Case study: China – the one child policy- State philosophy was: ‘a large population gives a strong nation’-one child-policy introduced in 1979-marriageable age for men = 22, for women = 20-couples had to apply to get married, and again for a child-if they conformed they got:

-free education-priority housing-family benefits

-if they did not:-no benefits-fined heavily-women pregnant for a 2nd time had to get forced abortions-persistent offenders got sterilised

-female infanticide by parents wishing their one child to be a boy-Exceptions were:

-2nd child allowed if 1st was mentally/physically handicapped or died-farmers could have 2 children if 1st was a girl-in rural areas, 2nd child allowed on payment of fine/bribe-policy did not apply to the 56 ethnic minority groups

-birth rate fell from 31 to 19 in 20 years-Relaxations to maintain population were:

-all rural families allowed 2 children-if first child had reached marriageable age, then second child was

allowed-women given an informed choice on different types of contraception-300 trial districts got the option of family planning

Case study: Africa – HIV/Aids(I couldn’t find a specific case study).

Kenya has only 700 doctors; they are overwhelmed by the pandemic. It has reduced the supply of teachers & many children stay home to look after sick relatives.

HIV is projected to turn population growth to decline. HIV has already infected 20% or more of all adults aged 15-49 in

Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

This results in infant HIV infection. For example, in Zimbabwe, 70% of all deaths under the age of 5 are from AIDS.

As the majority of people who die from AIDS are either mothers or the main income earner of the family a generation of orphans is being created.

The HIV/AIDS pandemic had orphaned 600,000 children by 2000, and this number is projected to reach 974,000 by 2014.

In the absence of state welfare payments the burden of bringing up these orphans falls on to the extended family, particularly female-headed households.

This puts additional pressure on the resources of the household at a time when increased unemployment & reduced incomes are increasing levels of poverty.

Case study: São Paulo – problems with urbanisation

Rapid urban growth due to immigration and high birth rate-poor people live in shanty settlements (favelas) and tenement slums (cortices)-rich people live in California-style detached houses with gardens, swimming pools etc.-favelas are built along main roads leading to the city or vacant space next to factories (in outskirts of the city) – land with little economic value which the well-off consider unsuitable for development – steep hillsides or unhealthy valley floors-shacks made from wood, corrugated iron, cardboard or sacking-overcrowded, high population density-problems: pollution, eyesore-threat: flooding, landslips or industrial pollution-not enough resources to move them so the government is making them permanent but improved using self-help schemesHousing improvements:-Type 1 – Low-cost improvements-houses are rebuilt with cheap and quick and easy-to-use breeze blocks-water tank on the roof collects rainwater for toilet and wash basin-electricity and mains sewerage are added-pay a low rent-Type 2 – self-help schemes-groups of people are encouraged to build their own homes-do basic work: digging ditches for water and sewage pipes-local authority provides breeze-blocks and roofing tiles and the group provides the labour-money saved provides electricity, water supply, tarred roads and a community centre-advantages: done in stages, create community spirit, cheap so more houses can be made

Case study: Mexicans into the US – migration Migration type: external, voluntary, initially seasonal, increasingly

permanent Mexico compared with the US: Mexico has a relatively low standard of living Mexico has insufficient jobs Mexico has poorer education & health provision In America people are paid a lot betterMigration: only mean went, on a temporary basis, returning when they had

earned enough money now they often stay permanently, sometimes they take their families

with them between 1 and 2 million migrants every year legal migrants have a ‘Green Card’ illegal migrants slip through the borders despite the elaborate

border security Mexicans’ role in the US: the migrants do the harder, dirtier, seasonal, more monotonous,

more dangerous, less skilled and less well paid jobs illegal immigrants mostly have to work in the informal sector seasonal work on large agricultural estates at harvest times – some

migrants earn more in 3-4 months in the US than a whole year in Mexico, despite low pay by American standards

in large urban areas in construction industry, hotels and restaurants Problems : language problems illegal immigrants have to move around to avoid detection forced to live in ghettos and poorest districts due to low-pay

Case study: Turks into Germany - migration-rebuilding needed after WW2-workers needed-Germany = a wealthy country, therefore attracts people from Turkey-Turkey had too many workers, and badly paid jobs-Turks did agriculture, the factory work i.e. the dirty, manual, unskilled, badly paid jobs

Effects:-distorted population pyramid (more working-age males)-1973: ban on recruitment of foreign workers-1980: reduce rights of asylum-Turks have their own area in cities-Germans resented Turks but needed them-Yugoslavs went to Germany seeking asylum: unemployed Turks & Germans-German government encouraged racist attacks, and restricted immigrationAdvantages Disadvantages

Losing country (Turkey)Reduces pressure on resources Loss of people in working age groupDecline in birth rate Loss of the educated and skilled

peopleMigrants can bring back new skills Division of familiesMoney is sent back Left with an elderly population –

high death rateReceiving country (Germany)

Overcomes labour shortage Pressure on jobsDirty unskilled jobs are done Low quality& overcrowded housing

= uglyWill work long hours & low salary racismCultural advantages and links Language problems

Less healthyLess religious amenities for immigrants

Case study: Morfa Harlech – Sand dunesMorfa Harlech is a sandy peninsula immediately north of the town of Harlech in the county of Gwynedd North Wales. Much of the peninsula is covered by sand dunes.This large area of sand has formed since the ice age as. Formation:- sand comes from the beach and has been moved northward by longshore drift to form a spit across the estuary- The rest of the sand comes from the two rivers which have their mouths in this area-as a result of longshore drift and a rise in land level, since the ice age- During the ice age North Wales was covered by a large ice sheet. The weight of this ice pushed the land downwards. When the ice melted the land rose and is still rising today. This constantly exposes new land that the prevailing south-westerly winds can pick up and mould into sand dunes. The sand dunes here are unstable and still 'shifting' - a process where sandy deposits are blown inland creating new dunes and re-shaping those immediately behind which have not had time for stablising plants - Marram Grass, for instance - to become established. So little vegetation grows.Dunes:The youngest dunes are found closest to the sea. The dunes on the end of the spit of frequently over washed by spring tides and during storms so no vegetation grows on them. The dunes have formed a series of ridges from embryo dunes at the back of the beach with little or no vegetation on them behind this you find vegetated foredunes. Each dune ridge becomes more fertile, less salty, more vegetated, and more stable.Blowouts are common at Morfa Harlech. This is when the dunes have been eroded by storms. The vegetation is removed and consequently the sand is blown away.Wildlife:Although the dunes make look inhospitable they are home to some very specialised plant and animals that cannot live in dune systems that develop more vegetation. Two of these species are the peacock butterfly and the pyramidal orchid. The area is therefore designated as a National Nature Reserve.

Case study: New Orleans – Hurricane Katrina

On 29 August 2005, the central Gulf Coast of the USA was devastated by one of the most powerful North Atlantic hurricanes of ail time. Hurricane Katrina lashed the Gulf Coast causing widespread destruction in Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi. With estimated damages totalling over $80 billion it is the costliest natural disaster ever in the history of the United States.

The city of New Orleans was particularly badly affected by the hurricane. Torrential rain combined with a significant storm surge to breach the city's defences in several places. As poorly maintained dykes collapsed, water surged into the city eventually inundating 80% of the urban area. Despite a massive evacuation programme, thousands of people were trapped in the city for several days, having to endure appalling conditions with minimal supplies of food, water and medicine. Incredibly, the emergency services in the world's richest country seemed paralyzed and lacked leadership and coordination. Looting was widespread and in some areas anarchy took over with crimes of murder and rape being reported. Many areas were completely destroyed by the floods and have subsequently been abandoned. Large numbers of people who were evacuated have decided not to return. Many were uninsured.

New Orleans occupies an extremely precarious site. It has grown up on the Mississippi delta and much of the city is at or below sea level protected only by a series of dykes or embankments. Many would consider that such a disaster was likely to happen sooner or later. With increasingly powerful hurricanes forecast as global temperatures continue to rise, the main concern now is to protect the city from a similar event in the future.

Causes:

-on a destructive plate margin-Indian plate forced under Eurasian plate-oceanic crust melts forming magma which rises to the surface as a

volcanic eruptionEffects:

-destroyed several villages-60 people killed-thick cloud of red hot ash made it too dark to see & burnt any

exposed flesh-survivors fled to nearby shelters-secondary hazard was the lahars (mudflow) covered settlements

and farmlandResponse:

-prediction: monitoring future eruptions:-seismometers; data from individual stations is collected &

recorded centrally-each year, a team visits the summit to measure the

temperature & pressure-protection: mudflow dams:

-dams built in the valleys to stop lahars-mud can be released onto fields after-over 70 dams have been built to protect villages, roads, a

major canal system and tourist sites

-evacuation-a taskforce of local people has been trained to give

emergency treatment to the injured and to organise transport to evacuation camps and temporary accommodation-resettlement

-settlement not allowed near the summit (but farming is)-evacuated villagers can live in relocation settlements where concrete houses are safer and have electricity, but no farm land-or can move to less crowded islands such as Sumatra

Case study: Mt Saint Helens (1980) – Volcanic eruption (MEDC)Causes:

-the Juan de Fuca plate (oceanic crust) moves towards the North American plate (continental crust)

-therefore a destructive plate marginEffects:

Human life:-61 deaths due to poisonous gases-inhabitants of Yakima, 120km away, could only go out with

face masksSettlements:

-several logging camps destroyedRivers and lakes:

-ash fell into rivers and lakes, raising the temperature-mud and sediment choked channels-combined effect was the death of all fish, including in a

hatchery-loss of 250km2 of former top-class salmon and trout rivers-Spirit Lake was filled in

Communications:-floodwaters washed away several road and railway bridges-falling ash hindered the smooth-running of car engines in 3

statesForestry:

-every tree in the 250km2 forest within the 25km blast zone was destroyed

-trees, carried down by river in flood, caused a log jam 60km away

-10 million trees had to be replantedServices:

-Electricity supplies interrupted-telephone wires cut

Wildlife:-nothing survived in the blast zone

Farming:-12% of total crop ruined by settling dust-fruit and alfalfa were the hardest hit-crops and livestock on valley floors were lost due to flooding

Case study: Lynmouth (1952) – floodingCauses:

-extremely wet first 2 weeks of August (rained 12 out of 14 days) meant soils were saturated = surface runoff

-heavy thunderstorms and frontal rain-small basin, which was narrow, with steep-sided valleys = water

gets to river quickly-steep river gradient-Exmoor – impermeable rock = surface runoff-river had been diverted and made narrower to build tourist

amenities-no flood warning system + happened at night (not actual causes)-bridged trapped boulders making dams, when the ‘dam’ broke it released a 12m high wave travelling at 30km/h

Effects:-34 dead-1000 homeless-90 houses and hotels destroyed-130 cars and 19 boats lost

Response:-West Lyn was allowed to follow its natural route-floodplain left open to take excess water-large bridges with much wider spans-land where the hotel was is now a car park-East Lyn channel has been straightened to allow floodwater to flow off more quickly

Case study: USA – droughtIn 1995, a severe drought developed in portions of western Texas and New Mexico. The drought carried over into 1996 in these states and expanded into Arizona, central and eastern Texas, and parts of California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Oklahoma, and Kansas. The drought area intensified during the late winter and spring months, reaching a peak severity in the May–July period for various portions of the region.

The impacts of drought began to be apparent in February, when the incidence of range fires increased dramatically in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, causing injuries and significant damage (O’Hanlon, 1996). By March, depletion of groundwater supplies was becoming a problem in parts of Texas such as the Barton Springs/Edwards Aquifer Conservation District, where residents were asked to cut water usage by 20% (U.S. Water News Online, 1996). By April, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) reported winter wheat conditions in nineteen states in poor to very poor condition, with the greatest problems in Kansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, and Illinois (Edwards, 1996). In May, USDA reported that prices for gasoline, diesel, and liquified petroleum were 15% above 1995 levels. Reports from ski resorts in New Mexico indicated reduced revenues of more than 20% (Reuters, 1996b). Central Arizona, California, and New Mexico experienced an increase in fires (Associated Press, 1996). In June, agricultural losses for cotton, wheat, feed grains, cattle, and corn were estimated at $2.4 billion in Texas, with an additional $4.1 billion in losses for agriculturally related industries such as harvesting, trucking, and food processing (United Press International, 1996). Reduced irrigation water led to a reduction in vegetable production in Texas, with concomitant losses in jobs and income (Antosh, 1996). Later estimates of drought losses in Texas were revised downward to about $5 billion, reflecting lower commodity prices than originally estimated (Fohn, 1996). National Agricultural Statistics Service data shows that Colorado’s winter wheat crop was down 31%.

Water restrictions continued to increase in many cities across the region. Houston residents were forced to cut back on nonessential uses (Houston Chronicle, 1996) and Sante Fe was forced to reduce water usage by 25%. Water levels in the Edwards Aquifer, the primary source of water for 1.5 million people in San Antonio and five counties in south Texas, was rapidly reaching the lowest level ever recorded (Smith, 1996). Fires continued to be a major problem throughout the drought, particularly in New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Colorado, and Utah. In Colorado, nearly 68,000 fires burned more than 2 million acres (810,000 ha) (Hillard, 1996). Colorado and New Mexico reported wind and insect damage to crops (Reuters, 1996a and 1996b). Livestock began to take a toll on range lands in the region as overgrazing worsened existing erosion problems in Arizona. A shortage of hay throughout the region reached disastrous proportions in June (Smith, 1996), forcing ranchers to sell cattle at the lowest prices in ten years. Environmental damages began to emerge as endangered species were affected, landscapes were eroded, and fires damaged

countless areas in the region (Holmes, 1996). Nitrate levels in hay rose dramatically in Oklahoma, reaching toxic or near-toxic levels for livestock (Schafer, 1996).

Food prices responded to the lower production levels for milk, meat, produce, and other foodstuffs (Lee, 1996; Carrillo, 1996). For example, the price of fruit increased more than 22% in June (Carrillo, 1996). Fires continued to occur throughout the region and expanded into the Pacific Northwest and the northern Rocky Mountain states (Laceky, 1996; Associated Press, 1996).

There are no official estimates of the total losses and damages from the 1996 drought. Given the $5 billion in impacts that occurred in Texas, total regional impacts could be safely estimated in the $10–15 billion range, although it is difficult to quantify many social and environmental impacts. What was remarkable to many was the significant level of regional vulnerability, the diversity of impacts, and the lack of preparedness to respond to many of these impacts. Many of the states in this region have now initiated longer-term planning efforts directed at improving mitigation and preparedness efforts.

Case study: Amazon rainforest (Brazil) – human impacts (deforestation)Causes:

-land needed for farming:-‘Slash and burn’: traditional but still bad-Subsistence farming: land given by government to landless

people-Commercial cattle ranching: burn forest, replace with grass,

beef for fast-food chains-Resources:

-timber: for use in MEDCs, little effort at replanting-minerals: iron ore, bauxite, manganese, diamonds, gold and

silver-hydro-electricity; forest flooding due to creation of large lakes

and dams-Settlement:

-new settlements such as Maraba and Carajas in Amazonia-Amazonia population grew from 2 million (1960) to 30 million

(2000)Effects:

-destroyed habitats of many species which might have considerable value (medicine)

-fewer Amerindians: 6 million to 200000, they are forced to live on reservations

-rivers polluted due to mining operations-soil erosion because of lack of roots to bind soil-climate change:

-less evapotranspiration means less water in the air means less rainfall

-global warming due to huge release of CO2

-changes in the composition of the atmosphere (1/3 of fresh oxygen from the tropical rainforest)

Case Study: Kobe (January 1995) – Earthquake (MEDC)Causes and info:

-Kobe is on a minor fault, the Nojima fault, which lies on a destructive plate margin

-Philippines Plate (oceanic crust) forced under the Eurasian plate (continental crust)

-7.2 on the Richter scalePrimary effects:

-nearly 200 000 buildings collapsed-1 km stretch of the elevated Hanshin Expressway and numerous

bridges on the bullet train route collapsed-120 of the 150 quays of the port of Kobe were destroyed

Secondary effects:-electricity, gas and water supplies were disrupted-fires were caused by broken gas pipes and ruptured electricity

mains-7500 more houses destroyed by fire-roads were at gridlock, delaying ambulances and fire engines-230 000 people were made homeless and given temporary shelters

(unheated school gyms or in open parks)-shortage of blankets, clean water and food-716 recorded aftershocks meant people were to afraid to go home-industries such as Mitsubishi and Panasonic were forced to close-5500 dead-40 000 injured-180 000 total houses destroyed

Responses:-infrastructure was fully operational by July-area worst affected by fire was cleared of rubble but little rebuilding

had taken place-commercial buildings in central areas repaired-rail services back to normal by August-1 year later Kobe was 80% functional, Hanshin expressway

remained closed-replacement buildings had to meet stronger earthquake-resistance

standards-more seismic instruments

Case study: East Anglia - Commercial farmingNatural (physical) inputs:-rainfall comes mainly in the summer growing season (but dry the rest of the time)-warm, sunny summers (ideal for ripening crops)-frost during winter (breaks up the soil)-deep, fertile and well-drained soil-soil if alluvium deposited from rivers or boulder clay deposited on chalk during the Ice Age-land is gently undulating and low-lyingHuman inputs:-good transport system (road and rail) - due to flat land-large-scale machinery (combine harvesters and sprayers)-considerable capital-government policiesScale of production: largeMethod of organization:-peas and beans grown near to farm as they need attention and picking-potatoes and sugar beet near to farm and main road as they are bulky so difficult to transport-cereals furthest from farm as they need less attention-grass on either 1) on damper ground near to river or 2) used in crop rotationProducts (outputs): wheat, barley, sugar beet, potatoes, peas and beans

Case study: the Lower Ganges Valley – Subsistence (rice) farmingNatural (physical) inputs:-silt deposited by the Ganges and its tributaries-high temperatures throughout the year = 2 crops per year on the same land-monsoonHuman inputs:-much manual labour (labour intensive)-manure from oxen (essentially fertiliser)Scale of production: smallMethod of organization:-rice is planted in a nursery then it is transplanted to the padi-fieldProducts (outputs): rice, some wheat, vegetables and chickens (eggs and meat)

Case study: South Wales – iron and steel industryIron smelting (pre 1856)Inputs:-iron ore (from valley sides)-coal (from valley sides)-limestone (found nearby)-river used for power-capital from local entrepreneur-labour: large number, unskilledProcesses: smeltingOutputs: pig iron (brittle iron), profit, slag, excess coalLocation: in the valleys, since the resources were there. The valleys led to coastal ports, where iron products and surplus coal were exported. Villages were built in linear patterns on the valley floor, dependent on this industry.1856: steelmaking discovered, more economic than brittle iron. Foundries were small1860 onwards: steelworks replaced iron foundriesSteelworks (after 1860) at Port TalbotInputs:-most coal was imported (only 1 remaining local coal mine)-iron ore North Africa and North America-limestone found locally-electricity from national grid-capital from the government-labour: fewer, but still large numbers, higher level of skillProcesses: iron smelting, then purification (removing impurities and controlling carbon content) to get steelOutputs: steel, slag (used for roads), profitLocation: only the industries near the sea remained open (only 2) including Port Talbot (since resources were heavy and had to be imported by sea). They were built on large areas of flat, low-capacity farmland.

Case study: Cambridge Science Park – High technology industryLocation:

Inputs & outputs:

(other case studies include the M4 corridor and Tsukuba Science City pages 140 and 141)

Case study: the Lake District - tourismAttractions:-a mixture of natural and farmed landscapes-diversity of landscapes (lakes, woodland, moorland)-wide range of ecosystems-101 SSSIs (sites of special scientific interest), nature reserves and

protected limestone pavement-3200km of footpath, bridleways and green lanes-local settlements with human history (Neolithic sites, roman remains,

mining & industrial remains)-honeypots such as Wordsworth’s cottage and Beatrix Potter’s house-culture, dialect, sports, literature movements-lakes-mountainsBenefits/advantages:-wealth to locals-employment for locals-any new amenities can be used by locals tooProblems/disadvantages:-traffic: too many cars, roads to narrow-footpath erosion: popular routes are ruined-2nd homes and holiday homes: 1/6 of homes are holiday homes or 2nd

homes = rise in house prices-honeypots: places become overcrowded (cafés, car parks, waterfalls,

valley, historical buildings)-conflicts between groups of people: local residents vs. tourists & peace &

quiet people vs. car rallying, motor boat etc-litter-ruining the scenery by putting car parks and having cars parked

everywherePossible solutions:-footpath erosion = guidebooks advertise previously remote areas-Landscaping: repairing eroded foot paths & planting trees to screen then

car parks & quarries-integration of rail, bus and lake steamer transport-road hierarchy-local initiatives

Case study: Courmayeur - tourismBenefits/advantages:-more and better paid jobs especially for younger people-young people no longer have to leave the area to find work-better roads = improved accessibility-improved services (electricity, water supply and sewage disposal)-leisure amenities can be used by locals-improved shopping-multiplier effect attracts other industries to the areaDisadvantages/problems:-at peak times, tourists outnumber locals-traditional village swamped by new buildings-new buildings such as ski-lifts are eyesores-local culture lost-farmers lose land-house prices risen-seasonal unemployment (e.g. ski instructors)-hillsides deforested = soil erosion + loss of ecosystems/habitats/wildlife-increased traffic-acid rain (caused by the traffic)

Case study: Belize - ecotourismUntil 1983 the gov. limited tourism, but it now encourages ecotourism since it meets the needs of the local people, attempt to safeguard the environment & brings in foreign exchange.Attractions:• A coral reef with abundant life• Over 450 cayes (low-lying islands) that are favoured by scuba divers• Relics from the Mayan civilisation• A sub-tropical climate & abundant wildlife. • Political stability.• Close to the USA.• Offers an alternative to the over-developed resorts of Mexico • Plenty of nature based activities

Successes:• Tourism is Belize’s second most important earner of foreign

exchange.• Belize has concentrated on the elite market, attracting fewer

visitors, but who are prepared to spend money.• Hopkins Village & Sandy Beach Lodge hotel & cultural centre were

developed by the local Women’s Cooperative. They planned & manage it. It has been a great success.

• Up to ¼ of the country has been designated as a nature reserve. They have been successful in preserving wildlife e.g. jaguar & Black Howler monkeys.

Problems:• 90% of recent developments are foreign owned so there has been a

shift away from small locally owned hotels.• There’s also some environmental degradation. Coral at the Hol Chan

Marine Reserves has been damaged. There is evidence of overfishing as stocks of conch & lobster decline.

• Mangrove swamps are being drained & part of the Caye Caulker was levelled to make a landing strip.

• Unsupervised groups of tourists are failing to take sufficient care in nature reserves.

• The biggest threats, however, come from outside tourism. The expansion of logging in the rainforest & the refugees from Guatemala & El Salvador, who cleared the forest to make land for shifting cultivation.