CEDF 5100 Christian Education and Formation in the Church North Park Theological Seminary January 11-15, 2016 Linda Cannell Course Description This course will introduce the tensions and dimensions of historical, theological, and pedagogical foundations of Christian formation. Time will be given to discussing leadership concerns as ministry leaders of Christian formation. This course will facilitate a broad awareness of Christian formation in the Church. North Park Theological Seminary provides services for students with documented disabilities to ensure equal access to programs, services, facilities, and activities. Students with a disability who believe that they may need accommodations in this class are encouraged to contact Seminary Academic Services as soon as possible. If desired or necessary, discussion pertaining to documentation and accommodation can take place at another suitable location or by telephone. Further information about the American Disabilities Act Services is found in the Student Academic Handbook.

Course Focus A couple of centuries ago, the church began to “give away” two of its most essential functions to other institutions: education and mission. To a certain extent the decision to outsource certain aspects of education and mission is justified; but today it is becoming increasingly apparent that decisions made in a previous era may have negative consequences for the church. We will explore the issue. Another issue is the change in terminology over time. In the 1960s in North America, the term Christian education was commonly used, accompanied by the use of the term Christian religious education. Both terms were understood to describe many of the same concepts and activities. In recent decades, and especially as the term “Christian education” fell into disrepute; and to get away from a predominately programmatic view of the church’s educational responsibilities, the term Christian formation came into use. We will discuss issues related to this transition. Finally, in recent years, language such as “the learning congregation” signals that something more is emerging—something more holistic. We will discuss this matter. Course Format and Participant Responsibility This course will be conducted in a seminar fashion. In other words, my responsibility is to “set the table” and provide opportunity for you to respond to the subject matter in a way that demonstrates your continued understanding of the issues; and that allows you to make concrete application to your ministry context or vocational direction. Pre-Seminar Reading No text is assigned. 1. Read ONE novel—a biography or a novel of historical fiction or non-fiction.

a. A Non-Fiction Biography: The biography is to be about a character from any period of history and culture/ethnicity. The character should have made a difference in some arena of life (e.g., teaching, community development, political leadership, medicine, etc) that can be described as educative and/or formative in nature.

b. Historical Non-Fiction: Choose a novel of historical fiction or non-fiction from any period of history and representative of any culture/ethnicity. The events in the novel should be a story invested with educational and/or formative influence broadly conceived.

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2. Read the four attachments included with this syllabus. The intent of this reading is to lay groundwork for conversation concerning the nature of the church and the nature of teaching and learning.

Learning Assignment Select ONE of the following learning tasks:

Consider a document of no more than five pages. You are creating this document to help stimulate conversation about issues related to Christian formation in your church, or other organization. In one of the pages, describe key elements of Christian formation efforts in church or organization. You don’t have to describe this in detail because the leadership team you present this to will likely be aware of the elements. Then, in about four pages describe what you believe to be key issues (likely 2-4) that the leadership team needs to pay attention to concerning the ongoing development of Christian formation/education efforts. For example, what are the layers of leadership and how compatible are those layers with what needs to happen in formation in the congregation or organization; what questions need to be raised about the reporting and assessment procedures (including budget); and what do you want to alert the leadership to with regard to the ongoing development of leadership? This work could undergird a proposal for a new initiative; or the examination of current processes.

Research a denomination’s view of Christian formation and the ways in which the relevant department(s) resources it. If possible, contact 2-3 key denominational representatives who work in the area of formation and ask them for a definition of Christian formation—and perhaps their personal perspective on how it is supported in local congregations. Choose one or two of their educational packages or initiatives and identify the main audience, objectives, methods, and outcomes. From your research, describe underlying theological, sociological, developmental and/or pedagogical principles that shape the development of the denomination’s resources and the ways in which they are used. Pose at least two issues from your research that you believe the denomination needs to pay attention to related to Christian formation/education in their churches. Your report is to be no more than 5-6 pages in length.

Anticipated Learnings as a Result of Participation in this Seminar

Identification of factors from past decisions and trends in the development of today’s Christian formation emphases; and to formulate a critically reflective response concerning the efficacy of today’s patterns and assumptions with regard to Christian formation.

Identification of instructional processes one most commonly uses in teaching and facilitating formation experiences; and realization of the ways in which one’s choices shape the learning and formative responses of participants.

Development of a strategy for continuous improvement of one’s practices in formation/education (e.g., how to increase knowledge of basic instructional design principles, how to continue awareness of the variety of teaching approaches, how to practice various approaches).

Decisions about the nature of programs or strategies that support learning and formation.

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Development of guidelines related to the continuous development of lay leaders involved in learning and formation experiences.

Additional Resources for Your Ongoing Ministry The following titles will inform thought and practice related to congregational learning and formation. You are not expected to read these for this seminar. We will keep adding titles and Internet links to this list during the seminar. Once I know who is in the seminar and what your particular interests and background experiences are I will create a group folder with additional resources. Brookfield, Stephen Brookfield. 2011. Teaching for Critical Thinking: Tools and Techniques to Help Students Question Their Assumptions. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Brookfield, Stephen. 2013. Powerful Techniques for Teaching Adults. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Brueggemann, Walter. 1982. The Creative Word: Canon as a Model for Biblical Education. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. Chandler, Diane. Christian Spiritual Formation: An Integrated Approach for Personal and Relational Wholeness. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2014 Dykstra, Craig. 2005. Growing in the Life of Faith: Education and Christian Practices (second edition). Westminster John Knox Press. Fink, Dee L. 2003. Creating Significant Learning Experiences: An Integrated Approach to Designing College Courses. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Foster, Charles. 1982. Teaching in the Community of Faith. Nashville, TN: Abingdon. Foster, Charles. 1994. Educating Congregations: the Future of Christian Education. Nashville: Abingdon Press. Freire, Paulo. 1970, 1993. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum Galindo, Israel and Marty Canaday. Planning for Christian Education Formation: A Community of Faith Approach. Chalice Press, 2010 Harris, Maria. 1989. Fashion Me a People: Curriculum in the Church. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press. Hill, Kenneth. 2007. Religious Education in the African American Tradition. St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press. Hodgson, Peter. 1999. God’s Wisdom: Toward a Theology of Education. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Kinnaman, David and Gabe Lyons. unChristian: What a New Generation Really Thinks about Christianity... and Why It Matters. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2007. Lee, Boyung. Transforming Congregations through Community: Faith Formation from the Seminary to the Church. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2013. May, Scottie, Beth Posterski, Catherine Stonehouse, and Linda Cannell. 2005. Children Matter: Celebrating Their Place in the Church, Family, and Community. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Melchert, Charles. 1998. Wise Teaching: Biblical Wisdom and Educational Ministry. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International Moore, Mary Elizabeth Mullino. 1991. Teaching from the Heart: Theology and Educational Method. Fortress Press Moore, Mary Elizabeth Mullino. 2004. Teaching as a Sacramental Act. Cleveland: The Pilgrim Press Palmer, Parker. 1983. To Know as We Are Known: a Spirituality of Education. Harper and Row. Reed, Angela. Quest for Spiritual Community: Reclaiming Spiritual Guidance for Contemporary Congregations. Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2011 Seymour, Jack ed. 1997. Mapping Christian Education: Approaches to Congregational Learning. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. Seymour, Jack and Margaret Ann Crain and Joseph Crockett. 1993. Educating Christians: The Intersection of Meaning, Learning and Vocation. Abingdon Press. Thomas, Douglas and John Seely Brown. 2011. A New Culture of Learning: Cultivating the Imagination for a World of Constant Change. Thomas and Brown.

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Willard, Dallas. 2002. Renovation of the Heart. Colorado Springs, Colorado: Navpress. Willard, Dallas. 1998. The Divine Conspiracy. HarperSanFrancisco. (See chapter 9 “Curriculum for Christ Likeness”) Wimberly, Anne Streaty and Evelyn Parker. In Search of Wisdom: Faith Formation in the Black Church. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 2003

Contact Information Linda Cannell 5250 Grand Ave., Suite 14-211 Gurnee, IL 60031 Mobile: 847.863.1227 Email: lmcannell@comcast.net When you submit papers please add email address, your campus box number or other mailing address to the title page. I prefer to have papers submitted to me electronically but will accept hard copies if you cannot send them electronically. If you send hard copy, it is not necessary to provide a SASE for returning papers. When you submit hard copy please do NOT use plastic covers—a staple or nothing is fine.

Linda Cannell retired as the Academic Dean at North Park Theological Seminary in December 2011. For two years, she was Lois W. Bennett Distinguished Professor of Educational Ministries at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, in South Hamilton, Massachusetts, and for nineteen years before that professor of Educational Ministries and director of the Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Studies program at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School in Illinois. She has served as a Minister of Education, as a faculty member at Winnipeg Theological Seminary (now Providence Seminary), Regent College, Vancouver, Ontario Theological Seminary (now Tyndale Seminary) in Toronto, and as a guest lecturer at colleges and seminaries in Canada, the United States, the Philippines, Kenya, Brazil, among other countries. She has served in several capacities on church staffs. In Canada, she directed EEQUIP Ministries for eight years serving as a consultant to churches, denominations, and theological schools in Canada and the United States. Until 2013 she directed the Candospirit Network, a nonprofit initiative designed to connect leaders across organizations and countries. She directs the Ward Consultation a dialogical forum for leaders internationally to exchange ideas related to issues of local concern; and until 2014 served as the managing editor of the Common Ground Journal (www.commongroundjournal.org)

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ATTACHMENT #1

It seems that every decade or so, the institutional form of the church reinvents itself. It is no wonder

that some members of congregations weary of proposals to adopt the next “new” approach to congregational life and ministry. One pastor of a ‘mega-church’ observed that his church was now a traditional church as new forms make their way onto the stage!

The focus of this article is not to disparage particular forms of church life or structure. We should know by now that forms come and go. More to the point, how do we think about the inevitability of institutional structure in relation to leadership and congregational development, and to congregational development and theological education? A Sign of Maturing Leadership: Beginning to Understand God’s Purposes for God’s People

A maturing understanding of the character and role of leadership corresponds with the way one views organizational structure. Consider a biblical example. Moses’ father-in-law Jethro devised an organizational structure that is sometimes idealized in how-to-do-it leadership texts. I concur with Tom Bloomer’s assertion that Christian management teaching has focused on Exodus 18 as illustrating a management principle to be put into practice, with its mathematical, pyramidal authority structure, forgetting that this plan was given to Moses as an interim solution at the time of Israel’s immaturity.1 The more significant lessons about how to lead a people are found closer to the end of Moses’ life. For example, in Exodus 33 a more seasoned Moses asked God to show him his glory. The passage takes on greater significance when it is compared with events described in Exodus 3. Chapters 3 and 33 describe essentially the same thing—God showing Moses his glory. In Exodus 3, God commands Moses to return to Egypt to deliver the people of God. In Exodus 33, Moses had learned a great deal more about what that command actually entailed, and the nature of his role in relation to God’s purpose. God manifested himself as powerfully in Exodus 3 as he did in chapter 33; however, the difference is found in Moses’ readiness for and perception of God’s

1 Tom Bloomer is Provost, University of the Nations, YWAM (Youth with a Mission)

June 2014

Trying to Get it Right: Taking Seriously the Church as the People Gathered by God by Linda Cannell

Abstract. This article 1 explores the responsibilities of leadership and organizational matters related to congregations. The primary tasks for members of congregations are to discern their identity and purpose as the people of God, and to live consistently in relation to that identity. It takes more than the ordinary conventional patterns of leadership and organization to help the people of God accomplish these tasks.

Abstract. This article* explores the responsibilities of leadership and organizational matters related to congregations. The primary tasks for members of congregations are to discern their identity and purpose as the people of God, and to live consistently in relation to that identity. It takes more than the ordinary conventional patterns of leadership and organization to help the people of God accomplish these tasks. *Adapted from Linda Cannell. 2008. Trying to Get it Right: Taking Seriously the Church as a People Gathered by God. Common Ground Journal v6 n1 (Fall): 11-20. www.commongroundjournal.org Accessed June 2014.

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appearance. In Exodus 33, Moses’ statements about the forming of a people are extraordinarily profound, much more profound than he could ever have imagined in Exodus 3 when he was being asked to return to Egypt as Deliver. In Exodus 33, Moses said, “We are not even a people unless you are with us.” In Exodus 3 he was more concerned about himself and what the people would think of him. Exodus 33 reveals Moses’ more mature understanding of God’s purpose for this emerging nation.

The story of Jethro’s plan tempts us to equate success in congregational leadership with creating efficient structures to manage groups of people. The profound lesson that Moses had to learn, and the profound lesson that we all have to learn, is that efficient systems are not necessarily a sign that a congregation has finally got it right. Our limited understanding of what is “right” can only be found in the growing apprehension of God’s intentions for the people that God has gathered to accomplish God’s purposes. Purposes of Organizational Structures in Congregations It is inevitable that churches will implement organizational structures; but church leaders and members need to give more thought than is typical to the particular nature and purpose of those structures. The premise of this article is that the church should be organized as a community—with its members committed to worship, service, and learning. The term ‘learning organization,’ popularized by Peter Senge and others, suggests that entire organizations are able to learn, and must learn if they are to develop.2 In the early literature on the concept, Watkins and Marsick wrote that the design of a learning organization depends on (1) the creation of continuous learning opportunities, (2) encouragement of inquiry and dialogue, (3) collaboration and team learning, (4) systems that will capture and disseminate learning, (5) the empowerment of persons toward a shared vision, and (6) the linking of the organization to its environment.3 Learning organizations are viewed as living systems rather than as rational, if not mechanistic, structures put in place to manage people and product. While the idea of a learning organization has proven to be easier to write about than to accomplish, the notion is sound.

2 Simply put, a learning organization is one that is continuously assessing, reflecting, learning—and

adapting. Early critiques of the movement suggested, rightly, that this shift in organizational behavior (from static structures and top down leadership) was an idea whose time had come but that the skills required of leaders and members of organizations had not been defined well—and that leaders were attempting to implement the dynamics of a learning organization (e.g., dialogue, mutual decision making, formative assessment and so on) before the skills had been nurtured within the organization. However, the concept is evolving. Compare Sarita Chawla and John Renesch (eds). 1995. Learning Organizations: Developing Cultures for Tomorrow’s Workplace. Portland, OR: Productivity Press, 1995, 2006); Peter Senge. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization (New York, NY: Doubleday, 1990, 2006); Thomas Hawkins. The Learning Congregation: a New Vision of Leadership. (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1997); Peter Senge. The Dance of Change: The Challenges to Sustaining Momentum in a Learning Organization, a Fifth Discipline Resource. (New York, NY: Crown Business, 2014). See also Joe D. Marlow. Beyond Teaching: The Congregation as a Learning Community Christian Education Journal, Volume 16, 1 (Fall 1995): 63-78. Marlow maintained that a learning organization is superbly equipped for two functions: planning and change. He described the shift from the program church, to the needs based church, to the teaching church, and now to the learning congregation.

3 Karen Watkins and Victoria Marsick. Sculpting the Learning Organization. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1993).

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Congregations as institutions require certain organizational procedures for legal and functional reasons, and churches have relatively similar programmatic structures. However, the church is also something profoundly spiritual, its essence knowable only in part. It is an institution, but it is also the people of God who are expected to learn and practice attitudes and behaviors mandated by and pleasing to God. Since this learning will be complete only in eternity, the maturing of the character God expects is the project of a life time—lifelong learning for congregations if you will.4 No congregation is perfect, the collective behaviors of its member and leaders never fully mature, no matter how polished its programs, attractive its promotion, smoothly executed its services, or well run its business meetings. In fact, a flawless appearance is probably a sign that all is not well! In effect, congregations and leaders of congregations will never ‘get it right.’ In this regard, Ted Ward’s image of organizations as leaky boats is apt. As leaders we will spend all our years of service in organizations bailing!

If becoming the people of God can be differentiated from the quest for institutional success, then questions can be asked about what organizational processes will foster the congregation’s awareness of its identity and purpose as the people of God; encourage corporate reflection (and, when necessary, repentance) concerning differences between corporate behavior and what God clearly expects of the people of God; and to provide opportunity for all members to practice the character God expects.

Organizing a congregation in this manner is much more difficult than simply organizing programs, services, committees, and the other familiar patterns of organizational life. Any organization will need to create job descriptions and statements of purpose and mission, and present plans for this and that, and so on; but, the more difficult and absolutely essential task for the church is to envision organizational processes that will enable the congregation to learn how to be the people of God and to act upon that knowledge. Moses ultimately did learn the difference between organizing a nation and leading God’s people. Organizational Processes for Maturing Congregations In many respects the church can be seen as an institution, but its character as a human enterprise must be carefully subsumed within the absolute understanding of the church as God’s enterprise among people. This understanding is especially important because dynamics inherent in structures and procedures in organizations profoundly affect the behavior and attitudes of their members. Members of the church, whether they are aware of it or not, are engaged in processes where the power and authority of God are foremost. And the processes that make it possible for members and leaders to discern God’s intent must be subordinate to programs and other systems commonly put in place by human beings. Among other things, the choices a congregation makes about organizational structures reveals attitudes toward decision-making, the willingness to embrace diversity and allow difference of perspective, and the competency of people.

In any organization, two of the fundamental tasks of leadership are to discern the capacities of people, and to foster an environment where they can test their capacities and learn—and flourish. Charles Handy 5 has observed that organizations typically operate on the assumption of

4 An effective way to gain insight into the character God mandates is to read through all the letters to

the churches in the New Testament and to list the admonitions, commands, encouragements and descriptions of the churches.

5 See Charles Handy. The Hungry Spirit: Beyond Capitalism, a Quest for Purpose in the Modern World. (New York: Broadway Books, 1998).

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incompetence. Therefore, instead of developing people, leadership behavior is characterized by control, issuing of directives, attempts to hold power over the other, and resolution of conflict or differences by memo. When an organization functions on the assumption of competence, on the other hand, paying attention to the development of people and the release of creative imagination is at least possible.

Because the church serves God by serving people, the tension between human action and godly purpose must be held in responsible partnership. Any effective organization nurtures relationship, fosters development, recognizes personal and corporate growth, and provides room for responsible action. The church is no different but guidance may be needed to help the pastor as shepherd accept the fact that members must become more than responsible sheep. Pastors are fond of talking about “their” church and about their role as shepherds of the flock. The metaphor has biblical precedent but when and how do the sheep become shepherds! Without empowerment and the embrace of responsibility, members of congregations are kept in a perpetual state of dependent ministry. The theological curriculum, then, must accomplish more than to teach pastoral/ministry leaders how to build competency in organizational management. Pastoral/ministry leadership will also be seen exercising competencies such as the following:

Maintaining responsible tension between human activity and godly intent.

Helping congregational members discover their identity and purpose as the people of God and the actions and character God expects.

Enabling diverse perspectives to be heard; and to “authorize” the voice(s) of wisdom from within the congregation that, when needed, will confront, admonish, correct, encourage.

Leading the congregation to seek the mind of God, leaving the way open for the Holy Spirit to communicate the mind of God in the midst of the congregation.

Developing a variety of ways to encourage learning and embodiment of knowledge and character in responsible action, service, and justice.

At each stage of a congregation’s development, leaders learn to ask the right questions, and

they recognize the importance of worship and ritual. A congregation realizes the relationship godly purpose and human action by bonding the human (social) aspects of institutions to spiritual motive and godly character. In this regard, certain basic Christian commitments are practiced to energize the congregation. For example,

Worship brings us before God and obligates response. Maturing congregations seek to learn the meaning of worship. Corporately they ask questions and seek to discern what God requires in worship.

Service engages the people of God with real issues in societies. Maturing congregations recognize that they are communities of reconciliation, seekers of justice, and a grace-full presence in society.

Teaching and the commitment to learning deepen understanding and responsible action. Maturing congregations recognize that discipleship is not optional.

It is important to recognize that these key commitments are not manifestations of the

church’s institutional character whose systems were created by human beings. They are the evidence of God’s intent for the people of God. Yet, certain skills and actions accompany the commitments that distinguish the people of God. For example, maturing congregations learn the art of dialogue

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that is “more than just talk.” They are comfortable with silence, and are learning how to open their hearts and minds to God. Evidences of maturing relationship are seen as the community interacts across cultural, social, gender and age boundaries. People moving toward maturing give time and place to hear those who are ‘apt to teach’ and not novices.6 Opportunity is created for corporate and individual reflection on experience, inquiry into questions of faith and issues requiring response, reading, discussing, developing and executing proposals for service. Feasts, rituals, and/or festivals are created to celebrate God’s past and present acts among his people.

Further, congregations don’t go back to “square one” each time there is an infusion of new people. Church leaders and members devise ways to help newcomers understand distinguishing commitments, corporate history, and opportunities for service. As hospitable communities, maturing congregations also devise ways for the gifts and experience of newcomers to become known so that they can enrich the life of the congregation. In this way, the church as the people of God becomes a living system. Congregational Practices: Evidences of Basic Commitments Worship, service, and learning may be worked out in programs (institutional formats); but the godly purpose of these commitments will be lost if they are envisioned only in terms of program and structure. Craig Dykstra and others have described practices derived from Scripture and the long history of the Christian church. These “congregational practices” are not skills or activities in the programmatic sense but can be seen as the evidences of basic Christian commitments and particular to learning congregations. Dykstra asserts that these practices cross regional, cultural, socio-economic, and ethnic boundaries. In 1985, he identified the following as the more significant practices of the community of faith:7

(1) telling the Christian story to one another; (2) interpreting together the meaning of that story for our life in the world; (3) worshiping God together: praising God and giving thanks for God’s redemptive work in the world and for our lives together; (4) praying together; (5) listening and talking attentively to one another; (6) confessing to one another, and forgiving and reconciling with one another; (7) tolerating one another’s failures and encouraging one another; (8) giving one another away, letting go of one another, freeing each other for the work each must do and the life each must live; (9) performing faithful acts of service and witness; (10) suffering for and with other people; (11) providing hospitality and care, not only to one another but also (perhaps especially) to strangers; and (12) criticizing and resisting all those powers and patterns (both within the church and in the world as a whole) which destroy human beings and corrode human community.8

6 The passages in the epistles often read as instructions for leaders (or as characteristics leaders

should demonstrate) are in reality to be read as instructions for the whole people of God. The possible exception is these two qualities which make sense if applied to those able to exercise more mature leadership.

7 The holistic nature of these practices is important. For example, to make one practice (e.g., hospitality) the defining behavior of the church fails to recognize the richness of the character that God expects of the church. Taken together, the practices could also form the basis for a diagnostic conversation. It is not uncommon for churches to use diagnostic tools as a way to get feedback about their institutional health. Yet those tools will not help a congregation understand how it is navigating the constructive tension between human action and godly intent.

8 Craig Dykstra. No Longer Strangers. Princeton Seminary Bulletin 6, no. 3 (November 1985): 188–200:197

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Dykstra stressed the importance of involvement in these practices and growing in

understanding of what they mean, and he argued that understanding of belief and the nature of one’s spiritual journey is fostered as participation in the practices becomes more complex and varied. 9 Dykstra continues to stress that practices are not activities or duties. They are rather biblically derived patterns of action in Christian community through which God’s grace, mercy, presence, and so on, can become known.10 Diana Butler Bass11 wrote that as congregations engage in religious practices they are formed into deeper patterns of service. Miroslav Volf and Dorothy Bass assert that practices become those things that congregations do over time to address human need in the light of God’s active presence.12 The Problem of Puzzles

We find it difficult to envision congregations in terms other than programs and services. We presume that these activities distinguish congregations from other organizations in society. Yet, it is puzzling that many people, Christian and non-Christian, seem to find little in churches that sets them apart from other helping organizations in society. Many today doubt the validity of religious institutions while, at the same time they are searching for spiritual meaning. For many in society—and in congregations—the church often does not have the kind of “persona” that even non-believers instinctively feel it should have. When the church fails to incarnate biblical principles and godly intentions, it becomes incomprehensible, not only to the world, but also to ourselves.

Essential Motives for the Church

“If Churches Were Parks” was an attempt early in my work among churches and theological

schools to use a metaphor to draw attention to the inauthenticity that results when leaders, and members, are preoccupied with personal and organizational success and efficiency.13

If we tore down our church buildings and replaced them with parks would the buildings be missed? If churches were parks, there would be trees and grass and places for pleasant walks, neighborhood families enjoying the changing seasons, and our ‘old ones’ sitting on benches telling children stories of their lives and faith. In the fall, as the leaves changed from green to yellow, orange and red, we could invite our friends and neighbors to corn roasts and BBQs; invite them to laugh with us, talk

See further elaboration in Dorothy Bass. Practicing Our Faith: A Way of Life for a Searching People. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998); Miroslav Volf and Dorothy Bass, eds. Practicing Theology: Beliefs and Practices in Christian Life. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001); Diana Butler Bass. The Practicing Congregation: Imagining a New Old Church. (Herndon, VA: The Alban Institute, 2004); and Craig Dykstra. Growing in the Life of Faith: Education and Christian Practices. Second Edition. (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005).

9 Dykstra 1985, 199 10 See http://www.practicingourfaith.org/what-are-christian-practices Accessed June 22, 2014

11 Diana Butler Bass. 2006. Christianity for the Rest of Us: How the Neighborhood Church is Transforming Faith. (San Francisco,CA: Harper).

12 Volf and Bass 2001. 13 Written in the early 1980s after a particularly difficult church board meeting where the quest for

success and institutional efficiency had trumped responsibility for the development of all the people of the congregation.

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with us, and enjoy the beauty of God’s creation—in the park. We could leave the children something wonderful in a world gone mad. In the winter we would roll in the snow with the neighborhood children, throw snowballs, create snow sculptures, and grow to know each other again as we walked under trees heavy with hoar frost. At Christmas, we would string colored lights, decorate a Christmas tree, savor the story of the nativity and sing carols under quiet stars. If churches were parks we would have to forsake our games of power and our dreams of empire for pleasant walks, snow forts, corn roasts, Christmas trees, carol sings, Easter pageants, and heart to heart talks with those who need to know why we still believe in God. If our churches were parks, all people could gather there; they could come whenever they wished, for there would be no locked doors or security windows on our parks—no stained glass windows to hide behind. Members of the church eating lunch in the park could strike up a conversation with a business person, university student, or shopper resting before heading home; admire the multi-colors of a group of teenagers and ask them if they are afraid of the world we have created for them; or angry because of the future we may have taken away from them. Of course, we would find pain in our parks. Lonely people, unhappy children, sullen youth. We might confront those trying to buy drugs in our parks. We might fear those who would hurt us and steal from us. If our churches were parks we would have to confront the world outside our buildings. We would have to be those who make peace and speak of redemption and hope rather than those who hide behind fortress walls and wish the world away. When God started the world, he put his man and woman in a park. He chose to walk and talk with his creation in a park. When we were cast out of the park, we began to build towers, empires, cities and temples. We had to acquire and possess—not only the present, but the past and the future as well. We found ways to control our world and other persons. It’s hard to do this in a park.

Admittedly, this short essay grew out of personal disappointment that the church as I knew it was not living up to the ideal that I had in mind. As I have grown older I am less naive about what can happen in congregations—the good and the bad—and my part as a cause. However, even as we recognize that organizational entropy is inevitable, we are obligated to lead wisely, which requires constant attention to what God demands of the church; to teach and lead faithfully which requires that we be among, not apart from the people of God; and to speak prophetically when necessary.

Dykstra14 posed two questions that are at the heart of what it takes to embody practices in congregations: “What does it mean to live the Christian life faithfully and well?” and “How can we help one another to do so?” We have accepted as normative models of organization that often do little to help congregations become the people who demonstrate the character and behavior God expects. The notion that we have to ask different questions,15 allow time for character to develop,

14 Dykstra 2005. 15 To improve question construction see such resources as Walter Bateman. Open to Question: The Art

of Teaching and Learning by Inquiry. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1990); Norah Morgan and Juliana Saxton. Teaching, Questioning and Learning. (Routledge, Chapman, Hall Inc., 1991); Neil Browne and Stuart Keeley. Asking the Right Questions: A Guide to Critical Thinking. Sixth Edition. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2001); Stephen Brookfield. Teaching for Critical Thinking: Tools and Techniques to Help Students Question Their Assumptions. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2011); Jane Vella. Learning to Listen, Learning to Teach. Revised Edition. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2002); David Cooperrider and Diana Whitney. Appreciative Inquiry: A Positive Revolution in Change. (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2005); Diana Whitney and Amanda Trosten-Bloom. The Power of Appreciative Inquiry: A Practical Guide to Positive Change. (San Francisco,

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give priority to spiritual over institutional goals, seems idealistic in the extreme. Yet, understanding their identity and purpose as the people of God, and learning to live authentically in relation to that understanding, are non-negotiable outcomes for the people of God. Similarly, those who sincerely seek to exercise leadership within a congregation may, like Moses, come to realize that God does have a purpose for the church that is so much greater than what we typically envision as a successful congregation.

Congregational Practices and Theological Education

If the pre-eminent role of leaders is to help members of congregations discover and live authentically in relation to their identity and purpose as the people of God, the nature and purpose of theological education also has to be considered in light of that role. Competencies such listening with understanding, creating a context wherein people can flourish, treating people across the various human boundaries with respect, making room for spiritual direction of others and spiritual development of oneself, responsible self-awareness, fostering dialogue, making wise decisions and helping others to do so, framing effective questions, interviewing with discernment, upholding principle with courage, and so on are essential when the church is accepted as being in constructive tension between human (institutional) activity and godly intent. The conventional theological curriculum (now generally considered to be hopelessly overcrowded with courses and programs) and instructional design that is held captive by schedules and the pressure to get courses done are just not adequate for the sort of formation that is required of pastoral leadership.

Note that while the term “theological education” is often a synonym for “theological school” that linkage is not satisfactory. Just as education does not equal public school, theological education does not equal theological school. Though the term itself is problematic (too broad to be definitive of anything), I would prefer to define theological education as “theological education for the whole people of God”; and to see theological schools as one way to get that job done.

Ted Ward asserts that the challenge of the 21st century is for institutions to learn how to relate to and work with other institutions. In The Necessary Revolution, Peter Senge states what should be obvious by now: the world is shaped by networks or webs of organizations. In commenting on the consequences of the Industrial Revolution on the 20th century, Senge observed that “No one had a plan for the Industrial Revolution. No ministry was put in charge. No single business led the way. . . . The Industrial Age was not planned but innovated. The next age will be no different. . . . today's

CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2003); and Juanita Brown with David Isaacs. The World Café: Shaping our Futures Through Conversations that Matter. (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2005). Brown (The World Café, 91) tells the story of two different approaches to asking questions in a community development effort: The less dynamic question was “Have you thought about cleaning up the river?” Apart from being the generally unproductive yes/no form, the question would not take the people to useful thinking that leads to action. In this case, the more useful questions were, “What do you see when you look at the river? How do you feel about the condition of the river? How do you explain the situation with the river to your children?” You might be able to frame other or different questions for this situation, but note the effort not to ask a question that betrays the agenda of the asker. The question invites the people to make their own judgments about the condition of the river. This approach is more risky for the community development specialist because it leaves open the possibility that the people will see the problem (and hence possible solutions) differently. But, the reality is that it is most often the people who live within the situation who will see the way through the problem more clearly. The advantage of an outsider’s perspective, of course, is when the insider has been blindsided by bias, tradition, or familiarity.

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innovators are showing how to create a different future by learning how to see the larger systems of which they are a part and to foster collaboration across every imaginable boundary.”16

The future of theological schools must include significant partnerships across agencies and with individuals that are likewise concerned about education and development. If we can accept this as a possible future, we no longer have to identify theological education with a particular institutional form (e.g., seminary or church); and, it should be noted, we are also freed from identifying education with particular methods and curriculum. Learning can result from many and varied instructional formats and venues (e.g., the classroom is one venue—and not necessarily to most effective). Further, schools are able to define what it is that schools are uniquely designed to accomplish—avoiding as they do so the tendency to avoid certain besetting sins of the academy and to establish productive integration with forms of education, wherever they may be found, that are better suited for professional/ministry education and development.

Tasks appropriate to theological education, then, are to uphold the quality of congregational practices, examine them against the long history of the church, and situate them in societies and cultures. Orienting theological education for the whole people of God to the practices of congregations would seem more defensible than orienting it primarily to some grand intellectual project, or to developing management skills. When we identify the practices of congregations with the theological quest to know God truly,17 matters of piety and knowledge and responsible service are seen as one whole; concerns about organizational patterns and leadership style are not permitted to devolve to a pragmatic concern for what works.

Mission is the meaning of the church. . . . The church becomes the mission, the living outreach of God to the world. The church exists only insofar as it carries Christ to the world. The church is only part of the mission, the mission of God sending his son to the world. Without this mission, there would be no church. The idea of church without mission is an absurdity.18

God said, “I will build my church.” It is neither our responsibility nor our right to seek to build it ourselves. David Bosch’s oft-quoted aphorism is apt: The church doesn’t have a mission; the mission has a church. Preoccupation with building institutions and empires causes us to lose sight of the reality that the purpose and mission of congregations, the people of God, is God’s alone to define and ours to seek to discern and to respond in humble obedience.

16 Peter Senge, Peter, Bryan Smith, Nina Kruschwitz, Joe Laur, and Sara Schley. The Necessary

Revolution: How Individuals and Corporations are Working Together to Create a Sustainable World. (New York, NY: Doubleday, 2008) pp. 9-10.

17 Kelsey, David. To Understand God Truly: What’s Theological about a Theological School? (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1992).

18 Vincent Donovan. Christianity Rediscovered. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2003), p. 77.

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ATTACHMENT #2

Summary and Excerpts from Sharan B. Merriam and Associates. 2007. Non-Western Perspectives on Learning and Knowing. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company.

Authors who contributed to the book were asked to reflect on the following questions:

1. How is learning thought of and/or what is the purpose of learning from this perspective? 2. What is the nature of knowledge?

Is it passed down from one generation to the next? Is it constructed? Both? Is it ‘spread’ across the community?

Is there a body of knowledge to be learned? If so, where is this body of knowledge? In peoples’ memories? Embedded in everyday life? In stories and myths? In books? Oral or written or both?

3. How is this knowledge learned? Through practice, memorization, apprenticeship, formal classes?

4. How is it known when one has learned? Who decides that one has learned? 5. What is the role of the teacher? Who can be a teacher? 6. What is the end result of learning? A better, more moral person? A wise person? An

independent/interdependent person? A knowledgeable person? A better community? A more equitable society?

7. What is the role of society, community, and/or family in learning? 8. How does this perspective on learning manifest itself in your society to day? That is, can we

see evidence of this perspective/philosophy in your society today? (Preface, ix) Most of the influence on views of knowledge, learning, and instruction has come from Scholars and researchers from North America, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Though the authors use the device of Western/non-Western approaches, attempting to address the problem of understanding different views of learning by posing a dichotomy is unsatisfying—primarily because a dichotomy is typically a Western construct. “Also problematic is the suggestion that ‘Western’ is the gold standard against which we measure non-Western thus depriving non-Westerners of having legitimate knowledge apart from Western norms” (2-3). “Independence, separation, and hierarchies characterize a Western perspective, a view in direct contrast to most non-Western worldviews” (3). “The domination of Western thought is sustained through ‘scientific’ research; colonization of the world is now intellectual and conceptual” (4). One way of understanding the Western/non-Western dichotomy is to understand what counts as legitimate knowledge, who constructs knowledge, and who communicates it. “For colonized peoples, the knowledge that counts has been the knowledge of their European or American colonizers” (4).

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Western scientific method tends to preclude any other form of knowledge building and “Since changes are the result of long periods of research and testing, Western science lacks the flexibility of other systems of knowing and learning. Many other traditions have traditionally passed on knowledge orally rather than in written form . . .” (5). In the Indian context for example, firm conclusions are not required for something to be accepted as knowledge; the word of the elders is sufficient authentification; and mystery is permitted. Western science, on the other hand, is uncomfortable with unexplained experience (5). “The separation of knowledge from its context and its codification according to Western science has had an impact on educational thought and practice. Education has become synonymous with ‘schooling,’ such that adult learners have a difficult time thinking of their learning in anything but participation in formal classes. Informal learning which adults engage in on a daily basis is rarely identified as important learning” (5). Preoccupation with Western notions of learning prevents “new ways of thinking about learning and how these perspectives differ from what we have grown up believing about learning, knowing, education, the teacher-student relationship, and so on. The presentation of non-Western perspectives challenges the hegemony of Western ways of knowing” (7). Culture and indigenous knowledge are explored. “There are hundreds of definitions of culture. Basically, culture consists of the shared behavior and symbolic meaning systems of a group of people” (7). The use of language is a critical component of knowing. For example, Western languages tend to focus on nouns which leads to categorization or naming; Eastern languages tend to focus on verbs which encourages relationship or making connections. Western thought is more analytic; Eastern thought is more holistic (8). “Unfortunately, Western colonizing also brought with it an educational system requiring the learning of languages of the colonizer. . . . As language is an expression of culture and of systems of thought, non-Western traditions of learning were devalued, marginalized, and often brutally suppressed” (8). (The authors do note that while linking the terms Western and non-Western to culture is inadequate, it is a shorthand for comparison.) The various cultural designations “capture, imperfectly of course, some of the differences that in turn affect not only how we see the world, but how learning experiences are interpreted” (9). The term “indigenous” can be identified with idealized notions that indigenous knowledge and practices are the answer to the world’s problems. Though some prefer the term local knowledge (since indigenous knowledge is that which is produced to deal with local problems and issues), the authors maintain that the term indigenous knowledge is the more commonly used designation (11). Indigenous knowledge is organic “in the sense that it is generated within the daily lives of people in local context . . .” (11). Indigenous knowledge is typically passed on orally from one generation to the next. Learning is fostered differently from what is experienced typically in schools—through

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story, poetry, myth ritual, dreams, art and recognizing the elder as “professor” (11). “When an elder dies in Africa, it is a library that burns.” African proverb Non-Western perspectives of learning (e.g., Buddhism, Islam, Hinduism, Confucianism) may incorporate indigenous systems of knowing, but the major philosophical or religious systems of thought are described as non-Western. For some, Western knowledge systems are a form of intellectual apartheid in that they tend to be closed systems, institutionalized, self-contained and to a certain extent project a sense of righteousness. Non-Western and indigenous forms of knowing, often based on thousands of years of experience, are dismissed as “primitive” (11-12). Graduate education tends to privilege “Western knowledge codified in Western textbooks, academic journal, and conference proceedings. . . . The hegemony of the Western ‘scientific’ perspective is also in evidence in the schools and universities of the non-Western world where Western textbooks, theories, and research are valued over local or regional resources” (12). “Certainly a more palatable approach would be to uncover and acknowledge what people already know, then see how exposure to another system can enhance their development and their practice” (13). One proposal is to merge indigenous knowledge (tacit and experience-bound) with external sources of knowledge (explicit and organized) (13). “Being open to how someone with a worldview different from one’s own learns and instructs can be rewarding” (13). For example, the Aboriginal people of Australia learn through observation and listening rather than through asking questions (13). In an increasingly diverse society, “The purpose of examining other systems is not to replace the Western tradition, but to expand our understanding of learning and knowing so that our practice as educators can be more inclusive and effective” (14). “Closely aligned with this purpose is that considering other ways of knowing leads us to examine how knowledge is produced, who interests are being serviced by this knowledge, and how knowledge come to be validated or ‘official’ (14). Education then becomes something more than the transmission of validated Western content. Education allows for analysis of different perspectives, interpretation, investigation of how knowledge is produced, and the structures of power inherent in knowledge. Understanding other perspectives on learning shapes our understanding of the effect of instructional approaches. For example, for many Asians speaking out in class may cause the teacher or another to lose face. An Asian student would prefer to dialogue with the instructor outside of class. Further silence is considered a positive trait. The one who speaks is one who does not know. Silence in Asian culture is also seen as a strength, a form of power, and can be interpreted as disagreement; while in Western contexts silence is seen as shyness, or weakness (15) (or ignorance). Similarly, personal sharing is viewed by Asian students as weakness, or bad manners (16).

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Chapter 2. Mazalan Kamis and Mazanah Muhammad. Islam’s Lifelong Learning Mandate. pp. 21-40

From the first word revealed by God to Muhammad that is Iqra meaning ‘read,’ to the name Qur’an which means ‘The Reading,’ it is a well-accepted notion among Muslims that knowledge and the pursuit of knowledge or learning are of paramount importance to Islam. In almost all the Qur’an’s 114 chapters, the concern of education, knowledge, and learning is mentioned. As evidenced in the Qur’an, Islam guides every facet of a Muslim’s life from the moment one is born until the day one departs from this world. In this respect, this chapter will show that seeking knowledge is a lifelong learning agenda ordained by Islam. (22)

Two sources of knowledge in Islam are the Qur’an (the literal words of God given to Muhammad) and the Hadith (a collection of saying and deeds of Muhammad). When Muhammad was in retreat in a cave in Mecca a presence appeared in the cave commanding him to read. Muhammad protested that he couldn’t read, but the presence persisted. The Being repeated verses to Muhammad which is memorized. “To the Muslims, the fact that the first command God handed down an illiterate 40-year-old man is related to the act of reading and writing suggest that learning and knowledge have to become a central theme in the teaching of Islam and the life of its followers. What this suggests is that in Islam a person is never too unintelligent to seek knowledge nor too old to embark on the journey of a lifetime” (24). For centuries, the Muslim culture produced significant advances in learning and provided centers for learning, influenced learning in Europe and contributed to the Renaissance. Unfortunately, the Crusades and later colonization of Muslim territory, led to the decline of knowledge and learning among Muslims (25). “In Islam, there are two major purposes of learning; the first purpose is to bring humankind closer to God, and the second is to bring humans closer to His creation or the society at large. Seeking knowledge for the sole purpose of worldly personal gain is abhorred by Islam” (25). Learning is also considered an act of worship—only those who have knowledge will know Allah well (26). Knowledge and learning are considered good if they stimulate virtue and enrich the community. “With the acquisition of knowledge. A person is duty bound to do something about it, and the failure to do so will incur the wrath of God” (27). “Unfortunately, the trampling of human rights that prevail in many Islamic nations of today only shows that they fail to fully adhere to the doctrines espoused by the Qur’an” (28). In Islam knowledge is divided into revealed knowledge (which every Muslim is obligated to gain) and acquired knowledge (which is not obligatory on individuals but rather on communities). For example, if a community doesn’t have a medical doctor, the community is obligated to send one or

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more of their community for medical training. Failure to do so results in each member sharing the community’s sin (28). The Islamic view of education is that it integrates reason, spirituality, and social dimensions of a person. The authors select four methodologies common to Islamic learning:

Memorization—certain chapters of the Qur’an must be memorized to perform the five daily prayers.

Knowledge circle—learners sit in a circle around the teacher listening and discussing issues.

Modeling—Muslims learn to live by emulating what the ways in which the Prophet lived his life.

Reflection—the Qur’an invites the use of the intellect, “to ponder, to think, to know, and to marvel of His creation, for the goal of human life is to discover the Truth which is none other than worshipping God in His Oneness” (32).

Learning in Islam is accepted as lifelong. Parents start their children on the path to learning immediately after birth. The father whispers the call to prayer in the baby’s ear so that the first thing he or she hears is of the greatness of God. Since the knowledge of God is infinitely vast, it takes a lifetime to acquire it—and only death can stop one from learning. Then the last thing a dying person hears is the whisper in the ear that which reminds of the oneness of God and of the Prophet as His messenger. The authors of this chapter are from Malaysia and they attest that formal and nonformal learning in rural and urban settings continues to be robust. The Qur’an exhorts Muslims to travel the earth in search of knowledge. This is done in pilgrimages, in emigration, travel with an educational purpose, and travel to visit shrines and the sick. Muslims are taught that journeys for the sake of learning are the way to paradise (36). In a proclamation controversial for its time, Muhammad is reputed to have said that the search for knowledge is the responsibility of all Muslims, regardless of gender (36). “Sadly, some so-called Muslim communities have been known to forbid their female populace from schooling or have access to certain fields of knowledge, an injunction that runs counter to the message brought by Islam” (36). Chapter 3. Paula Gunn Allen. American Indian Indigenous Pedagogy. Storytelling is a major way of assisting the young to find their place in their community. “In Indian country the story must be accompanied with actions that bespeak its underlying meanings” (44). Much education is indirect. For example, “suppose a child is having difficulty being respectful to others . . . The conversation at the supper table can be about how disrespectful some acquaintance has been on some occasion or another and the consequences of that disrespect” (47).

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“The most salient thing about ‘teaching around the edges,’ is that it rests almost entirely on showing how to function harmoniously and respectfully with integrity in what you do and the kind of person you are and you value, keeping a balance between traditional and modern ways” (50). “. . . traditional educational systems, formal and informal, create a holistic mode of thinking/perception that must be integrated with experience. This in turn is exhibited in a variety of ways, ‘thinking—or talking—around the edges’ being the most evident” (51). Indian pedagogy uses humor (a survival trait), and an interpersonal style that believes that what others do or believe is no one’s business but their own. Further, “The concept that all life is a circle, that everything has a place within, is descriptive of the thesis that underlies Indian pedagogy. If everything is connected to everything, if there is no ‘hero,’ no object or event that is foregrounded, privileged, over and above others without good, temporary reason, then learning must proceed in a cumulative and connected manner. This information must be translated into experience, and the combination built on, extended, expanded, until the student’s consciousness opens to grasp ever widening and deepening layers of comprehension and wisdom” (51). “Teaching around the edges has a variety of outcomes that function over the long term. One is that such teaching yields ever deepening layers of meaning over a lifetime” (53). Receiving information is not enough. A person must live with the new information until it becomes knowledge (54). Chapter 4. Hinduism and Learning. Swathi Nath Thaker “The Western notions of learning have, and still, dominate the field of adult education, with noncognitive forms of learning such as somatic learning and spirituality only recently emerging. While much of Western literature on learning and knowing suggests that the mind and body are split, a number of cultures around the world do not believe in this dichotomy, and Hinduism is no exception” (58). Hinduism is defined by the Vedas and ancient body of religious texts, largely unknown to most Hindus. However, “it is still regarded as an absolute authority which reveals the fundamental truth” (58). “. . . Hinduism argues that true empowerment emerges through an understanding of the sources of knowledge, not just its components, which in turn leads to unity with the universe. Thus, life for Hindus becomes not merely about learning facts and figures, but also about developing wisdom by forming a connection between the mind, body, and spirit” (58). There is no one founder for Hinduism, no central organization, and it holds to multiple perspectives on divinity or ultimate reality. Hindus believe this diversity contributes to their attitude of tolerance. There are two types of learning in Hinduism: (1) That which gains knowledge from the world—the source the environment. Modes of learning include study of the sacred writings, and interaction with the world through experience. (2) That which is concerned with self-understanding---its source is the person’s spirit and its method is introspection (meditation).

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Study of the sacred writings requires guidance from a wise teacher or guru. “Such knowledge is neither instinctive nor available through inward reflection. And while personal experience in daily living and in observing one’s society can furnish some of this information, much depends on formal study. For this, and other reasons, the connection between the teacher and student is critical and often one that is revered” (61). This relationship is for males. The more complex form of learning—self-understanding—has justice at its heart. People are not simply the product of their environment; they are responsible for their own development. Learning is not measured in years but in terms of mastery (of the scriptures, of rituals, vows, duties, and so on). The author acknowledges that the introduction of Western education to India has opened the doors for women and caused some erosion of the caste system. In the 21st century Western education continues to be dominant. But, as noncognitive modes become more evident, Eastern modes of thought are making inroads globally.

Chapter 5. Māori Concepts of Learning and Knowledge. Brian Findsen and Lavinia Tamarua.

“Traditional Māori learning has always been lifelong and lifewide, long before these concepts became fashionable in adult education circles and beyond” (75).

“. . . ako, the Māori word for learning, necessarily entails a historical and cultural dimenion and is also the work for teaching . . . Before Freire (1972) [The Pedagogy of the Oppressed] explained the concepts of teacher-student and student-teacher, the term ako did not differentiate between who

dispense knowledge and those who acquire it. Knowledge in Māori traditions, is always a collective entity so that any knowledge acquired by individuals also belongs to the tribe” (76).

“The Māori word ako literally means ‘to teach and to learn’ . . .” (87). Words which are separated in English and I many Euro-Western cultures, are literally one. Similarly, theory and practice are viewed as one entity.

Even though various forms of “ideological domination” of the Māori people persist, new Zealand is now recognized as a bi-cultural country (79). Traditional learning, in the formal environment, the marae (communal meeting place) was the place where issues were discussed and the knowledge of the tribe consolidated. The marae is crucial to maintenance of tribal identity. Learning is hierarchically and gender based. “Boys learned skills such as how to engage in oratory and extensive memorization related to genealogy; girls learned supportive roles such as hospitality, weaving, and caring” (81).

A strong mythology undergirds modern learning among the Māori. The mythology includes stories

and beliefs about ancient heroes, ancestors and various gods. “In the traditional Māori world certain spiritual concepts relevant to all spheres of living (e.g., education, justice, and health) were emphasized and permeated all learning contexts” (82).

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“Within the tribal structure, the status of elders was high, in acknowledgement of their lifelong experiences providing them with a knowledge base to be shared with younger members” (83). Early childhood curriculum stresses four fundamental principles: The empowerment of grandchildren’s learning and growth. Learning is holistic. The child is part of the wider world.

Recognition of “responsive and reciprocal relationships with people, places, and things” (85).

“Arising from these principles are five strands of well being, belonging, contribution, communication, and exploration” (85). “The important point about this conceptualization of learning based on principles is that it is not exclusive to young children but encapsulates the whole of life” (85). Learning is linked with four dimensions: the spiritual side, thoughts and feelings, the physical aspects, and emotional (85).

“There are strong links between Māori teaching/learning practices and the significance of group-oriented learning and reciprocity. Teaching/learning experiences demonstrate learning taking place with the nuclear and extended family where everyone who participates learns something new” (91). Chapter 6. Jienshen F. Shih. Buddhist Learning: A Process to be Enlightened. “For all Buddhists, to learn is to understand, practice, and prove the way toward ibtaining enlightenment through Buddha’s teachings. . . . The teachings from the experience of countless enlightened ones, tested and taught by the Buddha, and later written down as well as transmitted by his disciples, have been the guidelines for the followers and learners of Buddhism for thousands of years” (99). In Chinese Buddhism learning consists of three facets: reading and studying, thinking and reflection, and practicing. “Learning for Buddhists actually is an endless process of studying, reflection, and practicing” (103). The first teaching of the Buddha has to do with Four Noble Truths: accepting impermanence and suffering, understanding the causes of suffering and how the causes lead to suffering, to learn how to demolish the cause of suffering in order to stop suffering, and finally, there are ways to stop the causes of suffering and thus to “build the possibilities to become enlightened or to achieve so-called nirvana” (105). Next, there are eight paths toward attaining enlightenment: “Right View, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Behavior, Right Livelihood, Right effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration” (105). The paths are organized under three categories: keeping precepts,

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concentration of mind, and acting wisely. The entire system depends on living a disciplined and ethical life. “In Buddhism, teachers make use of scriptures, stories, and numerous dialogues between the Buddha and his disciples that are easily understood and close to the needs of the learners” (109). Chapter 7. Gabo Ntseane. African Indigenous Knowledge: The Case of Botswana. “given the legacy of colonialism and Western knowledge imperialism, an acute awareness has developed within nonacademic and academic circles to reclaim and explore the core essence of African indigenous knowledge and its contribution to humanity and science” (113). “. . . in traditional societies, education, learning, and training had their own specific principles, methods, and social institutional arrangements. For example, learning by doing instead of writing has been a prominent principle in the education of many ethnic groups for training intellect, imparting technical skills as well as moral values. However, a closer look at current practices in schools and adult literacy classes easily shows that both are acting strongly against this very important principle of African pedagogy” (113). In the oral culture that characterizes much of Africa, learning will not happen if the predominate view is to pass on useful information through books alone. Within the African indigenous knowledge system, learning includes learning to live happily in the context of family, society, one’s community, and with spirit’s of one’s ancestors. “Another distinguishing feature of African indigenous education is that informality, collective learning, oral mode of instruction, and acquisition of revealed knowledge through the processes of dreams and visions are common instructional methods” (114). “Education from an African perspective is in part an instrument of socializing people to their cultural heritage and value systems. . . . Education or lifelong learning is a collective activity that is supposed to help the individual in the collective to read the highest level of critically important values to the African’s way of life such as botho or humanism. By being botho or behaving with dignity . . . among the collective, the individual then becomes part of an empowering group of people who are honest, accommodating, sharing, responsible citizens who respect the young and the old” (114-115). Children observe, imitate, and participate in activities designed to enculturate them into their heritage and to give them useful knowledge to live in everyday reality. In African indigenous education there is little specialized training, and a distinct lack of professionalism (i.e., professional teachers); nearly every member of the community has a part to play (118). “although this chapter advocates for the African indigenization of adult education curriculum, it by no means advocates for a complete uprooting of the other cultural aspects in the current curriculum

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that are good. It has to be acknowledged that African indigenous knowledge systems need to be reconstructed so that only what is good is adapted” (129). Chapter 8. Simone C.O. Conceição and Augusto Marcos Fagundes Oliveira. Liberation Theology and Learning in Latin America. “In Latin America, learning and knowledge are embedded in everyday practices . . . Learning takes place in different forms and shapes, and for the most part it is invisible because it is undocumented or because it is not clearly recognized as learning or knowledge. Learning is not confined to a particular period in life; it is lifelong. In addition, learning is not restricted to formal education, which is classroom-based and connected to recognized educational institutions; rather it focuses on non-formal and informal education offered by organized educational activities outside the established formal system, such as in after-school programs, community-based organizations, church sites, or at home” (137-138). Liberation theology has influenced education in Latin America in that it created a consciousness that the professors were not exclusively found in schools but in among the poor and oppressed assisting them to “become the subjects of their own history” (139).

As part of their mission, church people realized that they needed to be in close contact with the poor and discover ways of sharing in their life. The first step was to live in the same situation as the poor-move to a rural area or barrio, live in a wooden shack, walk hours through the forest or jungle, wait in lines early in the morning to get water, tolerate dust and dirt during the dry season and mud during the rainy season, and so on. Another step included a model of engagement with the poor through grass-roots organizations or community organizing . . . .The grass-roots community organizations, widely known as Christian base communities or base communities, involved nonformal and informal types of instruction and shaped learning for the poor in Latin America. (139)

“Liberaton theology is a theology that is committed to the poor and oppressed. . . .The educational process related to liberation theology is based on actions and issues of survival. . . .The spiritual component of this process is founded on the concept of reviewing and revisiting the individual in his or her fullness as a human being. Spiritual experiences with God or the supernatural change traditional views of teaching and learning as the transmission of knowledge, and conceive knowledge as sharing, experiential, and dialogical. . . .Therefore, learning and knowledge are the result of living in society and fully experiencing the community as a lifelong undertaking, both collectively and individually” (141). “The purpose of learning is to foster consciousness raising (or ‘conscientization’), calls for action, citizenship, and attainment of functional literacy connected to the social and political context of the learner as opposed to objective learning or indoctrination” (142). “In the base communities the people are the source of knowledge. Knowledge is learned informally within a one-to-one or small group exchange, through performance, experience, or by example; it is the product of beliefs passed from generation to generation, community learning, and experiences gained through struggles. The main principle is that everyone teaches and learns from and with each other” (143).

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The educational work was informed by the work of Paulo Freire.

Nonformal learning may occur through advanced adult literacy classes in the base communities. Adult literacy for consciousness-raising based on Freire's (1970) methodology uses materials derived from the real lives of poor people--a small set of words and images from the adult world of the people (for peasants: crops, tools, customs, etc.). These words and images include all the letters of the alphabet and reflect important aspects of the life of the people such as work, poverty, the family, issues of conflict, the possibility of cooperation within a community, and power (such as land tenure). A session may start with a picture showing peasants harvesting a crop. Then, the facilitator may open a discussion by asking what participants see in the picture and encourage them to make observations. Discussion moves to participants’ own work, its value, and the problem of making ends meet. Before learning each work in print form, learners reflect on the concept by discussing its significance for their lives. The picture is a codification (observation) of the participants’ life experience decoded (reflection) through dialogue. The coding and decoding period may last 45 minutes or longer. After this type of discussion, the session moves to reading skills. The learner is an active participant in the classroom. Through observation and reflection, learners become aware of their poverty and struggles and recognize that these are not natural realities or the will of God. . . .

This methodology is so efficient that peasants to learn how to read in only a few weeks. Learning is contextual, experiential, and meaningful to them. As peasants learn how to read and write, they are able to become actively involved in their own growth, help their community come together, articulate their needs, and organize themselves into associations or unions (Berryman, 1987b). Learning is not just the acquisition of skills, but also the development of the whole person to become an independent and critical thinker. (150)

Chapter 9 Youngwha Kee. Adult Learning from a Confucian Way of Thinking “Confucianism is part of our world cultural heritage, the cornerstone of traditional Chinese and Korean culture and an integral part of contemporary Korean life. It is a complete ideological system created by Confucius, also known as Kung-futze who lived in 551-479 BC” (153).

As a great educator and educational philosopher, Confucius promoted the ideas to educate all despite their social status and to teach according to the learners' characteristics. The first of these broke with tradition as only the aristocracy had the privilege of education. In addition, he took great delight in studying and was modest enough to learn from anyone. He never got tired of teaching his disciples. Besides being a great educator and thinker, he was first of all an intellect with a noble morality. He pursued truth, kindness, and perfection throughout his life and his success and failure were largely due to his character. The essence of all his teachings may be summed under the first cardinal principle of Confucianism—humanity or love, which is represented by various social virtues . . . (154).

“There are four basic books of Confucianism on which Confucian notions and perspectives of adult learning are based: Confucian Analects, Mencius, Great Learning and Doctrine of the Mean. These four books were required reading in order to pass the civil service examinations, which were the gateway to employment in the imperial bureaucracy” (155).

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“The concept of adult learning is to imitate the virtues of a person in Chu His' 12th century interpretation of Confucian Analects. According to Chu His, a person who does not know how to act in a situation will follow the example of a person who does know.” Imitation of the Sages is true learning, rather than gaining skills. The Chinese characters Hak and Seb can be translated into one word "learning" in English. The notion of these words is that learning is to be enjoyed in everyday life and adult learning could not be separated from daily experience (156). “A human being should not only pursue the immediate and the practical. One should also be involved in the much larger context of culture” (157). Confucianism is also concerned that children learn “authentic human ways of intereacting” – how to greet another, how to show deference, and so on (157). It is also important for the human being to know the history of his or her community—that which has shaped the community. Then the person learns how to be a “responsible participant in the political community” (158). Finally, the learner is to recognize his or her role in the larger ecology of humanity and environment. “A main concern of Confucianism is how we learn to be human” (159). In Great Learning Confucius outlined a seven step process to become fully human: investigation of things, transformation of the attitude, sincerity of will, “rectification of the mind, cultivation of the personal life, regulation of the family, national order, and world peace” (159).

It is important to note that adult learning related to Confucianism cannot be used as a tool for achieving some goals in a certain situation. The contents of learning are not related to vocational or skill requirements. Learning is totally focused on spiritual things. Cultivating ethics becomes the center of learning, and the aim of learning is not to develop the rhetorical ability of delivering one's own ideas in the Western sense, but to acquire the ability to make intuitive and holistic moral judgments. The goal of learning is to become fully human, a perfect person who does not necessarily have to master eloquence but must have good ethics. (160)

Confucius’ principles of learning included “Peer Learning and No Regular Teacher” “Self-directed Learning and Constructive Thinking” “Reflective Thinking”

“Putting Theory into Practice” (160-163) The “learning process is continuous and constructed by learners through the inner self interacting with nature. It is a project that cannot be completed in a limited time frame. In fact, many Confucians contend that the process of learning to be fully human is unceasing” (165). “Learning to be fully human is not simply learning the skills of a particular procession or becoming professional in one specific task” (166). “In Chinese culture, an intellectual is not limited to study alone. Confucius roamed around with his disciples; he held conversations with them. . . . Confucianism postulates that an individual’s

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cultivation of a good ethos, a lifetime process of education, us the foundation of the nation” (166). “. . . one theme central to Confucianism is that of relationships. He put forward five basic human relationships: ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, and between friends” (167).

As for the relationship between teachers and learners, the Confucian ideal is quite different from that of Western society. The relationship is based on the Confucian idea that teacher, parent, and king are treated equally and have the same importance in one's life. We know that Confucius and Confucianism attached great importance to the harmonious relationship bet ween teachers and learning, and emphasized the dignity of teachers. Influenced by this philosophy, teachers are respected by the society and learners are asked to obey their teachers. The idea is still prevalent in Confucian educational systems in Korea and China. (167-168)

Confucianism continues to underpin the value system of the Korean people. “Related to adult learning, Confucianism has exerted influence in several ways, such as the relationship between teachers and learners, instructional methods, the centrality of education in people's lives, Korean female adult learners' status, the development of some popular adult learning programs, and the establishment of lifelong learning cities” (169).

The relationship between teachers and learners is hierarchical, like that between parent and child. Predictably, instructional methodology is teacher centered and the learning “passively receive what the teacher has told them, rarely raising questions, hindering the development of deep discussion, not to mention whether the adult learners' potential will be stimulated or not” (169).

Confucianism has influenced how Korean adults value learning as more and more are seeking a way to participate in higher education or in adult education programs. Education is seen as that which contributes to a better self esteem and to one becoming a better human being,

With regard to women, “

While there is a stereotype that Korea is a male dominated society in which females are in a relatively low position and inferior situation, the roles of females are changing rapidly. The contemporary issue of gender inequality in Korea can be found in many settings—the family, the workplace, or in higher education. For example, even though male and female workers may have the same educational background, it has become quite common for females to need more years to be promoted than male workers. Take another example, even if males and females have similar educational backgrounds and similar capabilities, when applying for one vacancy, it goes without saying that the male applicant will win. (170)

Confucianism also results in many programs that are strongly invested in the arts, poetry, floral arranging and so on. And finally, to foster the ideals of lifelong learning, the Korean government has designated over 30 cities as lifelong learning cities. “These learning cities invest in constructing lifelong learning centers and hire professionals to manage the adult educat6ion programs for the citizens in their cities including children.” The notion is drawn from Confucius who asserted that if

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one lives among people of good virtue that person will become virtuous (171).

Chapter 10 Sharan Merriam. Broadening Our Understanding of Learning and Knowing.

Asserting that “comparing and contrasting is a particularly Western strategy” Merriam suggests three themes from the stories: “(I) Learning is a lifelong journey; (2) What counts as knowledge is broadly defined; and (3) Learning and instruction are holistic and informal” (174). (1) Though higher education seems to be in the forefront of strategizing for lifelong learning for adults, in the US there is no public policy or consistent funding for lifelong learning. In many other countries of the world there are government policies and an acknowledgement of importance. “Lifelong learning from a non-Western perspective is truly lifelong, seamless and without institutional, age, or formal boundaries. The goals of this lifelong learning also vary from the typical Western goals of independence and personal and economic success. Rather, learning is to lead to enlightenment, to becoming ‘fully human.’ And to being an ethical, informed, and caring citizen in the community” (177). (2) What counts as knowledge worthy to be learned and who determines what counts? “In the West, the knowledge recognized as most valid is that which has been uncovered through rigorous scientific methods, codified into disciplinary structures, presented in textbooks and scientific journals, and then studied by learners in formal educational settings” (178). “In most non-Western traditions, knowledge is conceived of more broadly than that which is based on the scientific method and studied in formal classrooms. There are different types of knowledge equally valued, and much of this knowledge is embedded in the context of one's life” (178-179). Further, in these traditions, “sacred or revealed knowledge is on a par with knowledge acquired in everyday activity, what one might call practical knowledge. Most often this knowledge is structured by a community problem or issue needing attention, by accessing resources, including people and/or materials that can assist in the problem-solving, and by "evaluating" the learning according to the effectiveness of its application to the situation” (179). Non-western traditions critique Western knowledge systems as fragmented, having separated secular and sacred, and so valuing abstract systems of logic and science that faith and belief become problematic (181). (3) Although Western education is beginning to pay more attention to different modes of learning, education tends to be more cognitive and rational in nature.

For most cultures the effort is to maintain balance and harmony in the world.

Congruent with a holistic perspective of both the world and learning, the ways in which people learn are multiple and varied. Learning embedded in the context of everyday life is valued more than what is learned in formal school settings. It is in the experience that learning takes place. Active participation in the rites and rituals and daily life of the community is how knowledge is transmitted and shared. Two techniques in particular

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seem to be used in teaching and learning in the non-Western tradition - role modeling and storytelling. (183)

In role modeling, first a learner must ask for help and then one who is experienced models and/or discusses what needs to be learned. Storytelling has been one of the more powerful modes of communication for centuries. Stories enable a culture to make sense of life and to preserve the knowledge base. Storytelling is most common in non-Western traditions but is becoming more common in the West. “An interesting aspect of the teaching-learning transaction in these non-Western traditions is the role of teacher. Unlike in the West where most teachers are ‘trained’ and certified to be teachers, in non-Western systems, it is the responsibility of all in the community to teach and to learn” (185).

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ATTACHMENT #3

Reflections on Walter Brueggemann. 1982. The Creative Word: Canon as a Model for Biblical Education. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.

What do the following insights from Brueggemann suggest about the church’s task in education and formation?

1. Brueggemann suggests that any community wishing to perpetuate itself must be concerned with education. He provides three canonical categories as model for biblical education: The Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings. The Torah shows the ethos–the character–of the community of the Old Testament people; the Prophets, the pathos of God, addresses the tension between what is and what has been promised–a tension that is dealt with in suffering; the Writings (logos) that suggest there is meaning to life; that “Education is the cat and mouse game of discovering and finding it hidden” (13). Education is the holding together of ethos, pathos and logos.

2. Brueggemann asserts that “The canonical process is not done by outsiders or by calculation or by professional educators. It is a confessional, theological act done only by those for whom everything is at stake. It follows that the educational process, faithfully carried out, can be performed only by those who submit to the canonical process” (7). If this process is envisioned as the responsibility of the entire congregation, what implications follow for the conceptualization and practice of education for the whole people of God?

3. “Education in Israel begins in the yearning of the children to belong to the secret. Teaching is perhaps the shrewd management of that secret” (16). Brueggemann goes on to point out that much of what adults do in teaching children is to transmit information without regard for how the children are receiving that information. At the same time (pp. 18-19) he affirms the need for a clear statement of truth. Paraphrasing his exclamatory comment: “But think what is being entrusted from generation to another! It is nothing less than and nothing other than [the Word of God]” (18). Among other things, we are asserting that teaching as a creative act is a vital concept in the educating of the next generation.

4. “The primal mode of education in the church, derived from the Torah, is story. . . . Trouble surfaces in the community of faith whenever we move from the idiom of story” (22). Note he links this with Torah (the ethos). Why is the story motif significant for this generation? See his descriptions of story in pages 23ff.

5. The social sciences variously describe education as rational, relational, experiential, and reflective. The Judaic ethic implies that the people of God must be sustained by the dynamics inherent in Worship, Obedience to the Law, and Justice to the neighbor. Brueggemann adds: “I take it that a Torah-centered education is the nurture of persons to listen to the commandments of God, to the promises of God, and to the voice of the neighbor” (34). Taken together what do these observations reveal about the educative act, the creative educative act?

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6. Brueggemann observes, as have many others, that the only hope for the continuance of the faith on earth is with the next generation. However, he also notes that the promises of God are always unfulfilled (34-35). Think through the implications of the fact that we are both an eschatological community and a hermeneutical community in relation to the teaching ministry of the church and teaching as a creative activity. If we can’t come to terms with the implications of this identity, we will perpetuate the current patterns of biblical illiteracy in the church.

7. The Torah is normative, known and given (40). The “word of the prophet is something

immediate, intrusive and surprising. . . . When it is uttered, its function may be to break the Torah, to challenge the consensus, to practice criticism on that which, until now, has been beyond criticism” (41). This assertion needs the companion statement: “In prophecy we are dealing with a new truth when the old truth controlled by human power has grown irrelevant, weary and boring” (45). In the Writings, the wisdom literature, “We are not dealing with a settled consensus nor with a radical break from the consensus. We are rather in touch with a mystery that cannot be too closely shepherded, as in the Torah, or protested against, as in the prophets. There is here a not-knowing, a waiting to know, a patience about what is yet to be discerned, and a respect for not knowing that must be honored and not crowded. . . . It works at a different pace because it understands that the secrets cannot be forced” (71) How do these statements relate to your thinking in questions #6? How did Jesus as the creative logos “break” the Torah? What can we learn from this? Far from being one more methodological gimmick, our judgment is that teaching creatively is essential in the movement among Torah and Prophets and Writings.

8. “Church education is not intended to make people crazy, but it is to nurture people in an openness to alternative imagination which never quite perceives the world the way the dominant reality wants us to see it” (47). Why might this observation be important as we are entering the 21st century? In relation to this read aloud the description of the prophet, the first two full paragraphs on p. 52.

9. Now what is the relationship of all this to obedience. “The best human knowing takes the form of discerning obedience” (89) says Brueggemann. Ted Ward is fond of saying, “To know and not to do is not to know.” Calvin Chong adds, “to do and not to know is also not to know.” Is there any correlation between the skills and dynamics of thought and relationship that are formed when teaching is also viewed as both a creative act and obedience?

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ATTACHMENT #4

Reflections on Christian Education and Biblical Literacy Linda Cannell

The Sunday School has long been considered the church’s primary teaching/outreach agency. In its early years in North America, the Sunday School was an evangelistic agency. Those who attended were largely unchurched, unbelievers, the children of unchurched families. Curriculum was suited to this population--offering an introduction to the Bible and its major stories. Most of the published material also conveyed an evangelistic purpose. The population was inconsistent in attendance--therefore, the stories were presented in short blocks and retold frequently. Teachers who used this material were (and are still) considered inexperienced and unwilling to prepare more than 15-30 minutes for Sunday. Consequently, the methods suggested, the types of problems raised and the questions asked in the material have to be of such a nature that an inexperienced person giving minimal preparation won’t be frustrated. Children, youth, and adults seldom have the opportunity to engage the biblical material at any depth. Today, it is more common that those attending Sunday School are churched, Christian and/or the children of churched families. It is not typical for the Sunday School to attract an unchurched clientele. A common concern of those who teach is that those who attend Sunday School have ‘had it up to here with Moses and the bulrushes.’ Those who attend may not be fully conversant with the Scripture or its meaning--but they have heard the language of the stories and recognize the repetitive familiarity of the lessons. Children, youth and adults are often denied the experience of exploring the scripture, probing its meaning, asking questions of its content. Recently, I was in a consultation where George Barna shared some of his research. He showed us results of his surveys of pastors who, most of whom felt comfortable with their Bible knowledge, theological understanding, and preaching and teaching ability; but uncomfortable with leadership and administration. Then he shared the results of his surveys with congregations which, for the most part, revealed high levels of biblical illiteracy. As I pondered the two separate sets of results, I thought, What’s wrong with this picture! (What is wrong with it?) Biblical illiteracy among Christians is a subject of concern for many of us. The effort of the years to inculcate Bible knowledge has largely failed. However, if we had to define biblical literacy, what would we say? Is biblical literacy knowing facts about the Bible? Is it enough just to know the major themes and concepts of Scripture? Is it adequate to know in general story form, the most popular stories of Scripture? What will help persons fashion a suitable frame of reference for biblical understanding and practice of the Christian faith? Note the following observations and consider what you believe biblical literacy should mean for your congregations.

“The decline of Biblical literacy is not to be confused with the growth of unbelief or of a secularized culture. The leaders of the Enlightenment . . . were not believers, but they were biblically literate and biblically cultured. Conversely, Bible-believing fundamentalists sometimes know remarkably little of the content of scripture. (George Lindbeck, The Church's Mission to a Post-Modern Culture, in Postmodern Theology: Christian Faith in a Pluralist World, edited by Frederick B. Burnham, Harper and Row, 1989, 44.)

“Today a form of illiteracy abounds that is especially dangerous precisely because it is unrecognized. It is particularly prevalent among those of us who read the Bible regularly, memorize verses, and are committed to the authority of Scripture. . . . Our understanding of the Bible . . . is fragmented, and as a result we are subject to all manner of enthusiasms . . . This problem of Biblical myopia is especially acute in our Sunday Schools. As we teach

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Bible stories, we may often tack on little morals. . . . We may never explain how all the pieces fit together, giving a sense of the great flow of holy history. . . . We stress experience and ignore doctrine. We stress doctrine and ignore experience. We wrench texts out of their context; we examine the context with such critical precision that we never hear the text. We take bits and pieces of the gospel message and turn them into the whole gospel . . . We value specialization more than integration, detail more than synthesis. We see little need for organic unity, little need to understand things in their entirety.” (Richard Foster, Getting the Big Picture, Christianity Today, April 18, 1986: 12-13.)

Research in public education offers other insights that may be important as we seek an appropriate understanding of biblical literacy. The technical understanding of literacy is simply being able to read and write. And indeed, this definition is important if we are to nurture children in the reading and handling of Scripture. Reading to children enhances their vocabulary--their understanding of language. Interactive storybook reading between children and adults is important in later literacy development. Writing improves literacy skills. There is more effective literacy development in children who are engaged in reading and writing. Workbook formats (i.e., fill in the blanks) are not effective. Children’s literacy is enhanced when they can engage in discussion about the book, talk about the characters and their motivations and responses, make predictions, discuss themes, link content to real life. (see Dorothy Strickland and Lesley Morrow (eds). Emerging Literacy: Young Children Learn to Read and Write. International Reading Association. Newark, Delaware, 1989.) Elliot Eisner (What Really Counts in Schools, Educational Leadership, 48 (5) February 1991: 10-17) expresses six aims that ought to characterize public school education. His third aim is literacy. He gives a broader understanding of literacy that is appropriate to what we are seeking to do through the church. Literacy, although it includes the skills of reading and writing, is the “ability to secure meaning, from the wide range of forms that are used in culture to express meaning” (14). Darcy-Berube distinguished between two types of literacy: foundational (which is fostered from the beginning of life to the end) and cultural or theological (which should be pursued from about age ten or eleven through adulthood). Foundational literacy is indistinguishable from spiritual life, from meaningful worship, and from personal moral experience. Achievement of foundational literacy is not feeding persons facts and doctrine. Rather it is teaching in a way that stimulates their desire for more religious knowledge and understanding. “Foundational religious literacy should not be measured by the accumulation of knowledge but by its assimilation” (58). Therefore, religious education must be seen as lifelong; and one of the basic questions we need to ask is not so much how we can we break down the whole Bible into small pieces so that we can present it a little at a time [leading to fragmented understanding] but how we can relate Scriptural truth constantly to changing life experiences, questions, felt needs, and longings of growing persons. Cultural or theological literacy is defined as persons feeling secure in their faith and self-identity [as a Christian], able to “dialogue creatively with secular culture.” (Francoise Darcy-Berube, Religious Education at a Crossroads, Paulist Press, 1995, 56-65.) The task of curricular and educational development for the future will be to find ways to lead persons into the truth in ways that are not simply “dumping eminently forgettable data into their heads.” For this we will have to give renewed thought to the nature of content, the processes of education, and the context(s). Now, how would you define biblical literacy, and how do you believe it is fostered?