Central and South Africa - Ms. Hou's AP World …€¦ · Kingdoms of Central and South Africa In the savanna and plains of central Africa, rivers such as the Kwango ... These interior

Keywordscowry

manikongo

Essential Questions• Whatsimilaritiesanddifferencesemergedamongthekingdomsof

centralandsouthernAfrica?

• WhatsocialandgenderstructuresemergedinAfricankingdoms,empires,andcity-states?

• HowdidChristianityandIslamreachAfrica?

• WhatAfricanreligiousdevelopmentstookplaceamongthepeoplesofsub-SaharanAfrica?

• HowdidtheriseofIslamserveasaunifyingculturalforceinsub-SaharanAfrica?

• WhatwerethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenEuropeanandsub-SaharancontactswiththeIslamicworld?

Central and South Africa

Unit 4, Lesson 19

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Kingdoms of Central and South AfricaInthesavannaandplainsofcentralAfrica,riverssuchastheKwangoandZambezicutthroughthegeography.Severalpowerfulcity-statesformed,suchastheKongoandZimbabwekingdoms.BantumigrationsreachedtheZambeziRiverbythefifthcentury.Byabout1200C.E.,BantumigrationshadestablishedsettlementsacrosscentralandsouthernAfrica.TheseinteriorsettlementsweremostlyuntouchedbyIslam,whichremainedconcentratedinthetradingcentersofthetrans-SaharanandIndianOceantraderoutes.After1000C.E.,manyofthecentralandsouthernAfricansettlementsbegantoformlargerstates.

Acrosssub-SaharanAfrica,communitieswerebuiltonkinshipnetworks.Kinshipnetworksreliedonasenioritysysteminwhichacouncilofmaleheadsoffamiliesledthecommunity,andtheheadofthemostprominentfamilywaschiefofthecom-munity.Thechiefdealtwithanymattersthatarosewithneighboringcommunities.

Inlargerstates,thiskinshipsystemgavewaytokingshipsastherulingauthor-ity.Kingshipsruledbymaintainingcontroloftheirterritory,andritualsemergedtounderscoretheruler’spower.InKatanga,forexample,therulerandhisfamilywerebelievedtoholdfertilitypowersforpeopleandcrops.Asaresult,rulingpowerwassecuredwithinonefamily,asthespecialpowerwaspassedonlythroughbloodlines.

InmodernAngola,bothKongoandNdongoemergedaslargekingdomsbyabout1400.Duringthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,manyBantukingdomsformedinthepresent-daynationsofZaire,Uganda,Zambia,andAngola.These

Set the StageThe elaborate medieval structures throughout sub-Saharan Africa testify of the wealth, power, and organization that many African states wielded at one time. Many of the distinctive beaten clay mosques of the Mali Empire, such as the mosque in Jenne, remain in use today. In Ethiopia, Christian churches still stand that were carved out of solid volcanic rock. Among the ruins of Swahili city-states such as Kilwa stand coral stone mosques with dramatic columns and arches. The ruins of the capital city of Great Zimbabwe in the interior of the continent reveal an extensive network of stone palaces and mosques within the city walls.

These religious structures reveal the integration of Islam and Christianity into African culture. They also stand as reminders of the particular way that sub-Saharan converts took these foreign faiths and blended them into traditional African religious beliefs. The Mali rulers brought Muslim architects to design mosques, but these new mosques did not mimic those in the rest of the Islamic world. Instead, a unique style of mosque made of beaten clay emerged in the empire. The carved Christian churches in Ethiopia were derived directly from the traditional African practice of worshipping at rock shrines. Throughout sub-Saharan Africa, converts took their new religion and wove it into their existing belief system.

Unit 4, Lesson 19 2


centralAfricankingdomsincludedLubaandLunda,whichwerebasedalongtheupperCongobasinandconductedtradeonbothAfrica’swestandeastcoasts.InKatangainthesouthernpartofZaire,thekingdomofKazembehadanagriculturaleconomyanddidnotencounterdifficultyuntilthemidnineteenthcentury.Withitsart,music,anddancing,thekingdomofKazembeaddedconsiderablytoAfricanculture.IntheeasternregionofcentralAfrica,thekingdomsofBuganda,Rwanda,andBurundigrewupinthehighlandsaroundLakeVictoriaandLakeTanganyika.

Kingdom of KongoAmongthemostcentralizedoftheBantukingdomswasthekingdomofKongo,whichbegannear1375C.E.,whentherulersofthekingdomsofMpembaKasiandMbatamadeapoliticalalliancetojointogether.Therulersjoinedtheirheirlinestocreateanewlineofsuccessionthatclaimedbothrulingfamiliesasancestors.LukeniluaNimiroseastherulerinthisnewlyjoinedrulingline.Around1400,LukeniluaNimifoundedthekingdomofKongowhenheconqueredthekingdomofMweneKabunga,whichfurtherexpandedthenewkingdom’srealm.

ThekingdomofKongothrivedbythelate1400s,encompassingmuchofmod-ernAngolaandRepublicofCongo.Kongoreliedprimarilyonagriculture,butasthekingdomprospered,weavers,potters,carvers,andblacksmithsmadeadditionalgoodsfortheeconomy.Menclearedland,hunted,madepalmoilandwine,builtstructures,andconductedlong-distancetrade.Womencultivatedcrops,tendedtothedomesticanimals,andwereinchargeofdomesticworkandchildrearing.InthecoastalregionsofKongo,womenalsomadesaltfromseawaterandcollectedcowries,whichweretheIndianOceanseashellsusedasthekingdom’scurrency.

Kongowasruledbyaking,calledamanikongo,alongwithotherofficialswhodirectedmilitary,legal,andeconomicaffairs.Bytheearlysixteenthcentury,theareaaroundthecapitalcityofMbanzaKongohadapopulationofbetween60,000and100,000people.Outsideofthisregion,thekingdomwasmadeupofsmallvillagesofextendedfamilies,whichwerestillledbychiefs.Theking’sauthoritywashereditary,whilethechiefs’powerwasnot.

Withinthekingdomweresixprovinces,andthekingappointedagovernortoleadeachprovince.Eachoftheseprovinceswasmadeupofseveraldistricts,andthegovernorswereinchargeofthelocalauthoritiesthatoversawthedistricts.TheextensivekingdomofKongowashighlyorganizedwithcentralizedpower,whichwasunusualforBantukingdomsoftheera.

ThePortuguesearrivedbyseatothecoastofWestAfricain1471andopenedupanewavenuefortradeforWestandcentralAfricankingdoms.PortuguesetradersestablishedrelationshipswiththekingdomsofBeninandKongo,bringingcopper,brass,finecloth,glassbeads,andhorsesinexchangeforpepper,ivory,andslaves.TheleadersofBeninandKongoallowedPortugueseChristianmissionariesaswellasalliedPortuguesesoldiersintheirkingdoms.

ThemanikongoofKongosentrepresentativestoPortugalin1485andcreatedaroyalmonopolyontradewithPortuguesemerchants.Christianmissionariescon-vertedKongo’srulerandotherstotheirfaith,andthemanikongomadeCatholicismtheofficialreligionofthekingdomofKongo.ContinueddivisionsbetweenChris-tiansandthosewhopracticedtraditionalAfricanreligionsstrainedthekingdom.

cowry a kind of shell from the Indian Ocean that was used as currency in the kingdom of Kongo

manikongo title of the head ruler in the kingdom of Kongo; sometimes written as

“Mwene Kongo”

Unit 4, Lesson 19 3


TheChristianmanikongoAlfonsoI(r.1506–1542or43)triedtopersuadethepeopleofKongotoadoptbothChristianityandEuropeanculture.ThePortuguesewhocametoKongo,though,wereinKongomostlyforfinancialgain,particularlyintheslavetrade.Kongo’sparticipationintheslavetradeprovedtoweakenboththekingdom’spoliticalstructureanditssocialstructure.

KongodidnothaveaccesstothepepperandivorythatBeninhad,andthusreliedontradingslavestoacquiregoodsfromPortuguesemerchants.TheroyalmonopolyontradebrokedownwhenothersinthekingdomwereeagertoengageintradewithPortugal.In1526,AlfonsoIwrotetothekingofPortugaltointervenebecuaseKongolesewereslaveraidingfromwithinthekingdom,sellinganyonetheycouldgettheirhandson.AlfonsoIwantedPortugaltohonorhisroyalmonopolyontrade,butthePortuguesewerenowfocusedonbuildinguptradealongtheIndianOceansearoute,andhedidnothearbackfromthekingofPortugal.

TheunauthorizedslavetradedisruptedtheauthorityofKongo’scentralgovern-ment,andrebellionseruptedwithinthekingdom.AfterAlfonsoI’sdeath,Kongofellintocivilwars.TherelocationoftheforeignslavetradeawayfromKongotothemoresouthernkingdomofNdongofurtherdisabledthemanikongo’sholdonthekingdom.LaterKongorulerscutofftradewithPortugal,thoughaninvasionbytheJagasin1568promptedthemanikongotoseekthehelpofPortugaltofighttheattack.Overtheyears,thekingdomofKongobothfoughtforandagainstPortugueseforcesandbecameaformalcolonyofPortugalin1885.

ZimbabweTheBantusettlementsoftheShonatribesinthelandbetweentheZambesiandLimpoporiverswerethebasisofthekingdomofZimbabweinsouth-centralAfrica.TheShonabeganasfarmersandherders,butbecameskilledatminingandironsmeltingoverthecenturies.TheShonaprovidedgoldfortheIndianOceantradenetwork,andtheprosperousmarketbroughtwealthintoEastandcentralAfrica.PowerfulkingdomssuchasZimbabweemergedinland.

Thewordzimbabwemeansa“chief’sdwelling.”WiththenumerousBantusettlementsacrossEastAfrica,woodenchiefdwellingsappearedacrosspresent-dayZimbabweandMozambiqueasearlyasthefifthcenturyC.E.Bytheninthcentury,enoughwealthhadreachedtheregiontofacilitatethebuildingofstonezimbabwe,reflectinganewleveloforganizationandpoliticalpower.

Sometimearound1200C.E.,theenormousprojectofbuildingthecapitalcityofGreatZimbabwebegan.LocatednearthetownofNyandainmodernZimbabwe,GreatZimbabwewasamassivecomplexofstonebuildingssurroundedbywalls16feet(5meters)thickand32feet(10meters)tall.Insidethewalls,thecityofGreatZimbabwehadpalaces,towers,andotherstonebuildingsforrulers,priests,andthewealthy.Thesestoneedificeswerebuiltofcutstone,assembledwithouttheuseofmortar.Thebuildingsandwallswereofsuchascalethatnineteenth-centuryexplorerswhocameupontheruinsofGreatZimbabwedidnotbelievethatnativeAfricanscouldhavebuiltsuchacityandwronglyattributeditsconstructiontoArabsorPhoenicians.

Inadditiontoitspoliticalimportanceasthecapitalcity,GreatZimbabwecar-riedreligiousimportance.ThebirdofGodwasasymbolthatappearedfrequently

1SeLf-CheCK

Who oversaw the

provinces of the

kingdom of Kongo?

Unit 4, Lesson 19 4


inthecity’sstructuresandthroughouttheregionunderGreatZimbabwe’scontrol.ThebirdofGodwasaneaglethatlinkedthisworldtospirits.InthekingdomofZimbabwe,traditionalAfricanreligionfocusedonthecreatorgod,Mwali,whobroughtrainandensuredfertility.Mwaliwasbothmaleandfemale.ThemalepartofMwaliwasevidentinlightning,andthefemalepartintheearth’swater.

Mwalishrineswerebuiltacrosstheland,oftenincavesandnearpoolsofwater.Shrineswerebuiltforrain,healing,andevenforwartoempowerrulersintheirconquests.Priestsandpriestessestendedtheshrinesandwelcomedpil-grimswhoarrivedtoworship.PriestessescouldbepossessedwithdivinepowersandspeakinthevoiceofMwali,whileprieststranslatedthesewordsintocom-mandmentsfortheattendingcongregation.Worshipperstranscendedkinshipnetworks,politicalstates,andlanguagegroups.Bythenineteenthcentury,theonce-numerousshrineswerereducedtoregionsmostlyinthemountainsofthesouthwestpartofthekingdom.

AsinmanyotherAfricansocieties,inZimbabwetheoriginalancestorsofaclanorcommunityfiguredprominentlyintraditionalreligiousbeliefs.AmongthepeopleinthekingdomofZimbabwe,manybelievedthatancestors’spiritsreturnedaslionsandcouldpossesstheliving.Theoriginalancestorsclaimedownershipofthelandanditsresources.Manyoriginalancestorshadbeenconquerors,andassuchtheygrantedpowertosoldiersandalsoprovidedtacticalguidanceintimesofwar.ThebeliefinthepowerofancestorspiritswasmostconcentratedinthenortheastpartofZimbabwe.

TheeconomyofthekingdomofZimbabwewasbuiltonagricultureandherd-ing,butasthetrademarketinEastAfricagrew,thekingdomcapitalizedontradetobuilditswealth.Initially,thekingdomtradedcopper,salt,andothergoodswithneighboringinteriorcommunities.Inthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,Zim-babweprofitedhandsomelybyexportingmostlygold,alongwithivoryandslaves,toportmarkets.ThepopulationofthecityofGreatZimbabwegrewsomuchoverthesecenturiesthatthedepletionoflocalforestsandherdovergrazingapparentlytriggeredanecologicaldevastationthatcontributedtothekingdom’sdecline.

KingsofZimbabwecontrolledthetradebetweenthecoastalcity-statesandinteriorregionsofEastandcentralAfrica.Zimbabweorganizedandtaxedthelucrativegold,ivory,andslavetradesinEastAfrica.Zimbabweankingsbuiltalli-anceswithotherleaderstofacilitatethecontinuedflowofimmenseprofitsfromthetrademarket.Evidenceofgoodssuchasgold,glassbeads,copperornaments,soapstonefigures,irontools,Persianartworks,andChineseporcelainamongtheruinsofGreatZimbabwerevealsanextensivetradenetwork.

Inthefifteenthcentury,thekingdomofZimbabweexpandedconsiderablyundertheruleofKingMutotaandthesubsequentruleofhissonMatopebycon-queringlandstothenorthandtheeast.Atitsheightduringthelatefifteenthcen-tury,thekingdomofZimbabwecoveredmuchofsouth-centralAfricaandreachedjustoutsidethecoastalcityofSofalainEastAfrica.KingMutotamovedthecapitalfromGreatZimbabwetothenorthandassumedthetitle“MwanaMutapa.”ThePortuguesepronouncedthistitle“Monomotapa,”andthisbecametheEuropeannameforthekingdom.

Unit 4, Lesson 19 5


AfterKingMatopediedsometimearound1490,civilwarstorethekingdomapart,andtwoseparatekingdomsemerged.TheRozvisruledthesouthernportionfromGreatZimbabwe.TheMwanaMutaparuledthenorthernkingdom.Aslateasthenineteenthcentury,thekingdomofMwanaMutapastood,butitencompassedamuchsmallerareaofrulethanthegreatkingdomofZimbabwehadatitspeak.

Social and Gender Structures in AfricaAstheBantumigratedandestablishedsettlementsacrosssub-SaharanAfricaformorethan2,000years,communityorganizationmostoftenemergedasastatelesssociety.WhiletherewasstillterritoryavailableinAfrica,statelesssocietiesflour-ished.Socialorpoliticalconflictsthatarosewithinacommunitycouldberesolvedbysendingdissidentsoutofthecommunitytosettlesomewhereelse.Statelesssocietiesworkedwellinsmallcommunities,butascommunitiesprosperedandtheirpopulationsgrew,thesystemstruggled.

Thesestatelesssocietiesdidnothaveaheadofpoliticalpowerwhoseprimaryoccupationwastorule.Instead,thesocietiesreliedonkinshipnetworkstogovernthemselves.Bantucommunitiestendedtoincludeabout100people,anddisciplinegenerallytookplacewithinafamilygroup.Acouncilofmaleheadsoffamiliesledthecommunity,andtheheadofthemostprominentfamilywaschiefofthecom-munity.Thechiefdealtwithanymattersthatarosewithneighboringcommunities.

FamilialtiescharacterizedtheorganizationofstatelesssocietiesinAfrica.Col-lectiveapproachestoworkingthelandweretakenasthesestatelesssocietiesviewedpropertyascommunalratherthanprivate.Manygroupsbelievedthatthecommu-nity’soriginalancestorsheldownershipofthelandanditsresourcesasitsfirstsettlers.Theseancestorshadthepowertograntfertilitytopeople,crops,herds,andgame.Forsomecommunities,thelandcarriedreligiousimport,andlivingandworkingonthelandheldreligiousmeaning.Inthesecommunities,thelandprovidedmorethaneconomicneeds.Thelandwasalsofullofreligiousandhistoricimportance.

Themaleheadsoffamilieswhoformedthecommunity’scouncildeterminedtheworkoftheirgivenfamily.Theseheadsalsoassignedwhichsectionsofthelandtheirfamilywouldworkandoversawthedistributionoffoodamongthecommunity.Theorganizationinthesecommunitieswaswhollycenteredonfamilynetworks.

SomeforestpeoplesofWestAfricaformedsecretsocietiesinwhichmenandwomenlimitedtheauthorityofrulers.Kinshipnetworksoftenhadbitterrivalries,andsomesecretsocietiestranscendedthesekinshipnetworks.Ratherthanstayingloyaltotheirkinshipnetwork,memberswouldmaintainloyaltytotheirsecretsociety.Thesesecretsocietiesmanagedtoresolveconflictswithinandbetweencommunitiesandpresentedanalternativetotheestablishedauthorityofchiefsorotherrulers.

IntheBantucommunities,genderroleswerewell-defined.MendominatedpublicaffairswithintheirlocalcommunitiesSpecializedworksuchasleathertan-ningandblacksmithingwerestrictlyreservedformen.Inagriculturalarenas,menpreparedthesoilforplantingwhilebothmenandwomenparticipatedinsewingandreapingtheharvest.Women’srolesoftenrevolvedarounddomesticspheresandchildrearing.Insomecases,womeninfluencedandformallyparticipatedinpublicaffairs.

2SeLf-CheCK

What was Zimbabwe’s

economy based on?

Unit 4, Lesson 19 6


Acrosssub-SaharanAfrica,womenoftenhadmorepublicinvolvementthanwomeninotherpartsoftheworld.Femalemerchantsengagedintrade,bothwithlocalmerchantsandwiththosefromdistantlocations.Femalemerchantswerealsopermittedtotradeatmarkets,frequentlytradingagriculturalgoods,pottery,andothercrafts.Somewomenevenservedinall-femalemilitaryunits.

WhiletheintroductionofIslamdrasticallychangedwomen’sstandingacrossArabiaandsouthwestAsia,insub-SaharanAfricathespreadofIslamdidlittletowomen’sstanding.ThefirstconvertsintheregionwererulersandmerchantswhodealtdirectlywithArabmerchantscomingthroughonthetrans-SaharanandIndianOceantraderoutes.Islamgrewslowlyinsub-SaharanAfrica,andasthereligiontookroot,AfricanconvertskepttheirtraditionalbeliefsandcustomsalongsideIslam.Asaresult,Islamtookonadifferentcastinsub-SaharanAfricathaninArabia,southwestAsia,andNorthAfrica.

MostMuslimwomensouthoftheSaharadidnotwearveilsorlimittheirsocialcontactwithmeninthecommunity.Sub-SaharanMuslimwomenalsocon-tinuedtheirpublicworkinthecommunity.WhentheArabtravelerIbnBattuta(1304–1368)visitedMali,hewasshockedthatnoMuslimwomenworeveils,andthatwomenopenlyconversedwithunrelatedmeninpublic.TheconversiontoIslaminsub-SaharanAfricadidnotalterwomen’sstatusorinvolvementinthecommunityasitdidinotherpartsoftheMuslimworld.

The Arrival of Christianity and Islam in AfricaChristianitywasintroducedtoEgyptandNorthAfricaduringthefirstcenturyC.E.,withindecadesafterthereligion’semergence,atthesametimeorevenbeforethereligionreachednorthernEurope.TraditionholdsthattheapostleMarkbroughtChristianitytoEgyptin60C.E.InEgypt,thecityofAlexandriabecameanimpor-tantcenterofChristianthought.EgyptianChristians,knownasCopts,maintainedcontactwiththeByzantineChristiansandtranslatedreligioustextsfromGreektoCoptic.SaintAugustineandotherearlyChristianleaderslivedinnorthAfrica.

ThespreadofChristianityacrossNorthAfricawasslow,movingwestfromAlex-andriatotherestofNorthAfricaandeasttoEthiopia.Christianitywasanoppos-ingforcetotheRomanEmpireintheregionuntilConstantinemadeChristianitytheRomanEmpire’sofficialreligionin312C.E.EvenwithaflourishingChristianpopulationinNorthAfricancommunitiesinEgyptandNubia,Christianitytookhundredsofyearstogaintractioninsub-SaharanAfrica.

Duringthefourthcentury,ChristianityspreadwithinthekingdomofAxum,inpresentdayEthiopia.Thefirstsub-SaharanconvertswereprobablymerchantswhotradedwithChristiansattheRedSeaportofAdulis.TherulersofAxumalsoconvertedtothereligion.ThefirstrulerstoconverttoChristianityinAxumwereamongthefirstroyalconvertsanywherebecausetheyconvertednotlongaftertheRomanemperorConstantine.ChristianmissionariesinAxumestablishedmonasteriesandtranslatedtheBibleintothelocaltongue.

IslamalsoreachedAfricabywayofNorthAfrica.ChristianityhadtakenrootalongtheMediterraneancoastofnorthernAfricabytheendoftheRomanEmpire.However,subsequentwarringbetweentheVandalsandtheByzantinesdisrupted

Unit 4, Lesson 19 7


theregion,andbetween640C.E.and700C.E.MuslimforcesinvadedNorthAfrica,capturingTunisiain670andcrossingtheMediterraneantoenterSpainby711.TheadvanceofMuslimconquerorsthroughouttheMediterraneanwasstoppedin732inFrance.WithMuslimstrongholdsinNorthAfricaandundertheruleoftheMuslimAbbasiddynasty,muchofNorthAfricaconvertedtoIslam.

TheMuslimpresenceacrossNorthAfricawasacriticalelementtotheintro-ductionofIslamtosub-SaharanAfrica.Muslimmerchantscomingacrossthetrans-Saharancaravanroutes,andlateronIndianOceansearoutesinEastAfrica,broughtIslamtotherestofthecontinent.Rulersandmerchantsintradingcenterswereamongthefirstsub-Saharanconverts.

African Religious DevelopmentsChristianityandIslamwerenotthefirstreligionsinsub-SaharanAfrica;nativeAfricanreligiousbeliefsandtraditionshadbeenestablishedacrossthecontinentcenturiesbeforeeitherreligionreachedAfrica.

Traditional African BeliefsOnthesurface,thecommunitiesthatdottedsub-SaharanAfricahadverydifferentreligioustraditions.Deitiesdidnotsharenamesorstoriesfromonecommunitytothenext,nordidreligiousritualsoverlap.However,eveninthefaceofapparentlydistinctreligioustraditions,commonelementslinkedthedifferentAfricanreligions.Traditionalreligiousbeliefswereflexible,sowhensettlementsencountereddiffer-ingbeliefs,aspectsofthosebeliefswereincorporatedintotheirownbeliefsystem.

AtthetimeofearlyBantuagriculture,manygroupshadmonotheisticbeliefs.Withextensivemigrationcamethesharingofculturesandreligions,andearliermonotheisticreligionsevolvedasadherentslearnedaboutothers’beliefs.Effortstounderstandgodsandtheirinteractionsintheworld’sworkingsalsochangedreligiousbeliefsovertime.

Evenwiththeintroductionofnewdeities,manycommunitiescontinuedtobelieveinamalegodwhowasthedivineforce,whocreatedtheworldandorganizeditsworkings.Formost,thisgodwasall-knowing,all-powerful,orboth.Somecommunitiesbelievedthatthecreatorgodcontinuedtointerveneinhumanaffairsthroughlessergods,spirits,andthecommunity’soriginalancestors.Theseancestorsheldownershipofthelandanditsresourcesandhadthepowertograntfertilitytopeople,crops,herds,andgame.

IntheanimisticreligionsofAfrica,thelessergodsandspiritswereconnectedtonaturalforcessuchasthesun,rain,rivers,andotherelementsinnaturesuchastrees.Whilethecreatorgod’sinvolvementwasmoredistant,thelessergodshelddynamicrolesintheworld’severydayevents.Thesegodsandspiritshadpowertoblessorcursehumans.

InmanyAfricancommunities,thereligioustiestoancestorsincludedrecentlydeceasedancestors,whocouldconnectthelivingtothespiritworld.Theseancestorscouldalsointervenetoblessorpunishdescendantsaccordingtothedescendants’behaviorandthedegreeofhonorgiventoancestors’memory.Withsuchreligiousimportanceplacedonancestorsinthesecommunities,family,lineage,andclanwerefundamentalaspectsofthecommunityorganization.Ancestorswerepartofthesamereligioussystemasthegods,andthesebeliefsboundacommunity’s

3SeLf-CheCK

What did Ibn Battuta

find when he visited the

empire of Mali?

Unit 4, Lesson 19 8


memberstogetherthroughcommonancestorsandcommonland.Thevenerationofancestorswaspartofeverydaylife,andthesebeliefscontinuedwellafterthemonotheismofIslamorChristianitypermeatedtheregion.

Ritualsacknowledgingandhonoringgods,spirits,andancestorstoensurecontinuedfavorortoregainfavorwerekeyelementsofreligiousworshipformanyAfricancommunities.Mostworshipwasdirectedtowardancestorsandlocalspir-its,whoneededtobekepthappyinordertopreventmisfortunefrombefallingindividualsorthecommunity.Prayers,animalsacrifices,dancing,anddivinationallplayedrolesinreligiousrituals.Religiousceremoniesaccompaniedmajorlifeeventssuchasbirth,marriage,anddeath.

Tohelpnavigatereligiouspracticeandprotectthecommunity,manycommuni-tieshaddiviners:peoplewhocouldmediatebetweenthisworldandgods,spirits,andancestors.Divinershadeithernaturalabilityorconsiderabletrainingtofulfilltheirroles,whichalsocouldincludeprovidingprotectionforacommunity.Divinersweregenerallymen,andtobeeffective,theyhadtograsptheinterconnectednetworksoffamily,economics,andpoliticsthatboundacommunitytogether.Adivinerwasconsultedtodeterminethecauseofdifficultiessuchasillness,lackofchildren,dwindlingherds,orbarrenfields.Divinersusedoraclestoidentifytheproblemandcombatedtheissuewithritualsorotherprescriptionsneededtoresolvetheproblem.

Morethananythingelse,thesereligionsgavetheircommunitiesaframeworkforhowtheuniverseworksandatemplateforsocialandmoralethics.Ratherthanfocusingontheologicalmatters,Africanreligionssoughttomakesenseofand

Masks were central to traditional African rituals, and conversion to Christianity or Islam did not preclude sub-Saharan Africans from continuing their participation in these traditional ceremonies.

Unit 4, Lesson 19 9


controlaspectsofthehumanexperience.Strictmoralcodeswererequiredtosafe-guardorderintheworld.Disobedienceandtheresultingdisorderandmisfortunethatcamemeantthatgods,spirits,orancestorswereunhappy.

Communityrulewasalsotiedtoreligiouspractice.Chiefsandkingsdrewauthorityfromtheinstitutionofdivinekingshipthatemerged.Theimportanceofworshippingancestorspiritshelpedunifyacommunitywithinanuncertainworld.Tomaintainorderandgoodwillwiththesupernaturalworld,familynetworkswatchedoverfamilymembersanddisciplinedthosewhothreatenedtosummondivineretributionontheindividualorthecommunitywiththeiractions.

Christianity in Sub-Saharan AfricaChristianityhadtakenholdinEgyptandEthiopiabeforetheMuslimconqueststhroughoutNorthAfricabetween640and700C.E.TheseMuslimconquestsleftpocketsofChristianityintheregion.WhenEgyptwasconqueredandbecameMuslim,theCopticChristianstherekepttheirfaithanddidnotconverttoIslam.TheChristiansinNubiaresistedMuslimpenetrationintheninthcenturyandremainedindependentChristiancommunitiesuntilthethirteenthcentury.

WiththeMuslimconquestofEgyptandtheRedSea,theChristiansintheweakenedkingdomofAxuminEthiopiawerecutofffromtherestoftheChristianworld.ChristianityinEthiopiablendedwiththebeliefsandtraditionsofthelocalpopula-tionandJewishimmigrants.Inthetwelfthcentury,anewChristiandynastyrosetopowerbywayofconqueringandconvertingpeoplesintheregion.

Duringthefirstpartofthethirteenthcentury,KingLalibela(r.c.1180–1220)launchedabuildingprojectofelevenenormouschurchestobecarvedoutofsolidvolcanicrockinthecapitalcityofLali-bela.EachchurchcommemoratedaChristiansiteinJerusalem,thoughtheactualpracticeofcarv-ingstructuresoutofrockechoedthetraditionalAfricanreligiouspracticeofrockshrines.

AChristianstateemergedinEthiopiainthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturieswithadynastythatclaimeddirecttiestothemarriageofKingSolo-monandShebaintheBible.WithoutthebenefitofcontactwithotherChristians,theChristianreligionthatevolvedinEthiopiadepartedfromtherestoftheChristianworld.EthiopianChristianitymaintainedessentialaspectsofChristiantheologyandpractices,butalsoadoptedtraditionalAfricanbeliefs.Among

4SeLf-CheCK

What role did the

original ancestors play

in a community?

Built in 1896, the Saint George cathedral in the capital city of Addis Ababa stands as a testament to Christianity’s continued influence and presence in Ethiopia.

Unit 4, Lesson 19 10


thesetraditionalbeliefswasabeliefinevilspiritsthatpopulatedtheworldandtheuseofamuletstoprotectagainstthesespirits.

WithChristianEthiopiasurroundedbyMuslimstatesonallsides,battlesbetweenChristiansandMuslimsoftenflaredupintheregion.ThearrivalofPortu-guesemerchantsandexplorerstonortheastAfricainthesixteenthcenturyreintro-ducedChristiansinEthiopiatoothersoftheirbroaderfaith.WhenaneighboringMuslimstatebackedbytheOttomansthreatenedEthiopia,PortugalsentforcestosupportEthiopiain1542andkeptEthiopiafrombeingconquered.PortugaltriedtobringEthiopiaintothefoldoftheRomanCatholicChurch,buteffortsfailed.ThoughEthiopiaremainedChristian,thekingdomalsoremainedindependentfromotherChristians.ThePortugueseweremoresuccessfulwiththeireffortstoconvertthekingdomofKongototheRomanCatholicfaith,givingChristianityanotherfootholdinsub-SaharanAfrica.

Christianitybroughtconsiderablechangetosub-SaharanAfrica.Christianmis-sionariesbroughthopeandeducationtomanyonthecontinentandincreasedliteracyrates.RelationshipswithEuropeanChristiancolonistsandtradersbroughtwealthandopportunitiestosomeAfricans,buttheyalsoweakenedplentyofAfricankingdoms.Christianitybroughtcolonistsinterestedinfinancialgainandthoseinter-estedinconvertingAfricanpeoples.Forcenturies,theseEuropeanChristiancolonistspushedtosubdueordestroytraditionalAfricanculture,religiousbeliefs,andrituals.

Islam in Sub-Saharan AfricaDevelopmentsinNorthAfricawereprecursorstotheintroductionofIslaminsub-SaharanAfrica.TheMuslimdesertBerbersinNorthAfricasplitfromNorthAfricanstatesruledbyArabicrulersandformedtheirownstatesbasedinthecityofFezinMoroccoandinSijilimasa,atradingcenterontheMoroccansideofthetrans-Saharancaravanroutes.WiththethreatofnewMusliminvadersencroaching,thedesertBerberslaunchedapuritanicalreformmovementbytheeleventhcentury.Almoravids,asthoseinthemovementwerecalled,wagedawarwithnon-MuslimsandmovedsouthacrosstheSaharadesertintoWestAfricaandSpain.In1130asimilargroup,theAlmohads,followedananalogouspath.WhileIslamwasprimarilyintroducedtosub-SaharanAfricabyNorthAfricanmerchantsalongtraderoutes,religiousmovementssuchastheAlmoravidsandAlmohadsembracedaggressivemilitaryactionandcontributedtothespreadofIslamsouthoftheSahara.

Muslimmerchantsdominatedthetrans-SaharanandIndianOceantraderoutesandintroducedthereligiontosub-Saharanmerchantsandrulers.Thoughitwasnottheonlyreasonforconversion,sharingacommonreligiondidhelpfacilitatetradebetweencultures.Islamestablishedacommoncodeofmoralityandlaw,andincreasedtrustbetweentraders.Acrosssub-SaharanAfrica,Islamtookrootfirstintradingcitiesandportsattheendofthetraderoutes,andthenspreadtotheinterior.ThepastoralFulanipeoplesofWestAfricaandtheSomaliineasternAfricawereamongthefirstruralAfricanpeoplestoconverttoIslam.

Asrulersofwealthyandpowerfulkingdomsinsub-SaharanAfricaconvertedtoIslam,theylaunchedbuildingprojectstoaddmosquesandplacesofstudyintheircities.TheybroughtforeignexpertsinIslamiclawtotheirkingdoms.GreatmosqueswerebuiltwithMiddleEasterninfluencebutmadeoflocalmaterials,such



asthedistinctivebeaten-claymosquesinthecityofJenneintheMaliEmpireandthecoralstonemosquesbuiltinSwahilicoastalcity-states.

ChristianityinEthiopiaencouragedthestudyofreligioustexts,therebypromotingliteracyinEthiopia.Inasimilarmanner,thespreadofIslamacrosssub-SaharanAfricaencouragedliteracyamongMuslimconverts.Booksweresym-bolsofcivilizationforMuslimsatthetime,andexpensivebookswereimportedfromNorthAfrica.ThecityofTimbuktuintheMaliEmpirebecameacenterforIslamicstudy.Inthesixteenthcentury,morethan150schoolstaughttheQur’aninTimbuktu.

NewlyconvertedMuslimrulersinsub-SaharanAfricadidnotgenerallyimposetheirreligionontheirsubjects.Also,theconversiontoIslamdidnotmeantheendoftraditionalAfricanbeliefsandrituals.AfricanconvertscontinuedtopracticetraditionalanimistreligiousritualsalongsideIslam,suchasritualstopleasetraditionalgodsandancestorspirits.Notably,Muslimwomeninsub-SaharanAfricadidnotaltertheirpublicbehaviororwearaveil,aswascustomaryinmostpartsoftheIslamicworld.

Islam as a Unifying Cultural force in Sub-Saharan AfricaTheadoptionofIslamamongpeoplesofsub-SaharanAfricahelpeddrawtogetherdis-paratecultures.Whilethereligionestablishedacommonbondbetweensub-SaharanrulersandmerchantsandtheirNorthAfricanandArabcounterparts,Islamalsounitedpeoplesofvariouscultureslivingtogetherinsub-SaharanAfrica.ThespreadofIslamwasnotforcedanddidnotdisplacetraditionalAfricanreligiousbeliefs,bothfactorsthatcouldhavemadeIslamadivisiveforceinsub-Saharanculture.

Muslimrulersinsub-SaharanAfricareliedonIslamtojustifyandsolidifytheirruleandtounifytheirkingdoms.Islamservedasaunifyingforceinareaswherediverseethnicgroupslivedside-by-side.Islamicbeliefsassertedtheequalityandworthofindividuals,whichunderminedpotentialdiscordwhenaMuslimrulerconqueredanotherMuslimterritory.

AccordingtoIslamiclaw,convertsinsub-SaharanAfricawereconsideredequaltoMuslimBerbersandArabs.Inreality,equalitywasnotappliedacrossethnicgroups.Inaddition,womenwerenotonequalfootingwithmenincertainpointsofIslamiclaw.Forexample,thepenaltyforkillingamanresultedintwicethepenaltyforkillingawoman.

european and Sub-Saharan Contacts with the Islamic WorldTheIslamicworldinfluencedbothEuropeandsub-SaharanAfrica,thoughinverydifferentways.TradebroughtMuslimmerchantstobothregionsoftheworld,andwiththetradenetworksthatwereestablished,bothEuropeandsub-SaharanAfricahadregularcontactwiththeIslamicworld.Astheworldcenteroftrade,culture,andlearningatthetime,theIslamicworldbroughtlearningtoEuropeandrevivedinterestinthephilosophy,science,andmedicineofancientGreece.AsmerchantstraveledthroughouttheIslamicworld,theyintroducednewcropsacrosstheMediterranean,inSpain,andtheislandsofCyprus,Crete,Sicily,and

5SeLf-CheCK

What country backed

Ethiopia’s efforts to keep

a neighboring Muslim

state from invading?



Sardinia.ChristianityhadalreadyemergedasthedominantreligionofEurope,andasaresultthespreadofIslamtherewaslimited.

Insub-SaharanAfrica,however,IslamwasincorporatedalongsideexistingtraditionalAfricanreligiousbeliefs,andmanyAfricanrulersandmerchantscon-verted.TheAfricanstatesconductingtradewithMuslimmerchantswerepoliti-callyorganizedenoughtofacilitatethespreadofIslamwithintheirborders.TheIslamicworldheavilyinfluencedsub-SaharanAfricareligiously,politically,andsociallybeginningintheseventhandeighthcenturies.TheconversionoftradersandrulersprovidedaneconomicadvantagewhentraderelationshipswerebuiltupwithforeignMuslimmerchantswhonowsharedcommonreligiousground.Islambecametheprominentreligionacrossmuchofsub-SaharanAfrica,particularlyintradingcentersandports,whenrulersbuiltelaboratemosques,Islamicschools,andwelcomedMuslimscholarstotheirstates.

Insub-SaharanAfrica,conversiontoIslamwasmostlyapeacefulprocess.Peopleweregenerallynotconstrainedtoconvert,andtheblendingofIslamwithtraditionalAfricanreligionmadeacceptanceofthereligioncommon.InEurope,though,Islambroughtconflict.

BothChristianityandIslamencouragedthespreadoftheirreligionsthroughconversion.WithChristianitywell-establishedinEurope,anyIslamicpresenceintheregionwasboundtocauseconflict.AfterthesuccessfulMuslimconquestoftheChristianIberianPeninsula,EuropeanrivalriesbetweenMuslimsandChris-tiansintensified.DuringtheReconquista,Christianssucceededinretakingtheregion.ThissuccessledPopeUrbanIItolaunchtheCrusadesin1095.ThepopeviewedIslamasadirectaffronttoChristianityandpromisedcrusadingChristianssalvation.HoardsofChristianswenttorestoreByzantineterritoryandtogainChristiancontrolofJerusalem.ManyoftheseChristianswerenotsoldiersandwereunpreparedforcombatofanysort.

WithEuropeanChristiansattackingintheMiddleEast,Muslims,Turks,andEgyptiansjoinedforcestofightagainsttheinvaders.In1187,theseforcessuc-cessfullypushedChristiansoutoftheeastMediterranean.TheCrusadesfurtherspreadIslamiccultureandscientificknowledge.CrusadersreturnedtoEuropewithknowledgeofArabicnumerals,papermakingmethods,Muslimdevelopmentsinscienceandastronomy,andtheideasofAristotlerevisitedbyMuslimscholars.

Insub-SaharanAfrica,Islamcametopermeateanddefinethesocietyandcul-tureinwaysthatneverhappenedinEurope.Islamattacheditselftothepoliticalframeworkofmanysub-Saharanstates,allowingIslamicstatestoemergeintheregion.InEurope,withwellestablishedpoliticalstatesandChristianity’ssaturatedpresence,IslamonlysucceededinpenetratingtheedgesofEuropeanterritory,suchastheIberianPeninsulaandMediterraneanislands.

SummaryAskinshipsystemsgavewaytokingships,largekingdomsemergedthroughoutcen-tralandsouthernAfrica.ThekingdomofKongowasamongthemostcentralized,withakingatthehelmofprovincesledbygovernors.KongotradedslaveswiththePortuguese,andCatholicismbecamethekingdom’sofficialreligion.Theprosperous

6SeLf-CheCK

Who launched the

Crusades in 1095?



IndianOceantradenetworkmadetheinteriorkingdomofZimbabwewealthy,whichbroughtgold,ivory,andslavestoeasternportsfortrade.Insmallcommunities,kinshipbasedcouncilsandchiefscontinuedtodirectlocalmatters.Womeninsub-SaharanAfricahadmorepublicinvolvementthanwomeninmanyotherpartsoftheworld.

WhiledifferentAfricanreligioustraditionsemerged,manysharedcommonele-ments,includingbeliefinacreatorgod,lessergods,spirits,andancestorswhointerveneinthehappeningsofthisworld.ChristianitywasintroducedtoEgyptandNorthAfricaduringthefirstcenturyC.E.andreachedEthiopiaduringthefourthcentury.MuslimforcesinvadedNorthAfricabetween640C.E.and700C.E.andsuccessfullyestablishedMuslimstrongholdsthroughouttheregion.Muslimmerchantsonthetrans-SaharanandIndianOceantraderoutesintroducedIslamtosub-SaharanAfrica.Merchantsandrulerswereamongthefirstconvertsthere.AfricanconvertstoChristianityandIslamcontinuedtopracticetraditionalAfricanrituals.TradebroughtbothEuropeandsub-SaharanAfricaincontactwiththeIslamicworld.InAfrica,Islamtookholdandinfluencedcultureandpolitics.InEurope,sinceChristianitywasalreadythedominantreligion,Islambroughtcon-flict,andtheCrusadeswerelaunched.Eveninthishostileenvironment,IslamiccultureandscientificknowledgereturnedtoEuropewiththeCrusaders.

Looking AheadThePortuguesepresenceinsoutheastandcentralAfricabeganwithtradeandmis-sionariesbutquicklyturnedmoresinisterasthePortuguesestruggledtogaincontroloftradenetworks.By1515,theportcitiesofSofalaandKilwaweredestroyed,andthePortuguesemovedfurtherinland.TheydiscoveredtheZimbabweandMwanaMutapakingdomsandestablishedrelationsinthe1560s.ThePortuguesewerein-terestedinconvertingAfricanstoChristianity,buttheregion’seconomicpotentialasasourceforgoldandothergoodswasatleastasgreatafactorintheirdealingswithAfricankingdoms.Portuguesecontrolincreasedintheregion,extendingattimestopoliticalcontrol.Theemergingcolonialdominanceprovedtobeapre-viewofthevariousEuropeanpowersthatwouldinvadesub-SaharanAfricainthecomingcenturiestopursueEuropeaneconomic,political,andmissionaryinterests.

1.The king of Kongo appointed a governor to lead and oversee each of the kingdom’s six provinces.

2. Zimbabwe’s economy was based on agriculture and herding, but as the trade market in East Africa grew, the kingdom also capitalized on trade of copper, salt, gold, ivory and slaves to build its wealth.

3. Ibn Battuta was shocked to find that no Muslim women wore veils and that women openly conversed with unrelated men in public.

4.The original ancestors of a community held ownership of the land and had the power to grant fertility to people, crops, herds, and game.

5.When a neighboring Muslim state threatened Ethiopia, Portugal sent forces to support Ethiopia in 1542 and kept Ethiopia from being conquered.

6.Pope Urban II launched the Crusades in 1095 because he viewed Islam as a direct affront to Christianity.

SeLf-CheCK AnSWeRS



Unit 4, Lesson 19All images © K12 Inc. unless otherwise noted. 1, 9 Traditional Congolese mask. © brytta/iStockphoto 10 Cathedral in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. © Ariadne Van Zandbergen/africanpictures.net/The Image Works


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