Cassava Flour Session 2 Current Use

8/10/2019 Cassava Flour Session 2 Current Use

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Starch Potential in Bra zil

CHAPTER4

STARCHPOTENTIALINBRAZIL1

M. P. Cered a*, I . C. Tak itan e*,G. Chuzel**, and O. Vilpoux***

Cassava Starch Production

and UsesBrazilian starch production is almost1 million tons per year: 76% frommaize (700,000 t/year), 23% fromcassava (220,000 t/year), and theremainder from other crops such aspotato and rice (500 t/year) (AdemirZanella, 1992-1993, personalcommunication). Being traditionalBrazilian foods, the last two crops areunlikely ever to play an importantrole in the starch market.

About 45% of maize starch isused raw (320,000 t/year), 40% asglucose and malto-dextrins(280,000 t/year), and 15% asmodified starches (100,000 t/year).In contrast, about 68% of cassavastarch is used raw (150,000 t/year),18% as modified starch(40,000 t/year), 10% as sour starch

(22,000 t/year), and about 3% astapioca (8,000 t/year) (AdemirZanella, 1992-1993, personalcommunication).

Because of its high quality and

high value (US$1.50/kg), arrowrootwill take a significant part of thefuture starch market. Cassavastarch, in contrast, is a low-valueproduct, with prices ranging fromUS$0.27 to US$0.40/kg (AdemirZanella, 1992-1993, personalcommunication).

Annual world productionof starch is currently about29 million tons, obtained from maize(12 million), wheat (10 million),potato (4 million), cassava(0.8 million), and others (2.2 million)(Chuzel, 1991). The main starchproducers are USA (maize), Canada(wheat), and the European Union(potato).

The USA imports 150,000 t ofcassava starch, the EU 50,000 t, andCanada 10,000 t, representing only

about 1% of world starch production,but 25% of the worlds cassava starchproduction. Japan imports another300,000 t of cassava starch(Lorenz Industry, 1990, personalcommunication). These countriesuse cassava starch to manufacturemodified starches (Table 1).

Knight (1974) lists differentstarches and their use in food

(waxy starch has a high level ofamylopectin, a result of geneticmodification):

* Faculdade de Cincias Agronmicas (FCA),Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), SoPaulo, Brazil.

** CIRAD/SAR, stationed at UNESP/FCA.

*** French Technical Cooperation, stationed atUNESP/FCA.

1. No abstract was provided by the authors.


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Cassa va Flour and Starch: Progress in Research and Development

Us e Starc he s us e d Fun c t ion

Spice for salads Maize + waxy Provide stability in acidity, cutting,starch mixtures and temperature

Filling for Waxy starch Provides texture, transparency,fresh-fruit pies and acid stability

Filling for Waxy starch Provides stability in acidity and frozenfrozen-fruit pies texture (does not coagulate), and

transparency

Maize-type cream Waxy starch Provides heat stability and high viscosity

Ready-made puddings Maize + waxy Provide stability in temperature, frozenstarch mixtures texture, and cutting

Baby foods Waxy starch Provides stability in frozen texture andhigh viscosity

Table 1. Applications (in percentage) of cassava starch in USA and the European Union.a

Crop Product

Glucose Fructose Alcohol Paper Modified Raw

Maize 30 20 10 10 20 10

(40) (20) (-) (10) (20) (10)

Wheat 50 30 10 - 10 -

(60) (20) (-) (10) (10) (-)

Potato - - - - 90 10

(-) (-) (-) (10) (80) (10)

Cassava - - - - 100 -

(-) (-) (-) (-) (100) (-)

a. Percentages in parentheses are values for the European Union.

SOURCE: Lorenz Industry, 1990, personal communication.

environmental conditions andcompetition with the tobacco industry,

which has a quicker turnover of crops(cassava takes 1 year to mature).

Cassava Starch Industriesand Marke t s

Cassava starch industries are locatedin Santa Catarina, Paran (78%), SoPaulo, Minas Gerais, and Mato Grossodo Sul (Table 5) with 56 industriesregistered with the AssociaoBrasileira dos Produtores de Amido deMandioca (ABAM, 1992-1993). But

the founding of many new industriesmay have increased this number to 70.Processing capacity is variable, for

Brazil, the worlds leadingproducer of cassava (Table 2), uses80% of its production in food.

Although the national production ofcassava is spread over most Brazilian

states (Table 3), northern andnortheastern Brazil grow 67% of thenational crop. Most is used asfoodof the 1991 crop, only 4% wastransformed into starch.

Table 4 compares cassavaproduction in Paran state with thatin Santa Catarina: planting area inthe first increased by 64%, as didproduction (65%), in the last 10 years.

In contrast, in Santa Catarina,planting area dropped by 35%, as didproduction (-13%), because of


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example, the average is 221 t/day inParan state and 109 t/day in SantaCatarina. These industries haveequipment of international standard.

The Centro Raizes Tropicais(CERAT), Universidade EstadualPaulista (UNESP), researched 12cassava flour industries in SantaCatarina in 1993 through interviews,

which showed an overall production of10,450 t. These results, however,differed from ABAMs data of the same

year (16,750 t).

Cassava starch production facesstrong competition from maize starch,

the prices of which are stable, andquality is high and consistent. Suchcompetition inhibits the growth and

expansion of cassava starch use. Thestructure of the maize starch marketin Brazil is oligopolistic and is formed

by three multinational enterprises:National Starch, Cargil, and CornProducts Corporation.

Maize and cassava starches arecommercialized in the same markets:foodstuffs (cheese breads, cookies,ice-creams, chocolates, processedmeat, and forcemeats), paper andcardboard, textiles, pharmaceuticalproducts, glues and adhesives, andmodified starches.

The biggest problem facing the

cassava starch industry is a pricevariability that ranges between 60%and 70%. Prices for cassava roots

Table 2. World production of cassava roots (in millions of tons). Numbers are rounded.a

Producer 1961-1965b 1969-1971b 1991c

Major producers 50.0 (67) 63.5 (66) 99.4 (65)

Brazil 21.9 (29) 29.9 (31) 24.6 (16)

Thailand 1.7 (2) 3.2 (3) 20.3 (13)Nigeria 7.2 (10) 9.4 (10) 20.0 (13)

Zaire 7.7 (10) 10.2 (11) 18.2 (12)

Indonesia 11.8 (16) 10.6 (11) 16.3 (11)

Otherd 24.5 (33) 33.2 (34) - -

Total 75.0 (100) 96.7 (100) 153.7 (100)

a. Values in parentheses signify proportion of total by percentage.

b. Compiled from FAO, 1990.

c. CIAT, 1993.

d. About 75 countries.

Table 3. Brazilian cassava production, 1991 crop, by region.

Region Area Output Proportion of Average(ha) (t) national crop yield

(%)a (t/ha)

North 328,792 4,461,354 18 13.5

Northeast 1,132,889 12,005,948 49 10.5

Middle west 68,819 1,082,950 5 15.7

Southeast 134,775 2,118,052 9 15.7

South 277,835 4,862,480 19 17.5

Total 1,943,110 24,530,784 100 -

a. Numbers are rounded.

SOURCE: IBGE and CEPAGRO, 1992.


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22 Table 4. Cassava production in the states of Paran and Santa Catarina, Brazil, 1981-1993. Numbers are rounded.

Year of Area Growth rate Production Growth crop (ha) (%) (millions of tons) (%)

Paran Santa Paran Santa Paran Santa ParanCatarina Catarina Catarina C

1981/82 62,490 100 1.2 100

1982/83 69,870 12 1.3 13

1983/84 74,688 20 1.4 19

1984/85 85,800 88,443 37 100 1.7 1.1 41

1985/86 85,800 84,812 37 -4 1.7 1.2 39

1986/87 85,445 75,738 37 -14 1.8 1.2 52

1987/88 85,242 69,469 36 -21 1.8 1.1 52

1988/89 77,839 74,756 25 -15 1.6 1.2 33

1989/90 101,854 67,596 63 -24 2.1 1.1 79

1990/91 102,265 63,370 64 -28 2.2 1.0 86

1991/92 100,000 56,873 60 -36 2.1 1.0 721992/93 137,000 57,379 119 -35 2.0 1.0 65

Ave

SOURCE: IBGE, various years.


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of cassava starch (f.o.b. at factory) aremore stable than those of cassavaroots, which are vulnerable to theroots perishability and fluctuate withroot production. Products usingcassava and maize starches are elastic,that is, income positive, whereasproducts from cassava flour areinelastic.

Table 5. Brazilian starch production (in tons) for 1993, and estimated for 1994.

State Starch industries Production Estimated(no.) 1993 production 1994

Paran 23 132,900 189,600

Santa Catarina 21 31,550 56,600

So Paulo 5 15,500 28,600Mato Grosso do Sul 4 23,000 29,300

Mato Grosso 2 1,500 5,100

Esprito Santo 1 3,000 5,000

Total 56 207,450 314,200

SOURCE: ABAM, 1993.

varied erratically between US$19.50(1983), $33.50 (1992), and $51.00(1989) per ton during 1980-1992(Ademir Zanella, 1992-1993, personalcommunication).

Other problems include the factthat the Brazilian cassava starchindustries must also stop workingfor 4 months/year. Low rootproduction, a long vegetative cycle, andan inferior quality starch also makecassava starch production costly,compared with that of maize starch. Inthe last 3 years, maize prices havefallen against those of cassava roots,thus making the prices of maize starchmore competitive and maize starchmore available, and thus more used byindustries (Venturini Filho, 1993).

Large Brazilian agroindustrialcomplexes that use starch as a rawmaterial have invested in this area toguarantee an adequate supply of good

quality and suitably stored starch.Three examples can be cited: NationalStarch in Santa Catarina and Nestl inParan have just bought their owncassava starch industries. FleischmanRoyal in So Paulo has used its ownfactory, Jpiter, to manufacture itsown cassava starch for more than5 years.

Figures 1, 2, and 3 show

differences between the real prices ofraw material (root), cassava flour, andraw cassava starch in Paran. Prices

1980 82 84 86 88 90 92

Year

Figure 2. Real wholesale prices for cassava flour.Correct prices until August andSeptember 1993 (after readjustment forinflation). (After ABAM, 1993.)

CR$/50kg

13,500

11,500

9,500

7,500

5,500

3,500

1,500

Figure 1. Cassava farmgate prices, Paran state,Brazil. Correct prices until August1993 by general price index-internaldemand (deflator). (After FundaoGetulio Vargas, 1993, personal

communication.)

CR$/t

1980 82 84 86 88 90 92

Year

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0


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Produ cing Cassava Flour in Peru and ...

Peruvian Amazon and the humidtropics. The Instituto deInvestigaciones de la AmazonaPeruana (IIAP) established a pilotplant for producing cassava flour inPucallpa, capital of the Department ofUcayali, in the center of the Peruvian

Amazon. This flour is used for humanconsumption and as a substitute forinputs used in plywood and

bread-making industries.

Cassava Production inUc ayali, Pe ru

In 1991, national cassava productionwas 405,725 t, twice that of the1950s. In contrast, other staples suchas potatoes, wheat, and quinoa(Chenopodiumquinoa) have decreased

by one-third. Ucayali produces20,000 t of cassava annually, fourthin national production. Consumption

centers are located on differenttributaries of the Ucayali River and,although tributaries are navigable,most cassava is wasted becausedistances are long, and boats slow andsmall. The highly perishable and

bulky roots therefore do not reachmarkets in time.

Yields in the Departments ofLoreto and Ucayali vary from 10 to

35 t/ha. The little produce that doesreach urban markets has increased itsprice by 200% in relation to farmgate

Introduction

Concern is increasing worldwide aboutthe social problems of poverty,unemployment, hunger, and mountingchild mortality. In Peru, preliminarydata from the most recent censusshows that a population explosion hastaken place in the last few years. Thisfactor, together with Perussociopolitical and economic problems,has depressed living standards,especially in rural areas, which has to

produce enough food to feed nine citydwellers for every rural inhabitant.But subsistence agriculture isprevalent because of agroecologicalconstraints, lack of infrastructure,and lack of technical and economicresources.

More than two-thirds of Peru hasagroclimatic conditions suitable fortropical crops that can grow in poor

soils, with little fertilization, and areresistant to disease. Such crops have

been rapidly distributed, and are themost valuable resource in fightinghunger and the greatest hope for ruraldevelopment through agroindustry. Ofthese crops, cassava and plantain arethe most important, both in the

CHAPTER5

PRODUCINGCASSAVAFLOURINPERU

ANDITSPROSPECTSFORDEVELOPMENT1S. Sal as Domnguez, Y. Guzmn, andS. Aquin o*

* Instituto de Investigaciones de la AmazonaPeruana (IIAP), Pucallpa, Peru.



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prices. In rural areas, cassava istraditionally processed into productssuch as faria and tapioca, but

because of inferior quality, theseproducts are not sufficientlycompetitive for urban markets.

In the past, plants for producingcassava flour were installed inPucallpa and Iquitos (Department ofLoreto, north of Ucayali). These failedmainly because the technology did notaccord with the geographical andsocioeconomic conditions of therespective areas.

The inhabitants of Ucayali eatsufficient carbohydrates to comply

with the minimum nutritionalrequirements set by the NationalNutritional Institute. That is,142,350 t of roots and tubers and98,550 t of cereals (mostly imported

wheat flour) are consumed yearly.

The IIAP Cassava Flour Plant

Ba c k g r o u n d

The farmers of Ucayali, especiallycassava producers, confront severesocioeconomic and political pressuresthat often force them to emigrate enmasse to cities or cocaine areas. In anattempt to keep people on the land,the IIAP looked for ways to proposeand generate appropriate technologies,employment, and organization. The

IIAP suggested integrating productionsystems to permit a more efficient andeffective use of small-farm resourcesand thus improve production.

In 1989, the IIAP, withcollaboration from CIAT (based inColombia), began developingtechnology and machine prototypes forcassava processing. A plant wasestablished at Fundo Villarica, IIAPs

experiment station at Pucallpa,despite a recession in almost all

production areas, which occurred as aresult of the 1991 political andeconomic emergencies.

The pilot plant was conceived aspart of an integrated system.

Activities were to complement eachother so to increase potential and thususe more effectively availableresources. The plant was to serve anarea that suffers multiple problems,and the Peruvian Amazon wastargeted.

The plant was complemented byvermiculture (farming of worms),agroforestry, fish farms. Theseactivities not only provide a market forcassava products, but also help slowdown the degradation of naturalresources, for example, worm humushelps improve poor soils. The raisingof small animals, based on productsand byproducts of rural agroindustry(such as cassava flour), helps resolvethe lack of protein in the regional diet.Efficient farm management (and thushigher productivity) reduces

emigration.

Objec t i ves

Through research, the plant was togenerate and adapt technologies forprocessing flour, and evaluate andestablish production and qualityparameters. The plant, however, hadto be a successful enterprise tointerest farmers in the potential

socioeconomic benefits of cassavaflour production. Once farmers beganparticipating, the plant was to offertraining to cassava farmers andprocessors interested in integratingproduction, processing, andmarketing.

To fulfill its functions oftechnological research, flourproduction, product promotion, and

training, the plant had the followingobjectives:


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(1) To validate, adapt, and generatetechnologies for processingcassava and its products.

(2) To open markets for cassava-based products such as flour,flakes, and grains.

(3) To integrate the use of the entirecassava plant in animal feed.

(4) To increase the value of cassavaroots, which are underused

because of their perishability.(5) To gradually substitute imported

wheat flour.(6) To provide technical and

organizational training for farmersand mid-level technicians.

(7) To encourage farmers to not onlyproduce cassava, but also toprocess and market it.

Pl a n t f a c i l i t i e s

The plant had four sections:(1) reception, storage, andpreparation; (2) washing;(3) chipping; and (4) preliminarysun-drying, artificial drying, milling,and storing the final product. The

area for storing and preparing rawmaterial was built on higher terrainthan was the chipping area to makeuse of gravity in transferring rawmaterial. The dryer was a traysystem used by CIAT, with a burnerthat, for fuel, used wood discardedfrom sawmills.

To reduce drying time, flakesdestined for animal feed were first

dried in trays, and then sun-dried.The basic machinery was broughtfrom Colombia, but accessories andother equipment were built locally andelsewhere in Peru. The totalinvestment was US$27,000, including

buildings, machinery, and otherequipment.

From the start, the IIAPencouraged the organized

participation of cassava growers sothey could evaluate the possibilities ofother plants under similar direct

management, and so sign agreementsthat permit mutual collaboration.Supplies of raw material came fromsome sectors of the Campo Verdedistrict, near Pucallpa.

Pl a n t o p er a t i o n

The plant operated at 60% capacity, inaccordance with the goal set. Thefollowing five cultivars were used:Seorita, Huangana, Huanuquea,

Arponcillo, and Nusharuna. Bestresults have been obtained with cv.Seorita with a yield of 3.2:1 (root toflour), but is more perishable thanother roots (lasts 2 days). CultivarNusharuna has the most durableroots but its yields are low, 3.9:1, andthe flour is darker because the peel isdifficult to remove.

The percentage of loss from rootdefects after selection and preparation

was high (15%). Although thisproblem could be overcome bydifferentiating root prices, farmers hadto be taught the need for selection.

Overall, the equipment performedwell, except for the screen and dryer.The minimum drying time achievedwas 12 hours, including preliminarysun-drying. Raw material accountedfor 85% of production costs, fuel 7%,and labor 3%. Packaging,depreciation, and maintenanceaccounted for the remaining 5%.

Ma r k e t i n g

The plant targeted the local market,with some initial promotion in Iquitosand Lima. Currently, demand is 70 tof flour per month, of which only 16 tcould be supplied. About 60% ofproduction is sold to bakeries (whichsubstitute as much as 20% of wheatflour) through the Programa Nacionalde Alimentacin (PRONAA) and to the

private company, Cotrip, that makeswater biscuits. About 20% goes toplywood industries, 5% to Lima, and


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another 5% to Iquitos. The bran,together with discarded roots, is usedfor animal feed.

Key market segments at a nationallevel are still to be identified, andcompetition from imported wheat flourhas to be resolved. Ucayali, forexample, uses 700 t/month, of which80% is for bread making and 20% forplywood industries.

Resea rch

The plant lacked laboratory equipmentfor quality control, which was done byseveral universities andnongovernmental organizations(NGOs). Proximal and microbiologicalanalyses were carried out.

At first, because water quality wasinferior and vermiculture was locatednear the plant, microbiological quality

was poor. Scientists found fungi,yeasts, fecal coliforms, andclostridium sulfite reducers inquantities above permissible levels,

but no Escherichiacolinor salmonella.These problems have been identifiedand solved, and the flour is nowacceptable for human consumption.

Dry matter content of cv. Seoritais 34%. On the average, wholecassava flour contains 84.2% starch,1.4% protein, and 3.1% fiber.

Based on experiences in bread

making, trials were conducted withbakeries to establish the followingformula for bread preparation:

Wheat flour 80 parts Yeast 3 parts

Cassava flour 20 parts Additive 1 part

Sugar 6 parts Salt 1 part

Fat 6 parts Water 30 parts

Color still has to be improved butflavor and consistency are good.Currently, artisanal modules for

making bread and pasta are beinginstalled to promote the establishmentof similar projects in different ruralsectors.

T r a i n i n g

Training focuses on three levels:(1) university theses; (2) training ruraldwellers to become qualified workers,or, through modular training courses,knowledgeable on any phase of theprocess; and (3) courses for the public,such as bread making for commercial

bread makers and housewives.

Ach i e vemen t s

After 2 years of operation, the plantsuccessfully:

(1) Identified, analyzed, andimproved native technology.

(2) Built the productioninfrastructure, using locallyavailable resources. Machinesand equipment were simple,

versatile, and adaptable to

processing other products, suchas plantains, sachapapa ortaro, and cassava.

(3) Produced flour that was US$0.25cheaper than wheat flour.

(4) Found favorable local andregional markets. These were

vermiculture, agroforestry,raising of small animals,horticulture, and pisciculture.

(5) Made the new technology

economic for small-scale farmersto invest and rapidly recuperatetheir investments, thusdiminishing risks whenconditions become unfavorable.

(6) Established a modular system forinstallation and operation, thusenabling each phase of theprocess to be totally independentand thus more efficient.

(7) Passed the test of adverse

political and economic conditions,including violence, recession, andgeneralized poverty.


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Prospectives

An agreement has been signed withthe Alto Huallaga Special Project tointroduce integrated productionsystems as an alternative tocultivating coca. Currently, the plant

at Tocache is being installed, withCIATs assistance. With collaborationfrom Caritas Peru, four plants will beestablished in Puerto Maldonado(southeast Peru), Iquitos and

Yurimaguas (Department of Loreto),and Tumbes (north coast).


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CHAPTER6

CASSAVASTARCHINNORTHERNCAUCA,

COLOMBIA:SOCIOECONOMICEVALUATIONOFITSPRODUCTIONANDCOMMERCE1

Li l iana Mosquera P.*, Myr iam Patric ia Ch acn P.**,G. Henry**, andG. Chuzel***

* Cassava Economics Section, CIAT, Cali,Colombia.

** Cassava Program, CIAT, Cali, Colombia.*** CIRAD/SAR, stationed at the Faculdade de

Cincias Agronmicas (FCA), Universidade

Estadual Paulista (UNESP), So Paulo,Brazil.


Introduction

Cassava plays a major role insubsistence farming in northernCauca, Colombia. About 90% of rootproduction is used for extracting sourstarch, and as much as 80% of sourstarch production is used for makingthe breads pandebono andpandeyuca. Sour starch has its owncharacteristic functional properties,flavor, and aroma.

In northern Cauca, cassava starchextraction is mainly an artisanalactivity, although processing plantsare mechanized to some extent. Inimportance, this agroindustry ranksthird after the sugar, and editorial andpublishing industries.

Our study aimed to betterunderstand the different problems

affecting cassava starch production inthe region, and help researchersidentify priority needs for possibletechnology intervention.

The study is part of a research anddevelopment (R&D) program on cassavastarch production being conducted byCIATs Cassava Utilization Section.

The programs objective is to offertechnological alternatives to small-scale,cassava starch producers. The programfirst began in 1989, and is based on aninformal network comprising variousLatin American laboratories andinstitutions involved with cassavastarch production. The program alsocomprises regional working groupsthat evaluate technology for starchproduction, study the technical andeconomic system, characterize andevaluate products, treat waste waters,and conduct basic research onfermentation and raw material (Chuzel,1991).

Objec tives of the Study

The general objective was tocharacterize starch production andcommerce in northern Cauca, Colombia,and so assess the technical andeconomic performance ofsmall-scale, cassava starch factories.

Specific objectives were:

(1) To statistically analyze the surveys

carried out by the CassavaUtilization Section in 1990 on thetechnical performance of


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Cassa va Starch in Northern Cau ca, Colombia:...

small-scale, starch factories, and tostudy the economic performance ofthese and their social implications.

The economic survey of starchfactories carried out by universitystudents was used as a base.

(2) To characterize the productionprocess of cassava processingplants and determine the capacityof installed plants.

(3) To identify the seasons whensupplies of cassava sour starch areabundant or limited and determinedistribution channels.

(4) To analyze social characteristicsrelated to starch production andcommerce.

(5) To identify factors limiting starchproduction and commerce.

Methodology

The study began by surveyingsmall-scale, sour-starch producers andmiddlemen. The target populationconsisted of 99 small-scale starchfactories, first surveyed in 1990 when

the R&D project began, in the towns ofSantander de Quilichao (86 factories)and Caldono (13). Of this group,35 processing plants were selectedand, for reasons of efficiency,stratified according to plant size(small = fewer than 3 workers;large = 4 or more), age of equipment(new = purchased in the last 15 years;old = more than 15 years old), andgeographic area (municipality of

Santander de Quilichao or Caldono).

Selection was randomized, butproportional to stratum size. TheStratified Sampling of Elementstechnique (Pardo Camacho, 1991; deServn and Servn Andrade, 1978),

which gives proportional allotment,was used for sampling.

Cassava starch middlemen were

surveyed in Caldono, Santander deQuilichao, and Cali. Because nocensus of middlemen existed, no

specific sample was established. Thesurvey was therefore based on a listof 35 middlemen identified in theprevious survey on small-scale,cassava starch producers; of these35 middlemen, 20 were surveyed.

Numerous problems arose inobtaining comprehensive information,especially that on the volume of starchpurchases and sales. Becausemiddlemen were so reluctant to shareinformation on how they managedtheir businesses, a case study wasconducted, based on informationsupplied by the COAPRACAUCACooperative, Santander de Quilichao.

Starch Proce ss ing andCommerce

Root production is a key aspect in theprocessing and commerce of cassavastarch in northern Cauca. Althoughroots are used more to obtain starchthan for human consumption, whenmarket prices drop below the average

Col$32/kg (US$0.05/kg), then freshcassava is sold to cassava dryingplants for use in animal feed.

In the Cauca Department,6,290 ha were planted to cassava in1991, producing 71,624 t at a yieldof 11,387 kg/ha (Departamento

Administrativo Nacional de Estadstica,Colombia, 1992, unpublished data).

The municipalities of Buenos Aires,Santander de Quilichao, and Caldonoplanted 4,080 ha of cassava,accounting for 64% of the total areaunder cassava cultivation in Cauca.Production reached 39,000 t, 54% ofthe departments total production.

Yields were 9.5 t/ha, almost 16%below the departmental average of11.3 t/ha. But only 2.3% of thenational crop (173,999 ha) is planted

in Cauca because the rootsperishability, and its low andfluctuating prices, among other factors.


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The amount of cassava on offer tosmall-scale, starch factories averages556 t/year, for a consumption of456 t/year at Col$32,000/t(US$47.00). Although shortages of rawmaterial occur in Cauca at certaintimes of the year, the annual supply ofcassava often exceeds demand,especially for 18 of the factories inSantander de Quilichao. Located closeto the Pan-American Highway, theytend to be oversupplied.

Plant production during1990-1991 was irregular: some plantsoperated sporadically, according to theavailability of raw material and

working capital. For 1990, the averageminimum production was 4.3 t ofstarch per week and the maximum was175.0 t.

For 1991, the plants had anaverage production of 420 t of starchper year (8.7 t/week) and a maximumof 775 t/year (16.1 t/week). Suchfigures indicate that the plants do not

work at full capacity because of the

lack of raw material in the area.Production recession caused by lack ofraw material can last from 2 to12 weeks. Of the processors, 51%stated that they required a constantamount of raw material.

Yield

In 1991, sour-starch production per

factory decreased considerably,averaging 97 t/year. Byproducts were

bran (fiber and peel left over fromsieving starch) at 42 t/year andmancha (scum skimmed off surfaceof sedimented starch) at 8 t/year.Most small-scale, starch factories carryout sweet-starch extraction on request,

but production is sporadic becausestarch quality does not always reachindustrial technical specifications.

But, at the time of the survey, only onefactory was producing sweet starch(1.2 t/week).

The decrease in sour-starchproduction in 1991 was caused partly

by a lack of both raw material andworking capital. At the same time, theColombian Government beganimplementing a policy of openeconomy. Bank credits were closed tostabilize inflation at 22%. From

August 1990 to September 1991, the33 starch factories under studyprocessed 16,878 t of starch,producing 3,207 t of sour starch,1,333 t of bran, and 270 t of mancha.

That is, every 100 kg of roots yielded19% starch, 8% bran, 1.7% mancha,and 71.3% of both water (whichcomprises 65% of roots) and waste,that is, peel and starch lost toinefficient processing techniques. Yielddifferences among factories are caused

by, for example, cassava variety,harvest age, and postharvesthandling.

Producers can obtain as much as27% starch (wet basis) with 60%technological efficiency, according toexperiments by the Corporacin para

Estudios Interdisciplinarios y AsesorasTcnicas (CETEC), a Colombianorganization that provides technicalassistance to starch-producing farmers.Once the product is processed to 12%moisture content, these values can beobtained per 100 t of cassava. Forsmall-scale, starch factories innorthern Cauca, the cassava-to-starchconversion ratio is 5:1. The200 small-scale, starch factories of this

region therefore produced a total of8,500 t of sour starch in 1994.

In Ecuador, the cassava-to-starchconversion ratio is 5-10:1. This ratio

varies greatly according to the time ofyear and cassava varieties used.Byproducts (bran and mancha) aresold for animal feed (Chuzel, 1991).

In Minas Gerais, Brazil, the

polvilho azedo, or sour starch,enterprises can process from 1 to 40 tof cassava roots per day. Annual


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production ranges from 20 to1,000 t/year, and yields from 200 to300 kg of starch per t of roots(Oliver Vilpoux, 1992, personalcommunication).

Proc edures , Equipme nt , andMaintenance

In Colombia, small, semicommercial,cassava starch factories are calledrallanderas. These factories typicallyhave a grater-sieve and washer-peeler,

both motor-driven. Their processingcapacity ranges between 4.4 and 44 tof roots per week, with an overallaverage of 16.2 t/week. Figure 1demonstrates processing in amedium-sized, starch extractionfactory, beginning with the acquisitionof roots.

Root sup p l i e s. Small-scale starchprocessors do plant cassava, according

to surveys carried out in 1990 byCIATs Cassava Utilization Section.From August 1989 to August 1990,the total area planted to cassava byprocessors averaged 106 ha, of which43% corresponded to the processorsown plots and 57% to rented plots.For 1991, the percentage of processorsrenting land for cassava cultivationdecreased to 54%. That same year,the total area planted to cassava bythe 99 starch processors averaged80 ha. Thus, in the twomunicipalities, the 26 ha planted tocassava the previous year weredestined for other purposes.Furthermore, of the 51% growingcassava, only 33% owned the land and18% rented it; 48% lack land titledeeds, which reduced access to credit.

The cost of leasing 1 ha rangesbetween Col$3,000 and Col$40,000(US$4.43-$59.00) per month,averaging Col$10,333.00 (US$15.34)per small-scale, starch factory.

Washing

Roots

Grating

Sieving

Sedimentation

Starch

Moiststarch

Mancha + Wastewaters

Fermentation

Dehydration

Drying

Sour

starch

Dehydration

Sweet

Drying

Drying

Bran

Animal feed

Water, external cortex, dirt

Figure 1. Processes performed in a medium-sized, cassava-starch extraction factory, northern Cauca,Colombia. (Modified after Chuzel, 1991.)

Water


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Was h i n g a n d p eel i n g . These aredone either manually or in a rotatingdrum. Of the survey respondents, 93%have mechanized these operations,thus reducing womens participation inprocessing. Before, women wereemployed to peel the roots.

G r a t i n g . Grating is carried out byrotors with perforated laminae that arechanged periodically. About 36% offactories change the laminae every90 days, 23% every 60 days, 21% every30 days, and the rest more than90 days.

S iev i ng . The starch dissolved inwater is separated from the pulp orbran, which is later used in animalfeed. Different types of fabric, placedon rotating screens, are used forsieving, the most common being nylon(58%), canvas (28%), and silk (3%).

The fabrics are changed frequently:77% of processors change them every30 days, 11% every 60 days, and therest after 90 days. For 89% of theplants surveyed, sieves are less than

10 years old.

Sed ime n t a t i o n . The slurry fromsieving is left to settle. Particles offiber and other fine materials that hadnot been removed during sieving areseparated to form mancha, another

byproduct used in animal feed.Sedimentation is carried out inconcrete tanks veneered with wood orglazed tile. On the average, processing

plants have five sedimentation tanks,each with an average capacity to hold551 kg/day.

Fe rme n t a t i o n . To obtain sourstarch, the moist starch is passedthrough a series of tanks, where itremains 15 to 20 days until thedesired acidity is reached. The averagefactory has five fermentation tanks,each with a capacity of 1,030 kg.

Sweet starch is obtained bydehydrating and sun-drying the moiststarch after sedimentation.

D r y i n g . Starch is usuallysun-dried on trays or terraces, or onconcrete floors previously covered withplastic to prevent farmyardcontamination. The dried starch isthen packed for market distribution.

Commerce

The typical distribution of cassavasour starch begins with the cassavafarmer who sells the roots either tomiddlemen or directly to the starchprocessor. Only 7% of processorssurveyed purchase roots only throughmiddlemen; 65% buy directly from thefarmer, and 28% from both. Starch isalso distributed through middlemen ordirectly to users. The middleman sellsto the wholesaler or retailer who, inturn, distributes to intermediateconsumers such as bakeries andindustries that, in their turn,distribute their products directly toconsumers or to distributors ofprocessed food products (Figure 2).

Ultimate consumers

Intermediate processors(bakeries and industries)

Middlemen

Starch processors

Cassava farmers

RetailersWholesalers

Figure 2. Typical distribution chain for cassavastarch in northern Cauca, Colombia.

Middlemen

Distributorsof finishedproducts


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Starch processors sell most oftheir products in cash but may sell oncredit to regular clients. These clientsalso pay the processor in advance

when they urgently need starch andthe processor does not have enough

working capital to fulfill the demand.A credit period is usually 19 days.Although commercializing products isdifficult, stocks rotate quickly. Sourstarch is stored for an average of10 days, sweet starch 8 days, bran11 days, and mancha 14 days.

Processors also distribute sourstarch through the COAPRACAUCACooperative, which groups about30 small-scale, starch processors ofthe region, and through middlemen.

The cooperative and intermediatemiddlemen, in turn, sell the starch to

wholesalers and retailers who thendistribute the product to majormarkets in the cities of Santander deQuilichao, Cali, Buga, Cartago, Tulu,Pereira, Ibagu, Medelln, Bogot,Cartagena, and Montera.

The municipality of Santander deQuilichao has the highest number ofmiddlemenwhich explains why 42%of starch processors sell their producttherefollowed by Caldono and Cali,each with 15%, and the other cities

with 28%. For 1991, the average priceper kg of sour starch was Col$230(US$0.39). The byproducts (bran andmancha) are usually sold on theretail market in Santander deQuilichao, being mainly used foranimal feed (Figure 3).

Economic Evaluation ofSm all-sc ale, Starch Factories

Table 1 shows the costs involvedin producing sour starch. Allsmall-scale, starch factories aremechanized to a certain extent soelectricity is necessary. An averagefactory pays US$220/year forelectricity, accounting for 1% of totalcosts. Because the factories mustperiodically change some of

Figure 3. Market channels of cassava starch in northern Cauca, Colombia. (From interviews withCOAPRACAUCA Cooperative members.)

Starch processors

S/der de Quil.1%

Pereira17%

Wholesalers and retailers

Intermediatemiddlemen

Middlemen

Wholesalers and retailers

Cooperative

Ibagu8%

Cartago20%

Medelln37%

Cali20%

Cali25%

Bogot24%

Armenia6%

Ibagu6%

S/der de Quil.7%

Medelln7%

Other cities8%

Palmira6%

Pereira8%


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Table 1. Annual average costs involved in producing cassava starch (1991), northern Cauca, Colombia.

Item Col$ US$ Percentage of (1991 value) total costs

Fixed costs 2,882,000 4,836 12.1

Energy 131,000 220 0.5

Maintenance 487,000 817 2.0

Rent 1,082,000 1,815 4.6

Administration 855,000 1,435 3.6

Others 327,000 549 1.4

Variable costs 20,632,000 34,618 87.9

Raw material 16,708,000 28,034 71.5

Labor 1,751,000 2,938 7.4

Transport 1,958,000 3,285 8.0

Packing 215,000 361 1.0

Total costs 23,514,000 39,454 100.0

the equipment they incurmaintenance costs equivalent to 2%of total costs.

Small-scale, starch producerssave money when they own thefactory rather than rent its premises(CIMMYT, 1993). Rental costsdepend on the factorys location in

the region, but these are normallylow, with little tendency to increase.Only two of the starch processorssurveyed had explicit rental costs,accounting for 5% of total costs.

Administrative costs account for4% of total costs. Usually, the ownerhimself manages the factory, this

being his means of support. Anundetermined amount of the earnings

from the sale of starch is used forhousehold expenses, that is, as hissalary. This fact, perhaps, mostinfluences the efficient operation ofthe factory.

Administrative costs are closelyrelated to the efficiency of anyenterprise. A small-scale, cassavastarch factory should have adedicated manager with sufficient

expertise to administer the factoryduring production time. Themanager should be assigned a salary

and, even though some starchprocessors feel that this representsan extra cost, it would guaranteemore efficient operation.

Of the 99 small-scale, starchfactories operating during the study,three had administrative costs thatexceeded labor costs. In most cases,

labor costs were notably greater thanadministrative costs, indicating thata balance does not exist betweenthese two that would ensure adistribution of the economic benefitsof small-scale, starch factories.

The cost of buying andtransporting raw material accountfor 71% of operating costs. Severalsmall-scale, starch factories are

located where it is easy to purchaselarge volumes of low-quality cassava,especially in flat areas, thus reducingthe average purchase price per kg ofraw material. In 1991, averagefreight charges were Col$1,958,000(US$3,285), accounting for 8% oftotal costs and exceedingadministrative and labor costs.

Labor accounts for 7% of total

costs. Labor is inexpensive, andsmall-scale, cassava starch factoriesprovide a significant source of


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employment. In several ruralcommunities of the region, thesefactories are the rural populationsonly source of income. Labor is alsoseasonal, being scarce during coffeeharvest. Most factories busiest timeis during cassava harvest.

Inco m e Gen erate d by SourStarch Sales

Processors sell everything theyproduce, with sour starch bringingthe highest yearly income ofCol$22,942,000 (US$38,493) or 89%of the total income. Byproducts

brought Col$2,909,000 (US$4,881)or 11% of the total income. Netprofit per factory was estimated atCol$2,337,000 (US$3,921), and thenet profit per ton of sour starch wasCol$24,300 (US$41).

Cost-to-Benefit Ratio

Profitability of cassava starch

processing was compared with theinterest that the local agricultural

bank (Caja Agraria) pays to savingsaccounts (21% per year in 1991) as ameasure of opportunity cost. Thereturn on starch processing was only12%, although the opportunityinterest was 21%. That is, theprocessor lost 9%.

Profits generated by this type of

small enterprise are thereforeoperative in nature, not financial.Most small-scale, starch processorsearn only enough to satisfy their

basic needs. Without an economicsurplus to reinvest in their business,processors cannot readily modernizethe infrastructure. Processorscontinue to participate in the market

because their basic necessities andfixed costs are covered and they can

continue to sustain themselves inthe market despite the lack of profitsfor reinvestment.

Proce ss ing Const raints

Major constraints found in cassavastarch processing are:

I r r eg u l a r c a ssa v a s u p p l y . A

major constraint is irregular cassavasupply (Table 2), which is caused byinconstant cassava production, whichitself is related to unstable cassavaprices. As cassava prices rise, farmersintensify cultivation, thus increasingsupply and lowering prices.Processors do not control the flow ofraw material required to initiate theprocess; if they did, they could planproduction according to the marketand the output of each plant.

Wor k i n g ca p i t a l . The lack oftimely credit limits sour starchproduction and its subsequentcommercialization. Of the processors,61% had plans to obtain credit with a

bank. This credit was to pay suppliersfor raw material and to improve theinfrastructure, not only for plants thatprocess both coffee and cassava, but

also housing for the processors.

Often this credit is used forpurposes other than those indicated inthe initial request. The factory is soonleft without working capital and has toresort to informal lines of credit suchas suppliers giving extra days to pay.Middlemen may also lend money tothe processors, with the compromisethat, once the starch is processed, it

Table 2. Constraints to cassava starchprocessing, northern Cauca, Colombia.

Constraints Responses by processors

(no.) (%)

Irregular supply 27 57

Supply vs. demand for starch 6 12

Working capital 6 12

Lack of water (climate) 6 12

Tank capacity 3 6

Total 48 100


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will be sold to them at favorableprices. Many loans granted bymiddlemen are used to make downpayments to cassava farmers toensure root supplies.

T a n k c a p a ci t y . Tank capacitiesare often very limited: on the average,a factory will have five fermentationtanks with an average capacity of 1 teach, and five sedimentation tanks

with an average capacity of 551 kgeach.

S t oc k o f sp a r e p a r t s .Small-scale processors do not keep astock of spare parts needed tomaintain their equipment, oftencausing holdups in starch production.

Com m ercial Cons traints

Factories are affected by differentcombinations of several majorcommercial constraints (Table 3);these are:

T r a n s p o r t . Remote rural areascharacteristically have deficienttransport facilities, which delaydeliveries. Starch processors are thusoften obliged to rely on middlemen,

which may go against their owninterests.

Pl a n t s i t e . Starch processorslocate their processing plantsaccording to where land is available,rather than where consumers aresituated. Control over the product istherefore lost and the distance

between the two ends of the system(supply and demand) grows and sodoes the chain of middlemenparticipating in the commerce.

S t a r c h q u a l i t y . Processors havefew standard ideas on starch quality,making it difficult to determine criteriafor product quality. For 97% of thesurveyed processors, fermentation isimportant; this process should takefrom 15 to 20 days. For 70% ofprocessors, cassava variety is also amajor criterion. But processors tendto select varieties with high starch

yields rather than for quality, partlybecause working capital is insufficientfor purchasing the more expensive,high-quality starch varieties (Table 4).

Wa t e r .During summer months,water is scarce and, in winter,

processors have difficulty in dryingand transporting the starch. For 78%of surveyed processors, water qualityis an important criterion: it should becold. The water used by 60% of thesurveyed processors comes fromstreams and is untreated before use,

Table 4. Processors criteria for quality incassava starch, northern Cauca,Colombia.

Criterion Factories usingcriteriona

(no.) (%)

Color 33 33.3

Fermentation time (acidity) 96 98.0

Starch grain 54 54.5

Cassava variety 69 69.7

Age of cassava 30 30.3

Water quality 78 78.8

Climate 9 9.1

Others 30 30.3

a. Total number of starch factories surveyed(weighted data) = 99.

Table 3. Constraints to cassava starchcommerce in northern Cauca,Colombia.a

Constraints Factoriesaffected

(no.) (%)

Transport 15 15.2

Location 9 9.1

Availability of raw material 36 36.4

Availability of credit 24 24.2

Starch quality 33 33.3

Climate 33 33.3

School vacations 21 21.2

Others 39 39.4



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thus contributing to low productquality.

Pr ocesso r s k now l edge . Thelimited technical knowledge thatcassava farmers have of starchquality, and its processing andcommerce, also negatively affects thisagroindustry.

Social Characte ristic s Relate dto Cassava Starch Production

and Commerce

The following social issues areinvolved in the cassava starchagroindustry:

I m p r o ved l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s f or r u r a l , sma l l -s ca l e, s t a r c h p r o du c er s a n d o f t h e r e gi o n a s a w h o l e.

Table 5 shows that the starchagroindustry benefits both the peopledirectly involved in the industry andthe entire northern Cauca region.

This small-scale enterprise increasesthe number of jobs (according to 76%

of the processors surveyed) and betteruses available resources in the region,thus considerably energizing theeconomy of the Valle del CaucaDepartment. The region is becoming acenter of development for the entireDepartment, favored by its proximity

Table 5. How the cassava starch agroindustry contributes to the economic well-being of the individual

family and of the region, northern Cauca, Colombia. Responses from a survey of 99 households.

Socioeconomic criterion Family Region

(no.) (%)a (no.) (%)a

Overall improvement 99 100 99 100

Increased education 51 52

Improved housing 69 70

Improved living standards 48 49

Vehicle ownership 27 27

Improved roads 3 3

Increased income 66 67

Jobs 75 76Others 21 21 24 24

a. Percentages are rounded off.

to Cali, capital of the Department.Cali provides resources needed bysmall-scale starch factories,particularly spare parts for equipmentand financial resources.

I n d u s t r i a l s ec u r i t y . Adequateindustrial security, to reduce risks foremployees during processing, does not

yet exist within the organizationalstructure of small-scale starchfactories. Processors usually do notappreciate the risks and diseases thatcan occur during starch processingand rarely take minimum protectivemeasures.

Colds comprise the commonestailment (according to 39% of surveyedprocessors), a result of personnel not

wearing dust masks during drying andpacking (Table 6). The personnel incharge of sieving should be fitted withgloves and goggles; 27% have sufferedeither cuts or eye ailments. Dryingsites located in high places, such asthe eldas (sliding overhead screens),should be constructed with protective

banisters to prevent fractures andblows.

A related problem that affectsproduction continuity is frequentMonday absenteeism as a result ofhangovers after heavy drinking.


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For example, CETEC is conductingstudies on treating waste waters.

Conclusions

Some conclusions from the study are:

(1) Cassava starch production is ofmajor importance in northernCauca, with 90% of cassava rootsproduced destined for starchproduction.

(2) Major constraints are, for starchproduction, irregular supply ofcassava, lack of timely credit, andmaintenance of equipment; forstarch quality, quality of waterused, fermentation time, and

variety and age of cassava; forcommerce, starch quality,climate, and transport.

(3) Small-scale processors cannot fixstarch prices, which thereforeobey the laws of supply anddemand. Cassava farmers needassistance in ensuring a constantsupply of roots for processors,

which would help control pricefluctuations.

(4) Cassava starch production offerssocioeconomic benefits such asemployment. In 1990, 422 peopleand, in 1991, 345 people wereemployed.

(5) Over the long term, this study isexpected to benefit about3,000 households that subsist onthis agroindustry. Once they

understand and efficientlymanage the production andcommerce of cassava starch,these families will have betteropportunities of participating inthe market and improving theirsocial well-being.

Recommendat ions

The following list of recommendationsaim to help guide experts interveningin technical, economic, and scientific

Table 6. Incidence of diseases and accidents insmall-scale, starch factories, northernCauca, Colombia.a

Complaint Factory reporting

(no.) (%)

Ailmentb

Cold 39 39.4

Backache 3 3.0

Eye problems 3 3.0

Sinusitis 3 3.0

Nonec 27 27.3

Accidents

Fractures 9 9.0

Cuts 27 27.3

Blows 3 3.0

Nonec 60 60.6


b. A problem that causes absenteeism andindustrial accidents is the hangover. Twenty-four(i.e., 24%) factories reported on this problem.

c. That is, the factory either did not know, or did notanswer.

En v i r o nmen t a l c o n t am i n a t i o n .About 85% of residues produced

during starch extraction aredeposited in the streams (40%),rivers (27%), and ravines (18%) nearthe factories. Another 12% is used asmanure, and 3% enters the seweragesystem. As a result, the agroindustrynoticeably contaminates the regionsrivers and affects its inhabitantshealth. Even the processorsthemselves use this same water for

washing, drinking, and cooking, as

well as root processing. Thecontaminated water also affectsstarch quality and thus theprocessors income.

Given their usually loweducational level, processors do notappreciate the importance of caringfor rivers or for the adequate disposalof residues. To reduce environmentalcontamination, the departmental

government and different institutionsinterested in regional economic andsocial development need to intervene.


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decisions on behalf of cassava starchprocessors.

(1) Small-scale cassava starchprocessors working in rural areas

should be encouraged to planstaggered crops by taking intoaccount the vegetative period ofthe varieties they select. The cropshould satisfy, at least partly, thefactorys requirements for rawmaterial so that it may reachequilibrium point or higher. Theremaining amount can beobtained from third parties withinthe factorys area of influence byproviding incentives to cassavafarmers.

(2) Differential prices for cassavaroots should be fixed, dependingon quality and yield. This policy

will allow processing plants tooperate more economically.

(3) Additional technical, financial,and administrative support,adapted to the processorssocioeconomic level, is needed.

The processors can then benefit

from real improvements in theirenterprises infrastructure andorganization.

(4) Operational schemes thatmaintain labor and administrativecosts at acceptable levels should

be incorporated. The small-scale,starch factory can then achieveequilibrium and will operateacceptably and economically.

(5) Measures should be taken to

improve factory infrastructure,thus improving cassava starchproduction while better conservingthe waterways. Examples of such

measures are draining definedareas and conserving riversides toprevent erosion.

(6) Activities aimed at improving thepopulations standards of living arealso needed in such areas ashealth, education, housing, andpublic services.

(7) The local government andcommunities should beencouraged to provide potable

water for human consumption andfor use in small-scale, starchfactories.

(8) Farmer associations should beencouraged to stimulate theirmembers to negotiate more andparticipate in setting cassavastarch prices. Farmers would thenhave increased financial, operative,and administrative capacity; beable to handle their own tradingneeds; and better understandmarket behavior.

References

Chuzel, G. 1991. Cassava starch: currentand potential use in Latin America.Cassava Newsl. 15(1):9-11.

CIMMYT (Centro Internacional deMejoramiento de Maz y Trigo),Programa de Economa. 1993. Laformulacin de recomendaciones apartir de datos agronmicos. Lisboa,Mexico.

Pardo Camacho, F. 1991. Diseo estadsticode muestreos. Universidad de los

Andes, Santaf de Bogot, Colombia.

de Servn, A. and Servn Andrade, L. A. 1978.Introduccin al muestreo. EditorialLumusa, Mexico City, Mexico.


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CHAPTER7

CASSAVASTARCHANDFLOURIN

ECUADOR:ITSCOMMERCIALIZATIONANDUSE

Car los Egez*

because either factories were poorlylocated in relation to productionzones, or national or imported rawmaterials were cheaper. In contrast,small-scale cassava starch extractiondates back to early this century, whileflour processing began 8 years ago.

About 200 family-run processingunits or rallanderas currentlyproduce between 2,500 and 4,000 t ofcassava starch per year. Thetechnology of drying cassava chips to

produce flour was introduced fromColombia to Manab Province,Ecuador, in 1985, and has beenadopted mainly by the Unin de

Asociaciones de TrabajadoresAgrcolas, Productores y Procesadoresde Yuca (UATAPPY), which produces1,000 to 1,500 t of flour per year.

The Ecuadorean IntegratedCassava Program, consisting of

UATAPPY and several national andinternational institutions, hasproduced 10 different cassavaproducts with a wide marketing range,including exports to Colombia over2 consecutive years.

The commercialization ofUATAPPYs products has allowed it tocontinue its activities. But marketexpansion and consolidation remains

difficult as Ecuadorean industriescontinue to use other starchy rawmaterials that are sometimes

Abstract

In Portoviejo, Ecuador, the Unin deAsociaciones de TrabajadoresAgrcolas, Productores y Procesadoresde Yuca (UATAPPY) produces cassavastarch and flour for a wide variety ofproducts, including animal feed,corrugated cardboard, plywood,cassava bread (pandeyuca), bakedproducts, and ice-cream cones. Theamounts of cassava starch or flourincorporated vary according to

intended use. The most common usesare filling in plywood, carbohydratesource in balanced animal feeds, andas binder in cardboard boxes andshrimp feeds. Ecuadorean industriesare beginning to appreciate thepotential advantages of theseproducts. Recent studies estimatethat the potential demand greatlyexceeds the current supply, whichaugurs well for cassava root

processors.

Introduction

Attempts to produce cassava flour andstarch at the industrial level inEcuador have been unsuccessful,

* Cassava Program, Fundacin para elDesarrollo Agropecuario (FUNDAGRO),Portoviejo, Ecuador.


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Cassava Starch and Flour in Ecuador:.. .

Table 1. Comparison of current prices of cassava byproducts with wheat flour and maize starch inEcuador (factory prices).

Cassava product Current price Other product Current price

(US$/t) (US$/t)

Cassava meal 175

Sieved whole flour 231

White cassava flour 236 Wheat flour 352

Sieved white flour(for human consumption) 275

Starch (for human consumption) 660

Industrial starch (first grade) 440 Domestic maize starch 400

Standard industrial starch 363 Colombian maize starch 305(second grade) (placed in Ecuadorean

factories)

Starch bagasse 113

Bran of sieved flours 88

SOURCE: UATAPPY, 1993, personal communication.

1. The cassava products and their uses asdescribed here are not registered; they reflectthe authors research at processing andindustrial levels in Ecuador.

Table 2. Demand for wheat flour and maize starch by several markets, and current sales of cassavaproducts, Ecuador.

Product Market Annual demand (t) Current sales

Wheat flour Balanced shrimp feed 25,000 0

Lumber industries 2,400 256

Maize starch Cardboard factories 6,000 0

Colombia ? 200

SOURCE: Susan Poats, 1993, personal communication.

subsidized, such as wheat andmaize starch (Table 1).

Persuading industrial managersto use cassava products

sometimes the sameproductinstead of traditional materials for a

wide variety of individual uses hasalso been difficult (Table 2).

The situation is improving,however, with the current freemarket conditions, which allowcassava products to be morecompetitive in terms of quality andprice.

Desc riptions and Use s ofCassava Products and

Byproducts 1

Cassava mealis a coarse, brown

powder obtained from unpeeled chips,sun-dried on concrete, and ground ina hammer mill. It is used as acarbohydrate source in balancedfeeds, and as a pellet binder in shrimpfeed, replacing wheat flour andsynthetic binders and forming2%-12% of the formula, depending onthe manufacturer.


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Sieved w hole flouris a very fineoff-white powder obtained by sievingmeal through a no. 60 mesh. It isused in plywood, replacing 35%-40%of wheat flour (17% of the formula).

White indu str ia l -grade f louris acoarse powder made from peeledchips, sun-dried on concrete, andhammer-milled. It is used as pellet

binder in shrimp feed.

White tab le flour is a very finewhite powder obtained from peeledroots that have been treated, chipped,tray-dried, and sieved through ano. 60 mesh screen under hygienicconditions. It is suitable for humanconsumption, used to partially replace

wheat flour in cones for ice cream(25%-30%) and in noodles (10%).

First -grade ind ustr ia l sta rch is avery fine, very white powder obtainedfrom peeled cassava roots that have

been rasped, washed, sedimented, andsun-dried on concrete. It is used aspellet binder in balanced shrimp

feeds, and in cardboard boxes,replacing maize starch by as much as100%.

Second -grad e ind ustr ial starchis oflower quality than first-grade starch,

because the protein fraction remains.It is used in balanced shrimp feedsand cardboard boxes, replacing maizestarch by as much as 100%.

Starch for human consumpt ionis avery fine white powder obtained frompeeled roots that have been rasped,

washed, sedimented, and dried onpaper under hygienic conditions. It isused in bread, milk products, bakeryproducts, and sausages.

Ground bagasseis a coarse,white-yellow powder that is abyproduct of starch extraction. It is

used as a carbohydrate source inbalanced feeds, and in shrimp feed,combined with meal and starches.

White branis a coarse whitepowder that is a byproduct ofprocessing for white table flour. It isused as a fiber source in feeds forlivestock and pigs.

Whole branis a coarse, brownpowder that is a byproduct ofprocessing for sieved whole flour. It isused as a fiber source in feeds forlivestock and pigs.

UATAPPYs Production andMarkets

Since the program was established,UATAPPY has marketed more than8,000 t of cassava products fordifferent uses (Tables 3 and 4).

The 50 t of cassava meal producedduring the first year were sold topoultry-feed plants, replacing maizegrain. Since then, both markets andproducts have become morediversified. Ten products are nowmarketed, for three to five differentpurposes, depending on annual

negotiations (Tables 3 and 4).

Between 1986 and 1989,cassava meal was almost the onlyproduct, finding a ready use as ashrimp feed binder. Between 1989and 1990, cassava meal for shrimpfeed was still being produced, butimportant industries began todemand cassava flour without peel.Since then, this market has been

the most important, accounting for87% of the total volume produced.

In 1990-1991, UATAPPYs totalproduction volume increased by 70%over that of the previous year. Butthe percentage of UATAPPYs totalproduce destined for the shrimp feedmarket fell from 87% to 71% as twonew markets opened up: sieved

whole flour for the plywood industry,

and starch for the cardboardindustry.


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Table 4. UATAPPY markets and their share of cassava products, Ecuador.

Year Product Volume Market Share

(t) (%)

1985-86 Meal 50 Poultry feed 100

Total 50

1986-87 Meal 96 Shrimp feed 83

Treated roots 19 Export human consumption 17

Total 115 Shrimp feed 2


Treated roots 28 Export human consumption 5

Industrial starch 11 2

Starch human consumption 4 Bread making 1

Total 543

1988-89 Meal 1,100 Shrimp feed 99.5

Starch human consumption 5 Bread making 0.5

Total 1,105

1989-90 White flour 574 Shrimp feed 57

Meal 304 Shrimp feed 30

Industrial starch 70 Shrimp feed 7

White flour

Sieved flour human 33 3

consumption 10 Bread making 1

Starch human consumption 24 Bovine feed 2

Bagasse 1,015

Total

1990-91 White flour 982 Shrimp feed 56

Meal 258 Shrimp feed 15

Sieved whole flour 200 Plywood 11

Industrial starch 188 Cardboard industry 11

Bran 52 Bovine feed 3

Bagasse 51 Shrimp feed 3

Starch human consumption 6 Bread making 0.5

Sieved white flour human 6 0.5

consumption 1,743

Total


White flour 304 Shrimp feed 29

Industrial starch 57 Shrimp feed 5



Bagasse 12 Bovine feed 1

Starch human consumption 9 Bread making 1

Total 1,033

1992-93 White flour 631 Export to Colombia 42

Industrial starch 292 Export to Colombia 19


Meal 127 8

Bagasse 86 6


Sieved white flour human 33 Ice-cream cones 2consumption 17 Sausages 1

Starch human consumption 1,522

Total

SOURCE: UATAPPY, 1993, personal communication.


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Cassava Starch and Flour in Ecuador:.. .

In 1992-1993, the Colombianmarket was the main client: 600 t of

white flour and 200 t of second-gradestarch were exported. Although theiruse has not yet been confirmed, theyappear to have been used to makeadhesives.

Constraints toCom m ercializing Cassava

Products

The major constraints are:

(1) Poor product quality, resultingfrom contamination at one or moreof the processing stages (mostimportant in relation to the moreprofitable, but more demanding,markets).

(2) Seasonality of supply (UATAPPYcan only produce during the8 summer months as thecassava is sun-dried).

(3) Competition from other rawmaterials, especially maize starchthat enters Ecuador from

Colombia at low prices (Table 1).(4) Lack of knowledge: industries do

not yet know how to substitutewheat flour or maize starch withcassava products.

Conclusions

(1) The current supply of cassavaproducts is small in relation to

the potential demand.

(2) Cassava products compete well interms of quality and price withother raw materials, except formaize starch, which is cheaperimported from Colombia.

(3) Free market and open borderconditions favor thecommercialization of cassavaproducts.

Bibliography

Brouwer, R. 1992. The cassava flour demandin the plywood industry in Ecuador.

Wageningen, the Netherlands.

CENDES (Centro de Desarrollo). 1993.Estudio de mercado para conocer lademanda potencial de productoselaborados de yuca. Unin de

Asociaciones de TrabajadoresAgrcolas, Productores y Procesadoresde Yuca (UATAPPY) and CENDES,Quito, Ecuador.

Egez, C. 1992. Informe anual del Programade Yuca, 1992. Fundacin para elDesarrollo Agropecuario (FUNDAGRO),Portoviejo, Ecuador.

__________. 1993. Revisiones de los archivosdel Departamento de Contabilidad dela UATAPPY, 1985-1993. Unin de

Asociaciones de TrabajadoresAgrcolas, Productores y Procesadoresde Yuca (UATAPPY), Portoviejo,Ecuador.


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CHAPTER8

CASSAVAPRODUCTSFORFOODAND

CHEMICALINDUSTRIES:CHINA

Jin Sh u-Ren*

cassava must also increasemosteffectively by developing the range of

its products through adopting andexpanding secondary processingtechniques.

Changes in CassavaProcessing

Du r i n g t h e 1 9 6 0 s

Cassava processing in China was

mainly small-scale: production groupsof 20-30 families in rural areas wouldplant cassava in unused areas or onsloping land as insurance for foodscarcity. Because such land wasusually of low fertility and received nofertilizer, cassava yields were low: inthe 1960s, in Guangxi, Chinas largestcassava-producing area, the average

yield per mu(1 mu= 665 m2or15 mu= 1 ha), expressed as dried

chips, was only 46 kg, that is, about0.7 t/ha. The area planted to cassava

varied from year to year: in 1967, inGuangxi, cassava was grown on1,054,000 mu. Because of climaticconstraints, cassava is a seasonal crop,and the small-scale processing plantsoperated only 3 to 4 months a year.

The major product was poor qualitystarch.

Cassava was processed by firstcrushing fresh roots in a grinder andallowing the resulting mash to settle in

Abstract

Cassava is grown in China basically asa food security crop. But, in the last20 years, yields have increased sharplyin answer to demand from small-scaleand, more recently, large-scaleindustries. Since the 1980s, Chinahas seen rapid development in thecommercial prospects of a wide rangeof cassava derivatives, includingfructose-series products, sorbitol,maltol, fermentation products (such

as alcohol, MSG, and citric acid),denatured starch, glucose, andglucose syrup. A hillside crop, cassavaplays a key role in the economy andagroindustry of southern China.However, local economies andproduction in poorer rural areasurgently need modernizing if they areto fully benefit from these newdevelopments. Recommendations aremade regarding appropriate scale and

technology, given the variousconstraints (e.g., transportationthrough hilly terrain and seasonalavailability of fresh roots). Relevanteconomic factors are also reviewed.

Through improved cultivars andfarming practices, cassava yields canincrease significantly. But, toencourage production, the value of

* Guangxi Nanning Cassava TechnicalDevelopment Center (GNCTDC), Nanning,Guangxi, China.


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Cassava Products for Food and Chemical Indu str ies: China

Production capacity of some factoriesreached 10 t/day. Guangxi had morethan 270 starch factories, althoughthe total output was lowprobablyless than 80,000 t, or less than300 t/factory.

Du r i n g t h e 1 9 8 0 s

Cassava production improvedmarkedly, because:

(1) More land was made available inrural areas;

(2) Farmers were allowed to planthigh-value crops, leading to majorincreases in the area planted tocassava;

(3) As the production of other cropsimproved, cassavas role shiftedaway from being a food securitycrop to providing raw material foranimal feed and industry;

(4) As the national economy developed,the demand for starch increased;and

(5) Capital and imported equipmentwere made more readily available.

The combination of these factorscreated an unprecedented expansion inthe scale and technology of cassavaproduction.

The l a s t f i v e y ea r s

The two main cassava-producing areasin southern China now have severallarge-scale starch factories. By 1992,

at least 10 factories had an outputcapacity of 40 t/day, the largestcapable of producing 60 to 80 t.Overall, the factories produced morethan 30,000 t. Three types of factoriesco-exist:

(1) Plants newly constructed oradapted, and using domestictechnology. Features include aroller cleaner, two-stage crusher,

countercurrent-washer, rapidblancher, whirlpool sand remover,dish-separator, dewatering

water. The starchy mass was thenstrained through a fine-mesh cloth

bag to separate the starch, which wasthen sun-dried and pulverized.

Some high-quality starch was alsoproduced, although outputs were low.Fresh roots were crushed in a grinder;passed through a second, finer,grinder, and then through a vibrating,or octagonal, sieve that removedcoarse residues; and, finally, passed toan open-ended, horizontal-flow,sedimentation trough that was30-50 m long, 35 cm deep, and 40 cm

wide. High-density impurities, suchas sand and gravel, were depositedfirst, starch farther toward the middleof the trough, and low-densityimpurities, such as fiber and protein,at the far end, or flushed out. Thestarch was then removed from thetrough, dewatered by centrifugation,dried, and pulverized. If desired, a

bleaching agent, such as potassiumchlorate or hypochlorite, was added

before the starch entered the trough.

Starch was produced from freshcassava for only 3 to 4 months a year.During the rest of the year, driedcassava chips were used, requiring anadditional 1 to 2 days of immersion in

water (or longer in cold weather) beforefiltering. During fine grinding, anadditive would be introduced toimprove the starch extraction rate.

Most of the cassava not used for

starch extraction was used as pig feed.The roots were first peeled, soaked inwater to remove hydrocyanic acid, andthen boiled.

Du r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 s

The technology of producingquality cassava starch improved. The

wooden lining of the trough wasreplaced by marble or glass, the

centrifuge assumed a horizontal ratherthan vertical structure, and a cranksieve replaced the octagonal sieve.


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centrifuge (sometimes imported),and two-stage forced-air drier.Product quality and cost efficiencyare adequate. Such factoriesaccount for 25% of cassava starchproduced in China.

(2) Plants where equipment andtechnology are entirely imported,for example, from Japan, Germany,and Thailand. Features include aneedle grinder, high-pressurecrank sieve, whirlflow separator,centrifugal layer-separator, waterremover, and airflow drier.

Although they producehigh-quality starch, such plantsare economically less viable

because of high equipment costsand associated steep depreciation.In addition, they compareunfavorably in performance whendried cassava chips are used inseasons when fresh roots areunavailable.

(3) Small-scale, low-technologyfactories that, technologically andeconomically, compare poorly

with (1) and (2). The average

starch-extraction rate is estimatedas being 20% lower. Becausethese factories currently accountfor about half of southern Chinasannual starch production, theirtechnology urgently needsmodernizing.

With fresh cassava available foronly 3 to 4 months a year, the use ofdried chips has been inevitable, even

though costs are higher, the starch ofpoorer quality, and the recovery ratelower. To counter these problems, atechnology has been recently adoptedthat would produce high starch, highextraction, and high storage. Itinvolves bulk-buying fresh cassava

when starch content is at its highest,and crudely processing the roots into apaste pool. The starch can therefore

be extracted in due course, extending

the annual period of cost-effective,optimal quality starch production from3 to 5 months.

By 1992, cassava starchproduction in southern Chinaaccounted for 23% of the nationalproduction. Cassava yields hadincreased notably, the regional totalexceeding 1,200,000 t of dried chips.

Yield per muincreased to 500 kg forfresh cassava and 200 kg for driedchips.

Seconda r y p rocessi n g

Since the 1980s, the Government hasshown more interest in developingcassava products derived fromsecondary processing. Cassavadevelopment and utilization are listed

among the key projects of the sixth5-year plan drawn up by the StateScience and Technology Commission.Several national centers are alsoinvolved in the development andutilization of cassava, including theGuangxi Nanning Cassava TechnicalDevelopment Center (GNCTDC).

Developing Cassava Products

for Food and ChemicalIndustries

Industries began using cassava-basedproducts, developed from secondaryprocessing, during the 1980s. Theseinclude:

F ru c t o se-ser i e s p r odu c t s

Fructose emerged in the 1970s as a

healthier alternative to sucrose.Technology using starch as a rawmaterial was developed soon after, and1980 saw the first factory, with anannual fructose output capacity of10,000 t, set up in central China. Thetechnology of third-generationfructose (i.e., fructose containing notmore than 10% glucose) has since

been mastered in China. Through acollaborative project, the GNCTDC

finished testing a pilot plant in 1986,and, in 1992, set up the firstindustrial plant to produce crystalline


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fructose. Third-generation fructose isused medically, in cases of glucosecontraindication. Clinical tests on100 diabetic patients given 25-50 g ofhigh or crystalline fructose showed nosignificant changes in blood sugarlevel. Thus, its safety, sweetness,pleasant taste, and few calories makefructose particularly suitable fordiabetics.

Chem i c o -i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t s

So r b i t o l . A hexan-hexol, sorbitolis made from glucose byhydrogenization in a high-pressurereactor. Because it readily absorbsmoisture, it can replace glycerine inthe manufacture of toothpaste,cosmetics, and oil-based paints. Itserves as raw material in themanufacture of vitamin C byfermentation, first into hygric acid andthen into ascorbic acid. Every ton ofascorbic acid produced requires2.7 t of sorbitol. More than 10 sorbitolfactories operate in China, the largest

of which has an annual productioncapacity of 13,000 t. A unit capable of30,000 t is being planned, while somehave recently begun using continuous-hydrogenization technology.

Production of solid sorbitol(3,000 t/year) has been successfullyestablished in Nanning, Guangxi.Glucose produced from cassava chipsis hydrogenized under high pressure

(continuous process) to produce liquidsorbitol. The liquid is concentrated to98 Brix, seed crystals are introduced,and the sorbitol spray-dried andcrystallized. Solid sorbitol is easier totransport and store.

Ma n n i t o l .Another hexan-hexol,but with little moisture-absorptioncapacity, mannitol is usually a

byproduct of iodine extraction from

kelp. But it can also be producedcommercially by hydrogenizingfructose, of which 50% converts into

mannitol, which is then purified bycrystallization. Mannitol is usedmedically in blood-vessel diastolicpreparations, as a dehydrating agent,and in the treatment of cerebralthrombosis and other circulatorydisorders. In industry, it can be usedas raw material for the production ofpolyester, polyethylene, and solid-foamplastics.

Ma l t o l . A sugar alcohol, maltol isproduced by incomplete hydrolysis ofstarch, using the enzyme maltase, andsubsequent hydrogenization. It is asyrup that is as sweet as sucrose, andis used in confectionery.

Ferm en t ed p r o d u c t s

Fermented cassava products form asizeable industry in China, and includealcohol, monosodium glutamate (MSG),and citric acid. Cassava wine wasproduced in the 1960s when grain wasscarce, but has now become obsolete

because of poor quality.

A l c o ho l . After 2 days offermenting, the alcohol content incassava can reach 10%-11%. Mostfactories were established in the 1970sand have an annual output capacity of10,000 t. New factories with a30 to 50-thousand-ton capacity arenow being planned. Sugarcane andcassava growing areas usually coincideand cassava alcohol is almost alwaysproduced by sugar mills, which use

molasses during the sugarcane season(November-April) and, using the sameequipment, cassava roots for the restof the year. Because cassava is low inprotein and nutrients needed forgrowing yeast (the fermentative agent),it must be supplemented. A mixture ofcassava and molasses is often used togood effect.

MSG. Also known as gourmet

powder, MSG is a popular flavorenhancer in Chinese cuisine. Nationalproduction exceeds 200,000 t/year. Of


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these, about 25,000 t are obtainedfrom cassava starch, which firstundergoes acid hydrolysis, and is thensupplemented with growth factors andleft to ferment for 4 or 5 days. Duringthis time, ammonia salt is addedcontinuously. When the glutamic acidcontent reaches 7%-8%, the mixture isfiltered and the acid precipitated byiso-electric points. The acid is thenpurified by ion exchange, neutralizedto produce the sodium salt, andcrystallized.

Ci t r i c a c i d . In China, citric acidis mainly produced by fermentingsweetpotato. In 1990, more than80,000 t were produced. Recently,however, citric acid is increasingly

being produced from molasses andcassava, using an Aspergi l lusstrain,known as Citrobacter, which wasdeveloped by the Shanghai IndustrialMicrobiology Research Institute.Cassava starch liquefies easily to alow-density liquid and, after a 4-dayfermentation, the citric acid contentexceeds 15%. An extraction rate of

more than 92% is possible. The shortfermentation period, and ease ofliquefying the starch and extractingthe acid keep production costs low.

Den a t u r ed s t a r c h

Since the 1980s, research ondenatured starch has developedrapidly, allowing some processes to

become industrialized. The current

annual yield of denatured cassavastarch is about 7,000 t, and includesacid-denatured starch, -starch,ethylic starch, phosphate ester starch,and co-polymerized starch. Althoughcurrent outputs are low, the futureprospects of this industry arepromising.

Glu cose an d g l u cose sy ru p

Crystalline glucose in southern Chinais produced primarily from cassavastarch, as are injection glucose (used

in medicine) and glucose syrup(DE42) (confectionery). More than100,000 t are produced annually.

Marke t for Cas sav aProducts

While the Government does notrestrict sales within China, it controlsexports. Fresh cassava or driedcassava chips are sold to domesticmarkets by farmers or by localsupply-and-marketing cooperatives.

The higher value chips are cut 0.5 to1.0 cm thick, peeled, and sun-dried.

The price of fresh cassava sold tofactories varies according to season,starch content, and transportationdistances. More recently, prices have

been affected significantly by grainprices. Cassava starch costs10%-15% less in winter, theproduction season, than at othertimes, reflecting the fact that mostfactories are small-scale and lackcapital.

In total, about 500,000 t ofcassava (based on dried chips) areused in starch production, 80% fromfresh roots and 20% from dried chips.

The glucose industry uses the largestamount of starch (55%), followed byMSG production (20%), familyconsumption (4%), and sales tonorthern China or abroad (11%).

Only about 15% of the cassava

grown is used for alcohol and otherproducts. Alcohol producers incassava-producing areas have accessto, and prefer, molasses fromsugarcane. In northern Chinatransportation difficulties constrainalcohol producers from buyingcassava.

Citric acid production accounts forabout 3% of cassava grown.

About 600,000 t of dried cassavachips are exported annually, but much


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is used locally as animal feed, both intraditional form and, more recently, incompound feeds.

Although yields increased sharplyin the 1980s, processing remained

backward and markets were few. Morerecently, however, the processingindustry has been modernizing andsupply and demand have increased intandem.

Opportunity andCompeti t ion

The development of cassava productionand processing in China, alreadyinhibited by strong domestic grainproduction, is further restricted by thenatural coupling of major cassava andsugarcane producing areas. Thus,market prices of sugarcane largelydictate the extent of cassava farming.Furthermore, where sugarcane yieldsare high, markets stable, and farmersexperienced producers of sugarcane,cassava is unlikely to be planted in

preference. However, where land isless fertile and cane yields low,cassavas potentially higher productionis more attractive.

Although its starch is used as anadditive in cooking, cassava is rarelyused as a food in China. Most cassavais destined for the textile, papermaking, and chemical industries,

where it must face competition from

maize products.

Cassavas future prospects aregood, even though production yieldsare still low: about 500 kg of freshroots per mu(or 200 kg per muof driedchips). Although most farmers still usean old variety, Nanyang Red, freshcassava yields may eventually reach 2or 3 t per mu with the adaptation ofimported improved varieties. That is,

improved technology would increasethe current average yield per unit area

by an estimated 500%.

The rapid development of industryin China provides an ideal opportunityfor cassava. Yields of starch increasedfive-fold between 1981 and 1989 as theannual growth rate exceeded 15%.

Those industries using starch as a rawmaterial, such as MSG, maltol,glucose, and fructose, anticipate rapidexpansion while the domestic marketremains unsaturated. Becausemaize-growing areas are far fromcassava-producing areas, cassava hasthe advantage of lower transportationcosts. While the price differential ismaintained, cassava has theadvantage in southern China.

The market for cassava products ispotentially rich, p

Documents

Cassava Flour Session 2 Current Use