in

India were aimed at improving the conditions of the people. However, while introducing such reforms the feelings of the people were not taken into consideration. The result was that the reforms like the abolition of Sati (1829), the introduction of the Widow Remarriage Act (1856) and the opening of Western education to girls were not welcomed by the masses.



b) Oppression of the Poor: The complex judicial system enabled the rich to oppress the poor. Flogging, torture and imprisonment of cultivators for their inability to pay arrears of rent, land revenue and interest on debt were quite common. Thus, the growing poverty made the poor desperate and led them to join a general uprising in the hope of improving their lot.

c) Activities of Missionaries: The British were different from Indians in race, religion and sentiments. In the 18th century, the British showed a friendly attitude towards Indian religions. They had no particular zeal for their own religion and the Company even acted as a trustee of some Hindu temples. However, in the 19th century, this attitude underwent a change. The British began to interfere with the local religious and social customs. They denounced idol worship and dubbed local beliefs as ignorance.

After 1813, there was an increase both in the numbers and activities of the Christian missionaries. The Indians thought that the Government was supporting missionaries who would convert them to Christianity.

15) Economic exploitation of the country caused grave discontent that culminated in the Great Uprising of 1857. Examine this factor with reference to the following:

a) Decay of Cottage Industries and Handicrafts b) Economic Decline of Peasantry Ans: a) Decay of Cottage Industries and Handicrafts: Heavy duties on Indian silk and cotton

textiles in Britain destroyed Indian industries. On the other hand, British goods were imported into India at a nominal duty. By the middle of the 19th century, export of cotton and silk goods from India practically ceased. The art of spinning and weaving, which for ages had given employment to thousands of artisans, became extinct.

The misery of the artisans was compounded by the disappearance of traditional patrons and buyers – the chieftains and zamindars.

b) Economic Decline of Peasantry: The peasants were discontent with the official land revenue policy and the consequent loss of their land. In fact, it was the peasantry that bore the heavy burden of taxes to provide money for the trade of the Company, for the cost of administration and the wars of British expansion in India. For example, in Bengal, the land revenue was double the amount collected under the Mughals. Not even a part of this revenue was spent on the development of agriculture or on the welfare of the cultivator. Increase in the land revenue forced many peasants into indebtedness or into selling their lands. The traditional zamindars were replaced by merchants and moneylenders. These new landowners had no concern for the peasants. They pushed rents to exorbitant levels and evicted their tenants in case of non-payment. The economic decline of the peasants affected cultivation and led to many famines.

16) The discontent against the British Raj was by no means confined to the civil population, but also extended to the Indian section of the Company’s Army. In this context briefly describe:

a) Ill-treatment of Indian Soldiers b) Larger Proportion of Indians in the British Army c) Faulty Distribution of Troops Ans: Military Causes: Several factors contributed to the change in the attitude of the Indian soldiers

towards the Company. These included the following: a) Ill-treatment of Indian Soldiers: The East India Company established the British Empire in

India with the help of Indian soldiers. Despite the fact that Indian soldiers were as efficient as their British counterparts, they were poorly paid, ill-fed and badly housed. British military authorities forbade the sepoys from wearing caste or sectarian marks, beards or turbans; and they showed disregard for the sentiments of the sepoys.

b) Larger Proportion of Indians in the British Army: The number of British troops in India was never very large with the British in the ratio as low as one in four thousand. Dalhousie

16


had recommended that more British soldiers should be recruited in the army. This could not come through. Thus, it made it easier for the large number of Indian soldiers to take up arms against the British.

c) Faulty Distribution of Troops: Places of strategic importance like Delhi and Allahabad had no British armies and were wholly held by the Indian soldiers. Besides, England was engaged in several wars outside India, e.g. the Persian (Iranian) War, the Crimean War and the Chinese War. Indian soldiers had the feeling that the British were in difficulty and the safety of her Indian empire depended on them. They were, therefore, determined to strike.

17) Describe the consequences of the First War of Independence with reference to the following:

a) Changes introduced in the Administrative Set-up of the British territories in India b) Foreign Policy c) Changes in the Army d) Relations with Princely States Ans: Consequences of the War: Even though the uprising of 1857 was suppressed, it shook the

British rule in India to its very foundation. It brought about far reaching effects on Indian socio-political life. These were:

a) End of Company’s Rule: The most significant result of the uprising of 1857 was the end of the rule of the East India Company and assumption of the Government of India directly by the Crown. This was done by the Government of India Act of 1858 which had the following provisions:

i) It transferred the power to govern India from the East India Company to the British Crown. ii) While the authority over India was earlier in the hands of the Directors of the Company

and the Board of Control, now the power was to be exercised by the Secretary of State for India, aided by a Council. The Secretary of State was a member of the British Cabinet and was responsible to the Parliament. Thus, the ultimate power over India remained with the British Parliament.

iii) The Secretary of State was to be assisted by a 15-member India Council. Seven of them were to be elected by the Court of Directors and rest of the eight members were to be appointed by the Crown. Of these, more than half of the members were to be persons who had served or resided in India for at least 10 years.

iv) Secretary of State’s salary and allowances were to be paid out of the revenues of India. v) Actual governance was to be carried on, as before, by the Governor-General who was

also given the title of Viceroy or Crown’s personal representative. Lord Canning was the first Viceroy under this Act.

vi) Appointments to the Civil Service were to be made by open competition under rules made by the Secretary of State.

b) Foreign Policy: India’s foreign policy was dictated by the interests of the British Government. It fulfilled the two aims of the British – (a) protection of its Indian Empire; and (b) expansion of British economic and commercial interests in Asia and Africa

The cost of implementation of these policies was borne by the Indians. For instance, India under the British had to wage wars with her neighbours like Nepal and Burma (Myanmar) in which Indian soldiers had to shed their blood and the Indian taxpayers had to meet the heavy cost of the war.

c) Changes in the Army: The Indian army was reorganised after 1858, to prevent the reoccurrence of another uprising, in the following manner:

i) The strength of European troops in India was increased. The ratio of European to Indian troops was fixed at 1:2 (Bengal army) and 2:5 (Madras and Bombay armies). Practically



the same ratio was maintained till the First World War. The general principle adopted was that the number of Indian sepoys should not exceed twice that of the European troops.

ii) European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions. iii) The earlier policy of excluding Indians from the officer corps was strictly maintained. iv) To desist the Indian soldiers from rising again against the British rule, the sophisticated

weapons and ammunition were never placed under the charge of Indians. All Indian artillery units, with the exceptions of a few mountain units, were disbanded.

v) Discrimination on the basis of caste, region and religion was practised in the recruitment to the army. The organisation of the Indian section of the army was based on the policy of ‘balance and counterpoise’ or ‘divide and rule’ so as to prevent another anti-British uprising.

vi) In order to discourage nationalism, measures such as introduction of caste and community in most regiments were taken.

vii)Newspapers, journals and nationalist publications were prevented from reaching the soldiers to keep the Indian army separated from the life of the rest of the population.

d) Relations with Princely States: The Policy of Annexation and the Doctrine of Lapse were abandoned. Some of the Indian princes had remained loyal to the British and had helped them in suppressing the uprising. Their loyalty was rewarded with the announcement that their right to adopt heirs would be respected and the integrity of their territories guaranteed against future annexation. In 1876, Queen Victoria assumed the title of the “Empress of India.” The Indian princes willingly became junior partners or agents of the British Crown because they were promised that they would continue as rulers of their States.

18) Examine the results of the First War of Independence with reference to the following: a) Economic Exploitation. b) Rise of Nationalism. Ans: a) Economic Exploitation: The uprising of 1857 ended the era of territorial expansion and

ushered in the era of economic exploitation in the following manner: i) India was turned into a typical colonial economy, exporting raw material and importing

finished goods. ii) The salary and allowances of the Secretary of State and members of the India Council,

the civil servants and military officers were a large drain on the country’s resources. iii) Peasants were impoverished under the British rule. The indigo peasants of Bihar revolted

on a large scale in 1866-68. iv) Rural artisan industries such as handicrafts, spinning and weaving collapsed. v) The Indians had to pay heavy interests and dividends on the British capital invested in

India. The British invested their surplus capital in India in railways, plantations, coalmines, jute mills, shipping, etc.

b) Rise of Nationalism: The uprising of 1857 was the first struggle of the Indian people for freedom from British imperialism. It paved the way for the rise of the national movement. The sacrifices made by revolutionaries like Rani Laxmi Bai, Nana Saheb and Mangal Pandey served as a source of inspiration for the future freedom fighters. The heroic struggle also established valuable traditions of resistance to the British rule.

PREVIOUS YEAR’S BOARD QUESTION:

1) Explain the causes of the Great Revolt of 1857 with reference to the following: [2016] a) Any three political causes. b) Any three military causes. c) Any four economic causes. Ans: Causes of the Revolt of 1857: a) Political Causes:

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Doctrine of Lapse: Lord Dalhousie successfully annexed many Indian states to the English East India Company. This was done by using the provisions of the Doctrine of Lapse. This led to extreme resentment among the successors of rulers who died without a natural heir.

Policy of Expansion: The British authorities annexed many independent Indian states on one pretext or the other. As a result, the Company became the supreme ruling power in India and the rest of the ruling class became mere puppets in their hands.

Annexation of Awadh: On 13 February 1856, Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh to the Company’s territories. This was done under the pretext of alleged misrule by the Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. However, this led to a lot of resentment among the ruling elite of Awadh and the Indian sepoys working under the East India Company.

b) Military Causes: Ill-treatment of Indian soldiers: The East India Company discriminated the Indian sepoys.

They were poorly paid, ill-fed and badly housed against their Europion counterparts. They were forbidden from wearing any caste or sectarian marks, beads or turbans. As a result, there was resentment among the Indian troops.

General Service Enlistment Act: The General Service Enlistment Act of 1856 required Indian soldiers to be sent overseas for deployment if required. However, traditionally, it was a taboo for Brahmins to cross the seas. Hindus reacted negatively to this decision which was taken in complete disregard to their religious beliefs.

Larger Proportion of Indians in the British Army: In 1856, the Company army had 2,38,000 Indians and 45,322 British soldiers. Dalhousie had recommended the recruitment of more British troops, but it was not done at that point of time. As a result, it became easier for the rebelling Indian troops to overwhelm their British colleagues.

c) Economic Causes: Exploitation of Economic Resources: Under British rule, India was turned into an exporter of

raw materials such as raw cotton, raw silk, indigo, tea and food grains. British goods were brought in either duty free or at nominal duty rates. On the other hand, Indian products were subjected to high import duties in England. Indian handmade goods were not in a position to compete with machine-made British goods. This resulted in the ruin of Indian industry, unemployment among artisans, reduction in agricultural surplus and a steep increase in the price of raw materials.

Drain of Wealth: Till the Battle of Plassey (1757), the British brought gold into India to buy Indian cotton and silk. However, after the conquest of Bengal, the purchase was done with the surplus revenue from Bengal profits acquired from duty-free inland trade. This unilateral transfer of wealth from India to England is called the ‘Drain of Wealth’. The drain included the salaries, incomes and savings of the Englishmen, British expenditure in India on military goods, office establishments, and interest on debts and military expeditions.

Decay of Cottage Industries and Handicrafts: Because of the British policy of preferential treatment to British businesses, Indian industries were gradually destroyed. By the middle of the 19th century, export of cotton and silk goods had practically ceased. The misery of the unemployed artisans was further complemented by the disappearance of their traditional patrons and buyers, i.e. the princes, chieftains and zamindars.

Inhuman Treatment of Indigo Cultivators: Indigo cultivation had proved to be extremely beneficial for the British planters. However, the conditions of work were horrible for the Indian peasants. They were forced to plant only indigo on their lands, and if they disobeyed, their crops would be destroyed and cattle confiscated as punishment.

2) What impact did the uprising of 1857 have on the Mughal rule? [2016] Ans: By 1857, the Mughal dynasty had already been rendered irrelevant by the British political

domination. The Mughal Emperor had become a mere titular ruler of Delhi and the real power was held by the English East India Company officials. After the 1857 rebellion was unsuccessful, Bahadur Shah Zafar was deported to Yangon and the Mughal dynasty officially came to an end.



3) Mention two administrative changes that the British Government brought about regarding the East India Company’s rule in India. [2015]

Ans: The two administrative changes which the British government brought about regarding the East India Company’s rule in India are as follows:

i) It was declared that the administration of the British colony in India would be removed from the English East India Company and that India would be governed directly by and in the name of the Queen of England.

ii) The Office of the Secretary of State was created which would exercise all the powers earlier vested in the Court of Directors or the Board of Control.

4) State any two political causes responsible for the First War of Independence. [2014] Ans: Two political causes responsible for the First War of Independence are: i) The introduction of the Doctrine of Lapse by Lord Dalhousie. This doctrine imposed an

unsentimental law of ‘no adoption policy’ for rulers and in the absence of a natural heir the kingdom would fall into the hands of the British.

ii) Introduction of the British policy of annexation of kingdoms under the pretext of inefficient administration of the rulers.

5) What was the General Service Enlistment Act? [2013] Ans: According to traditional belief, it was a taboo for a Brahmin to cross the seas. The British

Parliament passed the General Service Enlistment Act’ in 1856. As per this Act, Indian soldiers could be sent overseas on duty. The Act did not take into account the sentiments of the Indian soldiers. The Brahmin soldiers saw in this a danger to their caste. This led to a feeling of resentment among them.

6) What was Nana Saheb’s grievance against the British? [2012] Ans: Nana Saheb was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. Lord Dalhousie refused to accept Nana

Saheb as the ruler of Marathas and stopped his pension. This was the main grievance of Nana Saheb against the British.

7) Mention any two ways the army was reorganized after the First War of Indian Independence. [2008]

Ans: The Indian army was reorganised after 1858, to prevent the reoccurrence of another uprising, in the following manner:

i) The strength of European troops in India was increased. The ratio of European to Indian troops was fixed at 1:2 (Bengal army) and 2:5 (Madras and Bombay armies). Practically the same ratio was maintained till the First World War. The general principle adopted was that the number of Indian sepoys should not exceed twice that of the European troops.

ii) Discrimination on the basis of caste, region and religion was practised in the recruitment to the army. The organisation of the Indian section of the army was based on the policy of ‘balance and counterpoise’ or ‘divide and rule’ so as to prevent another anti-British uprising.

REVIEW EXERCISE - CLASS WORK / HOME WORK:

1) Why did the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ become a political cause of the result of 1857? 2) With reference to the British rule in India, mention two economic factors which became the

causes of the First War of Independence 1857. 3) What was Nana Saheb’s grievance against the British? 4) What was the General Service Enlistment Act? 5) Although the First War of Independence of 1857 failed it had important consequences for India.

In this context, answer the following questions: a) How did the uprising give rise to nationalism in India? b) State how the British Government tried to pacify the feelings of Indians with regard to: i) their religious practices; ii) the Princely States c) How did the end of the East India Company’s rule bring in grave economic perils in India?

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WORK SHEET:

1) When and on what grounds was Awadh annexed to the Company’s dominions? Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

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2) Name any two acts (Laws) that interfered with the religion and customs of the people? Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

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3) What was the main provision of the General Service Enlistment Act of 1856? Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

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4) What was the result of the First War of Indian Independence as far as East India Company was concerned?

Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 5) Who became the first Viceroy of India under the Act of 1858?

Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

6) What assurance was given to the Indian princes by Queen Victoria in her Proclamation of 1858?

Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

7) What impact did the uprising of 1857 have on the Mughal rule and Peshwaship? Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 8) How did the War of 1857 continue to inspire Indians in their struggle against the British

Raj? OR

How can we say that First War of Independence was an important landmark in India’s struggle against the British Raj?

Ans: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

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