Categorising Motivational Drives in Second Language Acquisition

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Categorising MotivationalDrives in Second LanguageAcquisitionChristopher Frank GreenPublished online: 23 Apr 2010.

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Categorising Motivational Drives inSecond Language Acquisition

Christopher Frank GreenEnglish Language Centre, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom,Kowloon, Hong Kong

The survey involved 1978 Cantonese native-speaking subjects undertaking aprogramme of English in the Workplace (EIW) at the Hong Kong Polytechnic Univer-sity. This number represents almost the complete population of undergraduatestudents undertaking this mandatory course in their second year of tertiary-levelstudy.The students answered a questionnaire, previously piloted in a sub-sample of 30, andwere assigned on the basis of their responses to the four categories of motivationalregulation proposed in Deci and Ryan (1985):External,Introjected, Identified and Inte-grated. It is argued that the conventional classificationof motivation into Extrinsic andIntrinsic, or Instrumental and Integrative, has serious limitations in the field oflanguage learning and fails to provide a meaningful developmental model for studentsand teachers. The pilot study drew attention to the need to add a category of Avoidant,for students for whom all of the expressions of motivation to learn English, were foundto be excessive. The main study showed that Identified Regulation was dominant(49%) and suggests that the transition from Identified to Integrated Regulation is theprincipal challenge facing teachersand students. Some 19% of the students fell into theAvoidant category. The implications of the study are discussed.

IntroductionThe study reported here arises from my reservations about the capacity of the

broad notions of integrative and instrumental drives (Gardner & Lambert, 1972;Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993) to account adequately for learner motivation inEnglish language studies in a complex cultural-linguistic setting such as HongKong. Integrative motivation is that engendered by positive perceptions of thetarget language, its culture and peoples, while the instrumental variety is gener-ated by the desire to pass examinations or to secure high-status employment, forexample. Much of the existing literature on motivational drives in secondlanguage acquisition presents findings based largely on affective perceptions ofand social uses of the second language. When these ethnolinguistic aspects ofmotivation are investigated, interesting data nearly always emerge. Unfortu-nately, the data are often contradictory and are rarely able to inform pedagogybecause the locus of the motivational drives is seen to be outside the classroomand, hence, beyond the control of the teacher.

I want to argue that research into motivation in second language acquisitionmight more profitably view motivational drives as dynamic and developmentaland in a state of constant flux, rather than as static binary opposites; that is,instrumental or integrative. In this view, teachers are no longer at the mercy of agiven and immutable form of motivation, but are rather empowered by beingable to recognise motivational stages among their students, and by being able tomanipulate motivational variables to bring about optimal learning outcomes.

0790-8318/99/03 0265-14 $10.00/0 © 1999 C.F. GreenLANGUAGE, CULTURE AND CURRICULUM Vol. 12, No. 3, 1999

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Integrative and Instrumental Motivation: A CritiqueThe dichotomous categorisation of motivation to learn languages into two

varieties, integrative and instrumental, has virtually become a linguistic law. Thenotions of integrative and instrumental motivation to learn a language havehowever, come under attack (e.g. Burstall, 1975; Porter-Ladousse, 1981; Green,1993). Green argues that Lambert and Gardner’s data are not applicable to anyother than the close-proximity and truly (additively) bilingual society ofMontreal whence the data originated. Porter-Ladousse (1981: 32) has arguedpersuasively that integrative drive might best be redefined as ‘… simply oneparticular facet of a very general human behaviour characteristic; the desire forsocial interaction’.

In the Hong Kong context, it is frequently assumed that learners of Englishwill be driven exclusively by instrumental motivation. Such assumptions arebased, to some degree, on research findings. For example, Pierson and Fu (1982)present evidence (from the questionnaire responses of 500 senior secondaryschool students) which appears to reveal their subjects’ negative(non-integrative) attitudes to English. The majority of Pierson and Fu’s subjectsexpressed the fear that reaching a high level of proficiency in English wouldthreaten their Chinese identity – a finding largely refuted by the tertiary-levelattitudes to English study conducted by Littlewood and Liu (1996). This studyfound that 89% of students strongly disagreed that they would lose their sense ofChinese identity if they attained a high level of competence in English. Neverthe-less, discussions of learner drives in English language learning in Hong Konghave continued to be dominated by the categorisation of the mass of learners asinstrumentally motivated.

The main engine generating instrumental motivation in Hong Kong is usuallytaken to be the examination system. The self-fulfilling nature of this assumptionwas confirmed in a survey of Hong Kong secondary school teachers (Richards etal., 1992), which produced evidence showing that their subjects believe that facil-itating the passing of examinations is one of the most important functions ofEnglish teaching in Hong Kong. This belief is reflected in the implementation ofexamination-driven programmes of instruction in which examination practicepapers are often at the centre of classroom activities.

Further evidence of what appears to be a purely instrumental impetus to thestudy of English in Hong Kong comes from Kwok et al. (1972) and Ho (1979).Here the findings emphasise the importance students attach to English as ameans of improving their occupational prospects and as a facilitator of furthereducation and training (which is delivered through the medium of English). So(1987) and Lin et al. (1991) have produced studies which appear to confirm thefindings just described.

As Richards (1992) rightly points out, however, broad indications of learningdrives give little information on important variables such as the amount of effortthat Hong Kong students actually put into learning English and, indeed, thedegree to which students are consciously and consistently motivated by particu-lar learning goals. Apart from the broadness of the conventional categorisations,the very uniformity of most research outcomes must be held in doubt when they

266 Language, Culture and CurriculumD

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emanate from such a large population. Such similar outcomes are not generallyinferable from large target populations.

A developmental perspectiveOf more concern, perhaps, is the fact that few research findings take into

account the dynamic potential of motivational drives to change with the matura-tion, experience and developing world view of the individual learner. Again,much of the interpretation of research outcomes has tended to perpetuate theunhelpful dichotomy of motivation into intrinsic (integrative) and extrinsic(instrumental) forms. Such a dualistic conception tends to disempower bothteachers and learners and implies that motivational aspects of the secondlanguage learning process are immutable and non-manipulable phenomena –either conferred benefits or irksome constraints for the teacher. The belief hasdeveloped that students either enter the learning process motivated to learn orthey do not. In this view, learner motivation is seen as a kind of lottery, the conse-quences of which simply have to be accepted by those responsible for instruction.

I want to suggest that learner motivation is actually in a state of permanentflux and that it is likely to undergo changes in line with developmental changesin the individual learner. Porter Ladousse (1981) suggests that while thesociocultural context in which the second language learning takes place assignspowerful constraints on the motivation to excel at that language, theseconstraints are likely to be temporary. This view has a very respectable pedigree;Vygotsky (1978) viewed intrinsic and extrinsic forces as ever likely to convergeand integrate to such an extent that it may become impossible to distinguish theone from the other.

The Deci and Ryan modelI have based the present study on a four-stage developmental model of moti-

vation proposed by Deci and Ryan (1985). Deci and Ryan’s descriptors havefound widespread acceptance among researchers in the field of education andamong educational psychologists, but have made little impact in the field ofsecond language acquisition. Indeed, I know of only one second language learn-ing study which refers to their descriptors of four motivational stages (Van Lier,1996) and, in fact, Van Lier suggests that research of the type undertaken in thisstudy should prove useful if applied to language learning in formal situations.

Four stagesDeci and Ryan’s continuum begins with External Regulation. This is the most

‘extrinsic’ of the motivational stages in that it is the type of motivation leastconsciously determined by individuals; an external agent of control is responsi-ble for setting, controlling and monitoring tasks. Avoidance of conflict withteachers and the desire to receive praise from them are examples of externallyregulated behaviours. Deci and Ryan’s continuum progresses on to IntrojectedRegulation. This bears some resemblance to external regulation, but the agent ofcontrol is not necessarily present in the learning context. The behaviour of theintrojectedly regulated individual is not, however, self-determined. An exampleof introjected behaviour is of a student handing in assignments by the due date toavoid feeling guilty.

Categorising Motivational Drives in L2 Acquisition 267D

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Deci and Ryan’s third stage, Identified Regulation, obtains when individualsrecognise the value of a particular learning activity and feel they have somecontrolover (and choice within) the activity. This form of motivation is not begot-ten by intrinsic interest in the activity, but is rather engendered by the desire toattain full potential in an activity which the learner needs to engage in and whichhe or she deems important. This kind of motivation is a powerful educationalforce because it generates its own progressive dynamic as successful learningexperiences accumulate. It was probably what Ausubel (1968: 20) had in mindwhen he wrote:

The most appropriate way of using motivation to learn is to focus on thecognitive rather than the motivational aspects of learning, and rely on themotivation that is developed from successful educational achievement toenergise further learning.

An example of behaviour springing from identified regulation in an institu-tional setting would be a learner undertaking voluntary autonomous languageimprovement work – some kind of self-directed programme of additional study,perhaps – because he or she sees it as in some way important to be as proficient aspossible in the target language. There is some debate over whether the character-istics associated with identified regulation are primarily internally or externallyoriented in nature. Van Lier (1996: 112) argues that identified regulation is whereintrinsic and extrinsic motivation may well ‘converge so that external goals andinternal needs form one unity’.

The fourth and final stage on Deci and Ryan’s continuum is that of IntegratedRegulation. This refers to behaviours which are completely determined by thelearner. An example of behaviour deriving from integrated regulation might bethe individual who spends leisure time practising his/her second languagebecause it is a congenial and fulfilling activity in itself with, in all likelihood,deeply satisfying personal outcomes.

In broad terms, then, the external and introjected categories of regulationsprovide a means of refining and operationalising in a dynamic way the familiarnotions of instrumentaland extrinsic motivation.Identified regulation marks themerging of internal and external drives, and integrated regulation denotes amore complete conflation with the drives conventionally labelled ‘integrative’and ‘intrinsic’.

The Study

The questionnaireAn initial questionnaire (see Appendix I) was designed for piloting with a

group of thirty randomly selected subjects from the target population who werethen excluded from the study to prevent a possible practice effect from the groupcontaminating the terminal data. The questionnaire utilised a multiple-choiceformat with each of the four possible responses representing one of Deci andRyan’s categories of motivational drive.

As part of the questionnaire validation process, a focus group meeting withthese thirty subjects was held immediately after the piloting exercise and anumber of important suggestions for modification of the questionnaire were


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made and acted upon. The focus group members were free to speak in Chinese ifthey wished to (an option taken up by about 70% of the members at some point inthe discussion). The Chinese was then interpreted by a Chinese native-speakingcolleague who agreed to be present at both the administration of the question-naire and at the focus group meeting.

Results of the pilot studyThe most important change to the original questionnaire was suggested by

several members of the focus group. They expressed surprise that there was noresponse category which allowed them, in effect, to marginalise English studiescompletely. They pointed out that the (mostly) four-way responses as presentedin the original questionnaire allowed only responses which showed some degreeof ‘caring about’ English studies. The focus group members felt that a fifth‘avoidant’ response category should be offered. Despite the obvious dangersinherent in supplementing a validated categorisation of motivational drives inthis way, I felt that it was of overriding importance to give subjects the opportu-nity to make ‘real’ responses rather than constrain them to choosing between theoriginal four categories. For this reason, I added a fifth ‘rejection of English’ cate-gory to the relevant items in the final draft of the questionnaire (see Appendix II).In making this decision, I also had in mind Davidson’s (1970) advice (cited inCohen & Manion, 1994: 92):

Questionnaire design must minimise potential errors for respondents …and coders. And since peoples’ participation in surveys is voluntary, aquestionnaire has to help in engaging their interest, encouraging theiroperation, and eliciting answers as close as possible to the truth.

While expressing general satisfaction with the phrasing of the questionnaireitems, the members of the focus group were concerned about the validity ofItem 5, which questioned the use of English as the medium of instruction inHong Kong tertiary institutions. All members of the group felt that since theyhad received their secondary schooling through the medium of English, it wasa natural extension to also have English as the medium of learning in tertiaryeducation. Some participants pointed out that a great deal of technical andsub-technical terminology either cannot be expressed in Cantonese or necessi-tates the use of cumbersome paraphrases and circumlocutions. This is animportant point and it is worth recording here that only 25% of the group knewthe Cantonese word for ‘interview’. The English term is almost alwaysemployed. As a result of the focus group comments, I eliminated the item fromthe questionnaire.

Focus group members gave some particularly interesting feedback on Item 9,which concerned using English to speak to other native speakers of Cantonese.The literature had led me to expect a complete rejection of using English at all tocommunicate with other members of the local speech community. The responsesto this item were, however, mixed, and so I took the opportunity to enquirefurther into the causes of this unexpected phenomenon. The crucial factor in theacceptability of using English with other Cantonese native speakers is that of theattitude of the speaker. If he or she is using English to communicate more effec-tively than would have been the case had he or she used Chinese, then this was


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deemed acceptable. A display of gratuitous linguistic superiority, however, wasnot acceptable.

A number of focus group members commented that Hong Kong Chinesewould be likely to admire (but not treat as superior) a person who had achievednative speaker competency in English – or any other language for that matter. Itested this statement by posing the question, ‘Would you admire the Hong KongChinese person who mastered Tagalog (the native language of the Filipinodomestic helpers who constitute the largest population of expatriate residents inHong Kong) as much as you would the one who mastered English?’ This led to asplit in the otherwise quite united opinion of the group on this point. The group’sfinal consensus was that Tagalog was less useful than English and that this,rather than any negative racial or socioeconomic associations, was behind themixed response to my question. But since the item proved contentious, it waseliminated from the questionnaire.

The group deemed Item 14 (about living and working in an English speakingcountry) to be a particularly difficult one to make any meaningful response to.Members were unanimous in pointing out that they would not even think aboutliving permanently in another country (English speaking or otherwise) unlessthey or their family had some clear chance of actually gaining residency statusthere. However, most members made the point that if the question revolvedaround the issue of studying (rather than living and working) in an Englishspeaking country, then the item would be a far more valid one. With this in mind,I altered the wording of the item in the final draft of the questionnaire.

Following the focus group meeting, changes were made to the questionnaireas explained above and a final draft of the instrument was printed together with aresponse form for computer processing. The questionnaire was then adminis-tered to the slightly reduced number of 2548 subjects. Subjects completed thequestionnaire in class time and had no chance to confer on the items. The teachersadministering the instrument kept instructions to a minimum and asked subjectsto indicate their responses on the computer-readable form which accompaniedthe questionnaire. Subjects were also reassured about the complete anonymityand confidentiality of the data they entered on the questionnaire.

Of the 2,001 returns, 23 were rejected either for being incomplete, or fordisplaying the selection of similarly numbered responses for each of the items.1,978 valid returns were analysed.

Results and DiscussionIn analysing the results of the survey, codes were assigned for each of the

regulatory drives as follows:

X Rejection or Avoidance of Learning Opportunity;E ExternalIJ IntrojectedID IdentifiedIN Integrated.

Figure 1 gives an initial assignment of subjects to the five categories of motiva-


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tional drive, based on the category most frequently selected. A finer analysis willbe used later, based on answers to individual questions.

The distribution is consistent with the view that a single dimension under-lies the four non-zero categories of motivation, with a majority (49%) havingachieved the stage of Identified Regulation (ID) in terms of motivational drive,while only a minority (15%) has progressed beyond this to Integrated Regula-tion (IN). While ID cannot be fully identified with the Intrinsic pole of theExtrinsic/Intrinsic dichotomy, it clearly contains some of its elements. The datashow that it is a powerful force in terms of education because it generates itsown progressive dynamic as successful learning experiences accumulate. Thisalso explains the reported correlation between Intrinsic Motivation andachievement.

Much less encouraging, however, was the finding that more than 300 of thesubjects fell overall within the X or Avoidant category. This category, it will berecalled, was created for this study as a consequence of the questionnaire pilot-ing, and does not figure in Deci and Ryan’s continuum of regulatory drives.Avoidant subjects demonstrate a rejection of learning opportunities and, for thisreason, must be positioned to the left of externally regulated subjects on Deci andRyan’s continuum. Avoidant subjects are likely to present considerable educa-tional challenges as teachers attempt to encourage them to progress to the idealof Integrated Regulation.

Responses to individual questionsIt is clearly important to identify and discuss the questionnaire items towards

which students exhibited the greatest avoidancy and/or integration. In thisrespect Item 10 is particularly interesting.

When I speak English out of class time, this is mainly because:

Categorising Motivational Drives in L2 Acquisition 271

Figure 1 Distribution of subjects in each category

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36% X I never speak English out of class time unless forced to13% IJ I feel guilty if I do not attempt to use my English02% E my English teachers have advised me to32% ID I think that it will lead to improvements in my English17% IN I enjoy trying out my English out of class time.

The outcome surely reflects the monolingual (Cantonese) sociocultural contextof Hong Kong, which presents limited opportunities for interaction in Englishunless individuals make a conscious effort to seek out opportunities for suchinteraction.

Responses to Item 11 confirm the lack of exposure to English:

When I read in English (other than textbooks) in my own time, this ismainly because27% X I rarely read anything in English apart from my textbooks06% E my English teachers have advised me to34% IJ I want to improve my reading skills in English23% ID reading gives me the opportunity to prove that I can understandEnglish10% IN I enjoy reading in English.

This item shows that more than a quarter hardly ever read English in non-classtime. This finding is worrying since, unlike oral interaction, subjects can controltheir reading matter,and can gain exposure to English texts easily in Hong Kong.

Hong Kong has dedicated English language TV programming and Item 12 ofthe questionnaire attempted to gauge subjects’ exposure to English TV:

When I watch English TV in my own time, this is mainly because18% X I rarely watch English TV03% E my English teachers have advised me to42% IJ I want to gain more exposure to English24% ID watching English TV gives me the opportunity to show that I canunderstand English13% IN I enjoy listening to English.

Eighteen per cent of subjects do not take up the opportunity of watching EnglishTV although, of course, decisions on what programmes to view may well befamily rather and individual ones.

Two items showed a strong integrated response. Item 7 asked:

When I make errors in written or spoken English, I02% X do not want to be corrected05% IJ want to be corrected because making errors is embarrassing11% E want to be corrected because making mistakes can result in lowergrades55% ID want to be corrected mainly because I want to be able to producebetter English27% IN want to know more about the error and why I made it.

Subjects reacted positively with 27% registering integrated responses and only2% presenting themselves as avoidant.


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Item 14 on the questionnaire questioned subjects about their attitudes to thehypothetical scenario of working or studying in an English speaking country.

I would take the opportunity, if offered, to study/work in an Englishspeaking country because06% X I would not welcome the opportunity02% E it would please my parents23% IJ it might help me get a better job in the future30% ID I would feel that I had missed an important opportunity if I did not39% IN I would enjoy talking to native English speakers and learning abouttheir culture.

A strong integrated response was in evidence, with nearly 40% of subjects indi-cating that they would appreciate the opportunity to talk to native speakers ofEnglish and learn about their culture.

ConclusionThe research reported here represents an investigationof motivationalregula-

tions among second year university students studying English and attempts tolink empirical findings to English language programme planning and pedagogy.The research indicates that language teachers will need to pay particular atten-tion to the finding that about a quarter of the population either rely on an externalsource of regulation to drive their studies, or avoid engagement with the subjectaltogether. It may be the case that teacher intervention can speed learner prog-ress towards the ideal goal of integrated regulation. As Van Lier (1996: 117)points out, progress along the continuum is important in educational terms sincean excessive reliance on external regulation can destroy learners’ developinginternal drive.

In assessing the implications of the findings for the teaching of English, weneed to bear in mind the words of Richards (1993: 96):

‘it is up to individual teachers to consider their values and beliefs abouteducation and act accordingly … teachers looking to increase the motiva-tion of their students most first look into their own personal beliefs.’

Beneficial intervention is likely to include the provision of programmes ofself-access language learning for students, and class activities which requirelearners to take responsibility for what happens in the classroom. As for thestudy reported here, it needs to be extended so as to validate Deci and Ryan’sconcepts, and to verify their developmental features.

CorrespondenceAny correspondence should be directed to Dr Christopher Frank Green,

English Language Centre, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom,Kowloon, Hong Kong ([email protected]).

ReferencesAusubel, D.P. (1968) Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. New York: Holt, Rinehart

and Winston.


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Burstall, C. (1975) Factors affecting foreign language learning: A consideration of somerecent findings. Language Teaching and Linguistics 8 (3), 25–39.

Cohen, L. and Manion, P. (1994) Research Methods in Education. London: Routedge.Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M. (1995) Intrinsic Motivation and Self-movational in Human

Behaviour. New York: Plenum Press.Gardner, R.C. and Lambert, W.E. (1972) Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language

Learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Gardner, R.C. and MacIntyre, P.D. (1993) A student’s contribution to second language

learning: Affective variables. Language Learning 26, 1–11.Green, C.F. (1993) Learner drives in second language acquisition. International English

Teaching Forum 31 (1), 2–5, 11.Ho, D.W.S. (1979) English language skills and academic performance. In R. Lord (ed.)

Hong Kong Education Papers. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.Kwok, H., Chan, M. and Sun, A. (1972)Where the twains do meet: A preliminary study of

the language habits of university students in Hong Kong. General Linguistics 12 (2),65–82.

Lin, A., Detaramani, D., Yeung, I. and Wong, E. (1991) Intrinsic Motivation and SecondLanguage Attainment: A First Report on a Survey of Tertiary Students in Hong Kong.Research Report No. 9. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong Department ofEnglish.

Littlewood, W. and Liu F.N. (1996) The Learning Experience, Attitudes and ProficiencyProject. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong, English Centre.

Pierson, H. and Fu, G.S. (1982)Report on the linguistic attitudes project in Hong Kong andits relevance for second language instruction. Language Learning and Communication 1(2), 121–232.

Porter-Ladousse, G. (1981) From needs to wants: Motivation and the language learner.System 10 (1), 29–37.

Richards, J.C., Tung, P. and Ng, P. (1992) The culture of the English language teacher.RELC Journal 28 (1), 81–100.

Richards, S. (1993) Motivation in Second Language Learning: A Hong Kong Perspective.Research Report No. 32. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong Department ofEnglish.

So, W.C. (1987) The Social Selection of an English-dominant Bilingual Education System inHong Kong: An Ecolinguistic Analysis. Ann Arbor, MI: University MicrofilmsInternational.

Van Lier, L. (1996) Interaction in the Language Classroom. London: Longman .Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Appendix 1: The initial questionnaire

IntroductionThis questionnaire is part of a survey designed to gather information about

learning English at University. The survey is a funded research project which webelieve will contribute positively to the teaching and learning of English in theHong Kong Polytechnic University.

The questionnaire should take about ten minutes to complete and you shouldcomplete it in class time and hand it back to your teacher. For each question, indi-cate your response on the separate response form. Ask your teacher to explainany items which you find hard to understand.

If you agree to complete the questionnaire, the information you give will bekept anonymous and confidential, so please make sure your responses matchyour actual feelings and attitudes as closely as possible.


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Items

(1) Your gender:(a) male(b) female

(2) Your faculty(a) FAST(b) FBIS(c) FCOM(d) FCLU(e) FENG(f) FHSS

(3) Rate your present general standard of English(a Very Poor(b) Poor(c) Fair(d) Good(e) Very good

(4) Which statement best sums up your attitude to learning English at univer-sity?(a) I like studying English because I find it interesting and rewarding(b) My attitude to English depends mainly on the teacher I have(c) I am mostly interested in learning English to improve my studies and

my career prospects(d) I put effort into learning English because I like to do my best in all

subjects

(5) The medium of instruction in Hong Kong schools and universities shouldbe(a) English(b) Cantonese(c) A mixture of English and Cantonese(d) Putonghua

(6) In English classes, the main reason I use English with my classmates ingroup and pair work is that(a) my teacher expects me to(b) it can help me improve my spoken English(c) using English is fun(d) I would feel embarrassed if I did not

(7) When I make errors in written or spoken English, I(a) want to be corrected because making errors is embarrassing(b) want to be corrected mainly because I want to be able to produce

better English(c) want to know more about the error and why I made it(d) want to be corrected because making mistakes can result in lower

grades


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(8) I undertake voluntary self-access work in English because(a) I find it rewarding and enjoyable(b) my teacher advised me to(c) I need to improve my English(d) I would feel I was missing an opportunity if I did not undertake such

work

(9) When I speak English to other Cantonese native speakers it is because(a) I like using English(b) My English teacher advised me to(c) I want to demonstrate my ability in English(d) I need the practise in English

(10) When I speak English out of class time, this is mainly because(a) I feel guilty if I do not attempt to use my English(b) English teachers have advised me to(c) I think that it will lead to improvements in my English(d) I enjoy trying out my English out of class time

(11) When I read in English (other than textbooks) in my own time, this is mainlybecause(a) I enjoy reading in English(b) my English teachers have advised me to(c) I want to improve my reading skills in English(d) reading gives me the opportunity to prove that I can understand

English

(12) When I watch English TV in my own time, this is mainly because(a) I want to gain more exposure to English(b) watching English TV gives me the opportunity to show that I can

understand English(c) I enjoy listening to English(d) my English teachers have advised me to

(13) If the chance arises, I talk to native speakers of English(a) because I enjoy using my English in this way(b) because doing so helps me improve my English(c) to prove to myself that I can communicate in English(d) because I want to know about English speaking countries and make

friends

(14) I would take the opportunity, if offered, to live/work in an English speakingcountry because(a) I would feel that I had missed an important opportunity if I did not(b) it would please my parents(c) it might help me get a better job in the future(d) I would enjoy talking to native English speakers and learning about

their culture


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Appendix 2: The Final Questionnaire

IntroductionThis questionnaire is part of a survey designed to gather information about

learning English at University. The survey is a funded research project which webelieve will contribute positively to the teaching and learning of English in theHong Kong Polytechnic University.

The questionnaire should take about ten minutes to complete and you shouldcomplete it in class time and hand it back to your teacher. For each question, indi-cate your response on the separate response form. Ask your teacher to explainany items which you find hard to understand.

If you agree to complete the questionnaire, the information you give will bekept anonymous and confidential, so please make sure your responses matchyour actual feelings and attitudes as closely as possible.

Items

(1) Your gender(a) male(b) female

(2) Your faculty(a) FAST(b) FBIS(c) FCOM(d) FCLU(e) FENG(f) FHSS

(3) Rate your present general standard of English(a) Very Poor(b) Poor(c) Fair(d) Good(e) Very good

(4) Which statement best sums up your attitude to learning English at univer-sity?(a) I like studying English because I find it interesting and rewarding(b) My attitude to English depends mainly on the teacher I have(c) I have enough English to succeed in my studies and I do not really

want to learn more(d) I am mostly interested in learning English to improve my studies and

my career prospects(e) I put effort into learning English because I like to do my best in all

subjects

(5) My main reason for participating actively in English classes is because(a) I like practising and using English(b) I think that doing so will improve my English


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(c) doing so may lead to good grades(d) my teacher would notice if I did not participate(e) I rarely participate actively in English classes

(6) In English classes, the main reason I use English with my classmates ingroup and pair work is that(a) my teacher expects me to(b) it can help me improve my spoken English(c) I try to avoid using English in group and pair work(d) using English is fun(e) I would feel embarrassed if I did not

(7) When I make errors in written or spoken English, I(a) do not want to be corrected(b) want to be corrected because making errors is embarrassing(c) want to be corrected mainly because I want to be able to produce

better English(d) want to know more about the error and why I made it(e) want to be corrected because making mistakes can result in lower

grades

(8) I undertake voluntary self-access work in English because(a) I find it rewarding and enjoyable(b) my teacher advised me to(c) I need to improve my English(d) I would feel I wasmissinganopportunityif I didnot undertakesuchwork(e) I do not undertake any voluntary self-access work in English

(9) My main reason for trying out difficult structures and vocabulary in Englishis that(a) I like the challenge of learning and using them(b) I avoid trying out difficult structures and vocabulary(c) I might be tested on them(d) I like to show how good my English is(e) they will help me to improve my English

(10) When I speak English out of class time, this is mainly because(a) I feel guilty if I do not attempt to use my English(b) my English teachers have advised me to(c) I think that it will lead to improvements in my English(d) I enjoy trying out my English out of class time(e) I never speak English out of class time unless forced to

(11) When I read in English (other than textbooks) in my own time, this is mainlybecause(a) I enjoy reading in English(b) my English teachers have advised me to(c) I want to improve my reading skills in English(d) reading gives me the opportunity to prove that I can understand

English(e) I rarely read anything in English apart from my textbooks


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(12) When I watch English TV in my own time, this is mainly because(a) I rarely watch English TV(b) I want to gain more exposure to English(c) watching English TV gives me the opportunity to show that I can

understand English(d) I enjoy listening to English(e) my English teachers have advised me to

(13) If the chance arises, I talk to native speakers of English(a) only when forced to(b) because I enjoy using my English in this way(c) because doing so helps me improve my English(d) to prove to myself that I can communicate in English(e) because I want to know about English speaking countries and make

friends

(14) I would take the opportunity, if offered, to study/work in an English speak-ing country because(a) I would feel that I had missed an important opportunity if I did not(b) it would please my parents(c) it might help me get a better job in the future(d) I would enjoy talking to native English speakers and learning about

their culture(e) I would not welcome the opportunity


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Documents

Categorising Motivational Drives in Second Language Acquisition