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CATALYST PACK FOR HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
MONOPROPELLANT THRUSTER
KHAFRI IZUAN BIN KHANAFIAH
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the
requirement for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering (Mechanical)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
FEBRUARI 2014
iii
To my beloved mother and father
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In preparing this thesis, I have been contacting with so many people,
researchers, academicians, technicians and other practitioners. All of them have
contributed towards my understanding and thoughts. In particular, I wish to express
my sincere appreciation to my main thesis supervisor, Professor Subramaniam
Krishnan for helping and giving me support, guidance, and critics whenever I needed
in order to finish this under graduate project. I am also thankful to my undergraduate
project seminar panels Professor Wan Khairuddin Wan Ali, Professor Mohammad
Nazri Mohd Jaafar and Professor Shuhaimi Mansor for guiding me towards the
completion of my project with their critics, advices, motivation and support. Without
them, this project will have a lot of overseen flaws.
I am also indebted to a Research Student Grant (RSG) scheme for funding my
Master’s study. Without their support, I will not be able to pursue my study in this
university. I am also indebted to CICT which has provided good internet facilities in
my college. With this facility, I am able to find a lot of information for my research.
My words of appreciation also go to all my friends who have helped me a lot
and lent me their vehicles. I will not forget all of your deeds to me. Last but not least,
I would like to send my gratitude to my beloved father who gave me strength to
pursue this study and gave me guidance along the way when I am here in UTM.
v
ABSTRACT
Silver is one of the common materials used to decompose hydrogen peroxide
but it is heavy and does not last very long while manganese catalyst seems to be
lighter and lasts longer, giving it the potential to replace silver. Unfortunately, this is
yet to be tested. The configuration to produce 100 N thrust by using silver catalyst
needs to be determined, and the feasibility of using manganese calcinated on alumina
needs to be verified. With theoretical calculation and several trial and error
experiments by varying the catalyst pack compaction pressure, injector and nozzle
diameters, catalyst pack heating temperature and propellant tank feeding pressure for
silver catalyst, the configuration to produce 100 N thrust has been obtained. For
manganese catalyst, assorted combinations of alumina sizes and types were tested to
be the catalyst carrier. The method of calcination was also developed in order to get
the highest amount of manganese deposited and it was found that Sasol -alumina
spheres with a diameter of 2.4 mm produce the highest amount of manganese
deposition with an average of 42% after three calcinations using potassium
permanganate as the precursor solution. This was followed by experimental work
which found that the usage of manganese calcinated on the alumina cannot cope with
high pressure in the thruster and tends to break into small pieces and wash out of the
thruster. Silver configuration for producing 100 N thrust has been obtained in this
research. Also, it was found that it is not feasible to use manganese with the method
described in this work.
vi
ABSTRAK
Perak adalah salah satu bahan yang biasa digunakan untuk menguraikan
hidrogen peroksida akan tetapi ianya berat dan tidak kekal lama manakala
pemangkin mangan pula adalah lebih ringan dan tahan lebih lama, memberikan ia
potensi untuk menggantikan perak. Walau bagaimanapun, ini masih belum diuji.
Konfigurasi untuk menghasilkan daya tujah 100 N dengan menggunakan pemangkin
perak perlu ditentukan, dan kesesuaian menggunakan mangan yang dikalsinkan pada
alumina sebagai pengganti perak perlu disahkan. Melalui pengiraan secara teori dan
beberapa ujikaji menggunakan kaedah cuba jaya dengan mengubah tekanan
pemadatan pek pemangkin, diameter lubang penyuntik dan nozel, suhu pemanasan
pek pemangkin dan tekanan suapan tangki bahan pendorong pemangkin perak,
konfigurasi untuk menghasilkan daya tujah 100 N telah diperolehi. Untuk pemankin
mangan pula, pelbagai kombinasi saiz dan jenis alumina diuji untuk menjadi
pengangkut pemangkin. Kaedah pengkalsinan juga telah dibangunkan untuk
mendapatkan jumlah tertinggi mangan yang berjaya dimendapkan dan didapati
bahawa sfera -alumina Sasol dengan garis pusat 2.4 mm menghasilkan jumlah
tertinggi mendapan mangan dengan purata sebanyak 42% selepas tiga kali
pengkalsinan menggunakan kalium permanganat sebagai larutan pendahulu. Ini
diikuti dengan uji kaji yang mendapati bahawa penggunaan mangan yang
dikalsinkan pada alumina ini tidak dapat menampung tekanan tinggi di dalam
pendorong dan cenderung untuk pecah menjadi kepingan kecil dan terkeluar
daripada pendorong itu. Konfigurasi perak untuk menghasilkan daya tujah 100 N
telah berjaya diperolehi dalam kajian ini. Juga, didapati bahawa adalah tidak sesuai
mangan digunakan dengan kaedah yang diperihalkan dalam kajian ini.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
Title page i
Declaration of originality and exclusiveness ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Abstract (English) v
Abstrak (Bahasa Melayu) vi
Table of contents vii
List of tables x
List of figures xii
List of symbols xiv
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 2
1.3 Objective 3
1.4 Scope of Project 3
1.5 Outline of Thesis 3
2 MONOPROPELLANT THRUSTER 5
2.1 History of Rockets 5
2.2 Rocket Fundamentals 6
2.3 Thrust 6
2.4 History of Hydrogen Peroxide Propulsion 11
2.5 Propellant 11
2.6 Monopropellant 12
2.7 Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) 13
2.7.1 Structure and Properties 13
viii
2.7.2 Reactions 14
2.7.3 H2O2 Advantages 16
2.7.4 H2O2 Characteristic 17
2.8 Catalyst 19
2.8.1 Types of catalyst 19
2.8.2 Hydrogen peroxide catalyst 20
2.9 Alumina 21
3 METHODOLOGY 23
3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 Experimental Procedure 24
3.3 Thruster 25
3.4 Catalyst Pack Preparation 25
3.4.1 Silver Catalyst 26
3.4.2 Ceramic Catalyst 27
3.4.3 Test Facility 28
3.5 Rocket Performance Calculation 32
3.5.1 Corrected Pressure Plot 32
3.5.2 Estimation of Vacuum Specific Impulse 34
3.5.3 Estimation of Vacuum Thrust 36
3.5.4 Performance Calculation after Burnout 38
3.5.5 Catalyst Pack Pressure Drop and Mass
Flux Calculation
41
3.6 Testing 43
3.6.1 Operating Test Rig Procedure 43
3.7 Types of Testing 45
3.7.1 Nitrogen Testing 45
3.7.2 Nitrogen and Water Testing 45
4 THRUSTER DESIGN AND FABRICATION 47
4.1 Introduction 47
4.2 Thruster Design and Fabrication 47
4.2.1 Design Calculation 50
ix
4.2.2 Program 53
4.2.3 Output 54
4.3 Drawings 56
4.4 Fabrication 67
4.5 Finished Product 68
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 71
5 .1 Test Runs for Silver catalyst 71
5.2 Calcination Trials for Ceramic catalyst 79
5.3 Test Runs for Ceramic catalyst 80
6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 83
6.1 Conclusions 83
6.2 100N thruster using silver catalyst 83
6.3 Ceramic based catalyst 84
6.4 Recommendations 85
REFERENCES 86
APPENDIX 91
Appendix A – Fortran Programming 91
Appendix B – Hot Test Results of 100N H2O2
Monopropellant Thruster Adopting Silver
Catalyst Pack
95
Appendix C – Sasol Alumina MSDS 107
x
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Comparison of oxidation potential of different oxidant 16
2.2 Uses of Alumina 22
3.1 The output values of the program after calculation by
using FORTRAN programming
24
3.2 Designed and actual dimensions of nozzle diameter
together with calculated nozzle throat area ratio
24
3.3 Procedure of preparing calcinated ceramic catalyst
using potassium permanganate as a precursor
27
3.4 Types of ceramic samples with its manufacturer 28
4.1 The output values of the program after calculation by
using FORTRAN Programming
55
4.2 Summary of calculated crucial thruster dimensions 56
5.1 Summary of test runs 71
5.2 Summary of test results for series I using H2O2 of
concentration of 0.88, injector orifice diameter of
0.914mm, and nozzle throat diameter of.10.007
72
5.3 Summary of test results for series II using H2O2 of
concentration of 0.90, injector orifice diameter of
1.215mm, and nozzle throat diameter of 10.007
72
5.4 Summary of test results for series III using H2O2 of
concentration of 0.90, injector orifice diameter of
1.898mm, and nozzle throat diameter of 6.789
73
5.5 Summary of calcination trial on several types of
alumina
79
xi
5.6 Summary of all the tests using ceramic based catalysts 81
5.7 Summary of successful tests using catalyst pack
containing Sasol alumina pellets
82
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
NO.
TITLE PAGE
2.1 Pressure balance on chamber and nozzle interior walls 7
2.2 Molecular Structure of H2O2 in gas and solid state 14
3.1 Circular mesh of 20 x 20 silver mesh 26
3.2 Rocket thruster test facility 29
3.3 Schematic diagram of rocket thruster test facility 30
3.4 Control panel that will be used to control the test facilities
at a safe distance
31
3.5 Typical record of test through LABView software 32
3.6 Derivatives of injection pressure and nozzle entry pressure 33
3.7 Plot of corrected absolute pressure 34
3.8 Example of a complete profile of thrust and mass flow rate
from start until burnout
41
3.9 Example of mass flux and pressure drop across catalyst
pack versus time
42
3.10 Example of mass flux versus pressure drop across catalyst
pack graph
43
3.11 Summary of methodology 46
4.1 100N thruster assembly drawing 57
4.2 Cross section of the 100N thruster with labels drawing. 58
4.3 100N thruster injector with cross section drawing 59
4.4 100N thruster body details drawing 60
4.5 100N thruster nozzle details drawing 61
4.6 100N thruster nozzle holder details drawing 62
4.7 Injector distribution plate details drawing 63
4.8 Nozzle distribution plate details drawing 64
xiii
4.9 100N thruster body with 105mm combustion chamber
details drawing
65
4.10 100N thruster body with 155mm combustion chamber
details drawing
66
4.11 An illustration of a 100N thruster assembly 68
4.12 Complete 100N thruster after fabrication with labels 68
4.13 Finish product after fabrication 69
5.1 Time differentials of injection pressure dtdP2 and nozzle
entry pressure dtdP4 versus time
75
5.2 Corrected pressures versus time 75
5.3 Calculated thrusts and propellant flow rates versus time 76
5.4 Pressure drop across catalyst pack for two compaction
pressures cpP .
76
5.5 Variation of
*
c with respect to that i
incp
d
PT
.
78
5.6 Variation of ignition delay with respect to
i
incp
d
PT
.
78
5.7 Time differentials of injection pressure and nozzle entry
pressure versus time for first test, Table 5.7
82
5.8 Measured pressure traces versus time for the test 1, Table
5.7.
82
5.9 Calculated thrusts and mass flow rates versus time for test 1
from Table 5.7.
82
5.10 Time differentials of injection pressure and nozzle entry
pressure versus time for successful test 2 from Table 5.7
82
5.11 Measured pressure traces of test 2 from Table 5.7 82
5.12 Calculated thrusts and mass flow rates versus time for test
2, from Table 5.7
82
xiv
LIST OF SYMBOLS
CPA = Cross sectional area of catalyst pack
eA = Nozzle exit area
dc = Coefficient of discharge for the injector orifice
𝑐∗𝑒𝑥𝑝 = Experimental characteristic velocity
𝑐∗𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 = Theoretical characteristic velocity
0FC = Characteristic thrust coefficient
expFsl
C
= Experimental sea level thrust coefficient
theoslFC
= Theoretical sea level thrust coefficient
id = Injector orifice diameter
CPD = Catalyst pack diameter
eD = Nozzle exit plane diameter
tD = Nozzle throat diameter
F = Thrust
expslspI = Sea level specific impulse
CPL = Catalyst pack length
m = Molar mass of decomposed gas
xv
pm = Propellant mass flow rate
ap = Ambient pressure at sea level
ep = Nozzle exit plane pressure
CPp0 = Catalyst pack entry pressure
ip0 = Injection pressure
𝑃0𝑛 = Nozzle entry stagnation pressure
fhpp0 = High pressure tank final pressure
ihpp0 = High pressure tank initial pressure
ptp0 = Propellant tank pressure
uR = Universal gas constant, 8314.3 j/kmol-K
adT0 = Adiabatic flame temperature
nT0 = Nozzle entry stagnation temperature
hptV = High pressure tank volume
ptV = Propellant tank volume
= Ratio of specific heats for the neutral gas in the high pressure tank
= Nozzle area ratio, te AA
CPp = Catalyst pack pressure drop
ip = Injector pressure drop
oop = On/off valve pressure drop
PRp = Minimum pressure difference across pressure regulator
xvi
Ft = Thrusting time
rtt = Residence time in catalyst pack
η𝑐∗ = *c efficiency
η𝐶𝐹 = FC efficiency
n0 = Nozzle entry stagnation density
p = Propellant density
= Gas mass flux through the catalyst pack
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Liquid rocket propellant system commonly divided into two types which are
monopropellant and bipropellant [1]. In a monopropellant rocket system, a single
liquid system is used as propellant. The most commonly used monopropellant is
hydrazine (N2H4) which is highly toxic and very unstable unless handled in solution
[1]. While in bipropellant rockets, two types of liquid system are used. The liquids
are categorized into two which are the fuel and the oxidizer. The most common
combination of bipropellant are monomethylhydrazine (MMH) and nitrogentetroxide
(N2O4) both of which are highly toxic and unstable [1-2]
The above propellant mixtures require particular propellant handling and
prelaunch preparation. Because of the requirement, hydrazines and nitrogen tetroxide
have become less attractive fluid while hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) seems better as
potential alternative [3-7]. Wernimont E. J. [8] stated that the non-toxic chemical
which is rocket grade H2O2 (concentration greater than 85%) has a natural familiarity
to human chemistry thus it is the best wide-ranging solution for space, land, air and
sea applications. When choosing H2O2 as a monopropellant, the other benefits are the
significant cost saving and simplification of health and safety precautions needed
throughout the fabrication, storage and handling of the propellants [2].
The cost of manufacturing and preparing the thruster does not scale down
proportionally with the thruster size due to the advantages. These advantages have
2
special relevance to low or medium thruster. The propulsion mechanism was derived
from silver meshes that act as a catalyst for the decomposition of H2O2. Since
decomposition products are safe, H2O2 monopropellant also can be considered as
safe. The reaction equation for the decomposition process is as per equation (1.1):
HeatgOlOHlOH Catalyst )()(2)(2 2222 1.1
Equation (1.1) shows that superheated steam and oxygen with heat are
released from the decomposition process. It means that no other lethal gas is released
to the atmosphere. Based on this fact, concentration up to 90% of the H2O2 rocket
grade was prepared. In order to achieve higher specific impulse which can give more
thrust, higher concentrations of H2O2 were needed. Unfortunately, silver catalyst
cannot withstand the heat generated by the decomposition process while adopting
high concentration of H2O2. By introducing alumina coated with manganese oxide,
experiments were conducted in order to validate this catalyst for satellite propulsion
usage. These ceramic based catalysts are expected to be lighter, cheaper, and of
longer life.
1.2 Statement of the problem
For the improved application of hydrogen peroxide in rocket propulsion,
major research activities are presently moving towards indentifying suitable catalyst
system to decompose hydrogen peroxide. Traditionally screen of pure silver or silver
coated nickel or stainless steel have been adopted. Silver based catalysts are heavy
and of short life. Furthermore, when the concentration of hydrogen peroxide
increases (to realize higher specific impulse), the silver based system cannot
withstand high temperatures (>1000K) of the decomposed products of hydrogen
peroxide. In searching for suitable alternative catalyst, manganese oxide calcinated
on the substrates of alumina, titanium oxide, or cordierite has been shortlisted as the
candidates for the catalyst system. These ceramic based catalysts are expected to be
3
lighter, cheaper, and of longer life. However, detailed characterization of the system
has not been reported.
1.3 Objective
1. To determine the sustainability of the conventional silver catalyst in the
development of a H2O2 monopropellant rocket engine of 100N thrust.
2. To find out the feasibility of using alumina based catalyst in the development
of monopropellant thruster.
1.4 Scope of Project
In order to achieve the objectives of the project, several scopes have been
adopted. The scopes include using FORTRAN programming to ease the calculation
of the parameters needed for the design, designing and fabricating the thruster using
the parameters that have been calculated. It also include preparing silver and ceramic
catalyst using methods applied by others and developing own method of preparation
for ceramic catalyst.
1.5 Outline of Thesis
This thesis consists of six chapters. In this chapter, introduction, objective,
statement of problems, scope of this project and summary of works are reviewed.
While in Chapter 2, theory and literature reviews on hydrogen peroxide and its
catalyst, thruster, micro thruster and its applications from various resources are
summarized.
In Chapter 3, the discussion is on the methods of completing this project
using hardware and software implementation together with catalyst preparation and
4
testing procedures. The design process is elaborated in Chapter 4. The entire
experimental results and discussion are described in Chapter 5. Lastly, Chapter 6,
encompasses conclusion of this project and future work which can be done hence
recommended.
86
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