Cell Respiration

1

What is Glycolysis?

• Breaking down glucose: “glyco – lysis” (splitting sugar)

• Most ancient form of energy capture.

• Starting point for all cellular respiration.

• Inefficient: generates only 2 ATP for every 1 glucose.

• Happens in the cytosol. Why does that make evolutionary sense?

Evolutionary perspective

• Life on Earth first evolved without free oxygen (O2) in atmosphere.

• Energy had to be captured from organic molecules in absence of O2

• Organisms that evolved Glycolysis are ancestors of all modern life

• All organisms still utilize glycolysis.

Overview

• 10 reactions

• Convert 6C glucose to two 3C pyruvate

• Produce 2 ATP & 2 NADH

Glycolysis Summary

Endergonic

• Invest some ATP.

Exergonic

• Harvest a little ATP & a

little NADH.

Overall

2

Glycolysis Reaction Overview

• 10 Reactions Total

• 9 Different Enzymes needed.

Cleavage reactions

Then, the six-carbon

molecule with two

phosphates is split in

two, forming two

three-carbon sugar

phosphates.

Priming reactions.

Glycolysis begins

with the addition of

energy. Two high

energy phosphates

from two molecules

of ATP are added to

the six-carbon

molecule glucose,

producing a six-

carbon molecule with

two phosphates.

Energy-harvesting

reactions.

Finally, in a series of

reactions, each of the

two three-carbon

sugar phosphates is

converted to

pyruvate. In the

process, an energy-

rich hydrogen is

harvested as NADH,

and two ATP

molecules are

formed.

3

Substrate-level Phosphorylation

• In the last step of glycolysis, where did the P come from to make ATP?

• P is transferred from PEP to ADP

o kinase enzyme

o ADP → ATP

Is that all there is?

• Not a lot of energy…

• For 1 billon years+ this is how life on Earth survived

• Only harvest 3.5% of energy stored in glucose

• Slow growth, slow reproduction

We can’t stop there…

• Going to run out of NAD+.

• How is NADH recycled to NAD+?

• Without regenerating NAD+, energy production would stop so another

molecule must accept H from NADH.

4

The answer? Fermentation.

• In Bacteria & Yeast.

o beer, wine, bread

o at ~12% ethanol, kills yeast

• In Animals & some Fungi.

o cheese, yogurt

o anaerobic exercise (no O2), this is why your legs burn when running.

1

Glycolysis is only the start

• Glycolysis

• Pyruvate has more energy to yield

• 3 more C to strip off (to oxidize)

• If O2 is available, pyruvate enters mitochondria

• Enzymes of Krebs cycle complete oxidation of sugar to CO2

What is the point? TO MAKE ATP!!!

Oxidation of pyruvate

• Pyruvate enters mitochondria

o 3 step oxidation process

o Releases 1 CO2 (count the carbons!)

o Reduces NAD → NADH (stores energy)

o Produces acetyl CoA

• Acetyl CoA enters Krebs cycle

o Where does CO2 go?

2

Pyruvate oxidized to Acetyl CoA

Yield = 2C sugar + CO2 + NADH

Krebs cycle

• Aka Citric Acid Cycle

o in mitochondrial matrix

o 8 step pathway

� each catalyzed by specific enzyme

� step-wise catabolism of 6C citrate molecule

• Evolved later than glycolysis

o Does that make evolutionary sense?

� bacteria →3.5 billion years ago (glycolysis)

� free O2 →2.7 billion years ago (photosynthesis)

� eukaryotes →1.5 billion years ago (aerobic respiration

(organelles)

3

So we fully

oxidized

glucose:

C6H12O6

↓

CO2

& ended

up with 4

ATP!

4

So why is the Citric Acid

Cycle so great?

Krebs cycle produces large

quantities of electron carriers

• NADH

• FADH2

• Stored energy!

• go to ETC (Electron

Transport Chain)

Energy accounting of Krebs Cycle

Net gain = 2 ATP

= 8 NADH + 2 FADH2

So why the Krebs cycle?

• If the yield is only 2 ATP, then why?

o Value of NADH & FADH2

� Electron carriers

� Reduced molecules store energy!

� To be used in the Electron Transport Chain

1

ATP accounting so far…

• Glycolysis → 2 ATP

• Kreb’s cycle → 2 ATP

• Life takes a lot of energy to run, need to extract more energy than 4 ATP!

• There’s got to be a better way!

There is a better way!

• Electron Transport Chain

o Series of molecules built into inner mitochondrial membrane

o Mostly transport proteins

o Transport of electrons down ETC linked to ATP synthesis

o Yields ~34 ATP from only 1 glucose!

o Only in presence of O2 (aerobic)

Mitochondria (Form fits function!)

� Double membrane

o outer membrane

o inner membrane

� highly folded cristae*

� fluid-filled space between membranes = intermembrane space

o matrix

� central fluid-filled space

Electron Transport Chain

2

Remember the NADH?

Glycolysis = 4 NADH Kreb’s Cycle = 8 NADH, 2 FADH2

lectron Transport Chain

: NADH passes electrons to ETC

Electron Transport Chain

� NADH passes electrons to ETC

o H cleaved off NADH &

FADH2

o electrons stripped from H

atoms → H+ (H ions)

o electrons passed from one

electron carrier to next in

mitochondrial membrane

(ETC)

o transport proteins in

membrane pump H+ across

inner membrane to

intermembrane space

3

But what “pulls” the electrons down the ETC?

Electrons flow downhill

� Electrons move in steps from

carrier to carrier downhill to

O2

o each carrier more

electronegative

o controlled oxidation

o controlled release of

energy

4

Why the build up H+?

� ATP synthase

o enzyme in inner membrane of

mitochondria

ADP + Pi → ATP

� only channel permeable to H+

� H+ flow down concentration gradient provides

energy for ATP synthesis

o molecular power generator!

o flow like water over water wheel

o flowing H+ cause change in

o shape of ATP synthase enzyme

ATP Synthesis

Chemiosmosis couples ETC to ATP synthesis

� build up of H+ gradient just so H+ could flow through ATP synthase enzyme to build ATP

5

Cellular respiration

Summary of cellular respiration

� Where did the glucose come from?

� Where did the O2 come from?

� Where did the CO2 come from?

� Where did the H2O come from?

� Where did the ATP come from?

� What else is produced that is not listed in this equation?

� Why do we breathe?

Taking it beyond…

� What is the final electron acceptor in electron transport chain?

O2

� So what happens if O2 unavailable?

o ETC backs up

o ATP production ceases

o Cells run out of energy and you die!

1

Beyond glucose: Other carbohydrates

• Glycolysis accepts a wide range of carbohydrates fuels

o Polysaccharides → → → glucose

(hydrolysis)

� ex. starch, glycogen

o Other 6C sugars → → → glucose

(modified)

� ex. galactose, fructose

Beyond glucose: Proteins

• Proteins → → → → → amino acids

(Hydrolysis)

• Fats → → → → → glycerol & fatty acids

(Hydrolysis)

o Glycerol (3C) → → PGAL → → glycolysis

o Fatty acids → 2C acetyl groups → acetyl coA →Krebs cycle

Carbohydrates vs. Fats

• Fat generates 2x ATP vs. carbohydrate

o More C in gram of fat

o More O in gram of carbohydrate so it’s already partly oxidized.

2

Respond to cell’s needs

• Key points of control

o Phosphofructokinase

� Allosteric regulation of enzyme

• “can’t turn back” step

before splitting glucose

� AMP & ADP stimulate

� ATP inhibits

� citrate inhibits

Why is this regulation important?

• Balancing act: Availability of raw materials vs.

Energy demands vs. Synthesis.

ATP Accounting (From G

lucose to ATP)

Glycolysis

Glucose + 2 ATP

= 2 Pyruvate

4 ATP

2 NADH

Oxidation of Pyruvate

2 Pyruvate

= 2 Acetyl CoA

2 CO

2

2 NADH

Kreb’s Cycle

2 Acetyl CoA

= 4 CO

2

2 ATP

2 FADH

2

6 NADH

ETC

10 NADH +

2 FADH

2

= ~34 ATP

(~3 ATP per NADH &

~2 ATP per

FADH

2)

This yields approxim

ately 38 Total

ATP from 1 glucose m

olecule.

But why does the NADH from

Glycolysis make less ATP per

molecule than the NADH from the

Kreb’s Cycle during the ETC?