Castano's Mid-term Review

Mid-term is Wednesday, January 28 at 7:30am!

YOU MUST SHOW UP!!!!

Scientific Method

Oh, please have extra delicious candy ready!

Observe, problem, hypothesis, experiment, data, conclusion, repeat...

A controlled experiment has two groups which are identical in all ways (everything is “controlled”) but one.

The control group is used for comparison and receives no “experimental” variable.

The experimental group receives the “experimental” variable.

Experiments

Controlled experiments use two groups (the larger, the better).

All variables remain the same except for one: the Manipulated (Independent) Variable. This is what is changed (manipulated) in the experiment.

The other “variable” is the Dependent Variable. This is what is measured in the experiment.

Experiments must be repeated, with the same results received, in order for it to be valid.

Data

Data is the results of the experiment.

It is carefully collected and organized in charts.

The data is displayed in graphs to make it easier to see trends, compare different data and determine a conclusion based on these results.

STRANGER-CS Synthesis (to build/create something more

complex)

T Transport (movement of materials into/out of and around an organism)

R Respiration (cellular respiration – the process of making ATP energy)

A Adapt/Respond (homeostasis – an organism's ability to adapt and respond

to changes in the environment) (*STEADY STATE*)

N Nutrition (obtaining the nutrients needed to survive)

STRANGER-C Cont'd...

G Growth/Genetics (growth means to increase in size and/or number – but that could not

occur without genes!)

E Excretion (removal of cellular waste)

R Reproduction (Sexual and Asexual)

C Cells

MicroscopesThe invention of the microscope lead to the

discovery of cellsCompound → Cells & Cell Theory → Electron Microscope

Compound Microscope uses two lensesOcular (eyepiece) & Objective

Multiply power of both lenses to get Total MagnificationOcular (10x) x Objective (4x, 10x, 40x) = Total

Field of View (FOV) is what you “see” when looking through the eyepieceLower power = large field of view, less detail

High power = small field of view, more detail

Cells & Cell Theory

Cells are the basic unit of function and life.

Cells are living organisms

The Cell Theory States:Cells are the basic (smallest) unit of function that is

living.All living things are made up of one or more cells.Cells come from pre-existing cells.

Cells

Prokaryote → Single Cellular / No OrganellesBacteria

Eukaryote → Single or Multicellular / Have organelles and a Nucleus

Plants & AnimalsYOU are a EUKARYOTE!

Cells contain membrane bound organelles which have specific jobs inside the cell

Organelles are made up of macromolecules

Organelles

Each have a specific job

Plant and Animal Cells contain the following:Nucleus → Houses Chromosomes (DNA-genetic

information) and controls cellular activitiesPlasma Membrane → Controls (regulates) what

enters and leaves the cell (but, has no control over water and gases)

Cytoplasm → “Gel” substance which protects organelles and moves material around the cell Cytoplasmic Streaming

Ribosomes → Make Proteins from Amino Acids

Mitochondria → Makes energy (ATP) from Glucose and Oxygen (ALL Organisms Need ATP!)

Vacuole → Storage container (Stores Water, Waste)

ALL CELLS have cytoplasm and a cell membrane

Plant cells have:Chloroplast → Site of Photosynthesis (Glucose

production), filled with green pigment ChlorophyllCell Wall → Non-living, made of Cellulose, surrounds

and protects cell

Animal cells have:Centrioles → Send out spindles to help with cell

divisionLysosomes → Vesicle to digest & destroy waste

Diffusion & Osmosis

Rules of Diffusion: Molecules move across a membrane from high

concentration to low concentration No Energy Required!

Membrane must be permeable Molecules must be able to fit through the

membrane Cell membrane has NO control over the

diffusion of water, gases, glucose Osmosis is the diffusion of water

The Big FourOrganic Macromolecules (C,H,O,N & P)

Carbohydrates Sugars & Starches C-H2O formula

• 1C=2H=1O Geometric Shapes!

Lipids Fats & Oils CHO formula Glycerol + Fatty Acids

Proteins Amino Acids

• Enzymes!!!!!!

Nucleic Acids DNA

Nucleotides A,T,C,G

RNA Nucleotides A,U,C,G

DNA

Double stranded hereditary information (genetic material) which make up Chromosomes

Coiled into a double helix Chromosomes are made up of genes which are

made up of nucleotides Repeating Nucleotides make up Nucleic Acids

4 Different Nitrogen Bases (A,T,C,G) Adenine-Thymine Cytosine-Guanine THYMINE is only in DNA

Remains in Nucleus

RNA

Single stranded genetic material which is a copy of DNA

Nucleotides → Nucleic Acids 4 Different Nitrogen Bases (A,U,C,G)

Adenine-Uracil Cytosine-Guanine NO THYMINE – HAS URACIL!

Leaves nucleus to bring message to the Ribosome where protein is made

Chemical Reactions

• Dehydration Synthesis

• Remove water to build a bond and make something more complex

• A molecule of water (H2O) is always formed by this reaction

• Hydrolysis

• Add water to break down (destroy) bonds and digest a complex molecule into smaller, simpler molecules

• A molecule of water (H2O) is always used in this reaction

Enzymes & Chemical Reactions ALL Chemical Reactions are controlled by

ENZYMES! When you see an arrow in a formula, there are

enzymes present! Enzymes are sometimes known as Biological

Catalysts (a catalyst gets “something” started) Enzymes are very specific

One enzyme for each different reaction Each has a different shape, due to the

sequence of amino acids Enzymes are never changed or used up in a

reaction → (Enzymes SYNTHESIZE and HYDROLIZE!)

Enzymes

Enzymes (and all proteins) can lose their shape due to pH or temperature

If the enzyme loses it's natural shape it will not work

Denature (“de”stroy “natur”al shape) Enzymes work best at “optimal” pH and

temperature The high-peak of the graph Low parts of graph is where enzyme is

denatured

Other Cell Processes• Photosynthesis

• CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2

• Plants, green algae and some bacteria• Known as Autotrophs or Producers because they

produce their own food

• Animals, Fungus (Mushrooms) and Bacteria are Heterotrophs/Consumers because they need to consume (eat) food

• GLUCOSE is synthesized in the Chloroplast

• Solar energy is captured and inorganic water and carbon dioxide are converted into organic Glucose

• Radiant energy is changed to chemical energy

• chemical energy is stored in the bonds of Glucose

Other Cell Processes

• Cell Respiration

• ALL ORGANISMS (including plants!) perform Cell Respiration

• Produces ATP (Adenosine-triphosphate) at the Mitochondria

• Energy stored in Glucose is converted into a form which the cells can use for biological activities (ATP)

• C6H12O6 + O2 → ATP + CO2 + H2O

• Aerobic uses oxygen and makes 36 ATPs

• Anaerobic means no oxygen and is not efficient (Yeast makes Alcohol --- Muscle Cells make Lactic Acid)

Inorganic/Organic

* Organic Molecules have Carbon “C” AND Hydrogen “H” TOGETHER!

* Water is inorganic because it has no carbon

* Carbon Dioxide is inorganic because it has no hydrogen

* Glucose is ORGANIC because it has BOTH carbon AND hydrogen!

Cell Division (Asexual Reproduction)

aka MitosisOne parent cell produces two identical daughter

cells

Occurs with ALL cells except for sex cells

DNA is duplicated (replicated) in the parent cell and then the cell splits in two

Both cells have identical genetic information and have the same number of chromosomes as the original cell at the end of division

YOU NEED TO KNOW THESE...

HOMEOSTASIS – Maintain a steady internal balance

METABOLISM – The total amount of chemical reaction that occur in an organism

SYNTHESIS – To build/create something complex

CATALYST – Enzymes! Control Chemical Reactions

AUTOTROPH – Produces own food (glucose)

HETEROTROPH – Has to consume food (glucose)

Think....

If you see RIBOSOME, think PROTEINS/AMINO ACIDS

If you see MITOCHONDRIA, think CELL RESPIRATION/ATP/ENERGY

If you see NUCLEUS, think CHROMOSOME/DNA/GENETIC INFO

If you see HEREDITARY, think DNA/CHROMOSOMES/GENES/GENETICS

If you see METABOLISM, think CHEMICAL REACTIONS

If you see CATALYST, think ENZYME!!!!!