The purpose of this paper is to analyze the core curricula at five institutions of higher education to identify common themes or discrepancies as well as to apply these curricula to scholarly literature. Overall, general liberal arts curricula were chosen for this analysis in order to provide more comparisons across the different institutions. The institutions chosen for this analysis were University Pennsylvania, University of Michigan - Ann Arbor, Georgetown University, University Wisconsin - Madison, and The George Washington University.Curricular DescriptionsThe core curriculum at University of Pennsylvania is split into two parts: Foundational Approaches and Sectors of Knowledge (Curriculum and Requirements, 2015). In general, the Foundational Approaches focus on developing the intellectual abilities necessary to engage in various academic disciplines. There are six intellectual skills that are focused on: writing, foreign language, quantitative data analysis, formal reasoning and analysis, cross-cultural analysis, and cultural diversity in the U. S. (Curriculum and Requirements, 2015). In addition to the Foundational Approaches, students are also required to take courses in different academic disciplines: society, history and tradition, arts and letters, humanities and social sciences, living world, physical world, and natural sciences and mathematics. While the Foundational Approach provides depth in intellectual capacity, the Sectors of Knowledge requirement aims to add breadth to the educative experience of students. The University of Wisconsin - Madison focuses their core curriculum on six areas: communication, quantitative reasoning, natural science, humanities/literature/arts, social studies, and ethnic studies (General Education Requirements, 2015). Students must take one to two courses within each of these areas. The communication requirement is closely associated with the writing requirement of other institutions; however, students take both an introductory and advanced class to complete this area. For the quantitative reasoning requirement, students have the option to take courses in mathematics, statistics, or other formal logic (General Education Requirements, 2015). In addition to quantitative reasoning, students complete a natural science course with a laboratory component - adding a more practical and 'hands-on' component to the core. To increase the breadth of study, students take two courses in the humanities and an additional course in the social and ethnic studies. The core curriculum of Georgetown University is straightforward and consistent with those previously described at other institutions. In addition to one writing course, students take one course in the humanities, arts, literatures, and cultures (HALC). Ideally, from HALC courses, students will be able to "acquire the intellectual and practical tools to interpret and critique the world" (Georgetown College, 2015). Students also take two courses in history, theology, philosophy, math/science, and social science. The history requirement aims at fostering in students a sense of the long-term cultural evolution (Georgetown College, 2015). As a Jesuit institution, the theology requirement focuses on providing a deeper understanding of the Catholic faith tradition. While student's understanding of their faith is deepened through these courses, through the philosophy course students are challenged to deepen their understanding of their self. The math/science courses aim to develop the ability to analyze quantitative data while the social sciences challenge students to study the world in a more qualitative sense. Finally, students are required to complete a foreign language course to the intermediate level. The George Washington University clusters their core curriculum into two groups - analytic and communication courses. Between these two, students take approximately 24 credits within the analytic realm and around six credits in the communication realm. Analytic courses are comprised of mathematics/statistics, natural and/or physical laboratory science, social sciences, humanities, and art. Students ideally develop the intellectual capabilities of quantitative and scientific reasoning as well as critical and creative thinking skills while taking these courses (G-PAC, 2015). Additionally, within the analytic courses, student must take two perspective courses. One of these courses focuses on global or cross-cultural viewpoints while the second course focuses more on local or civic engagement (G-PAC, 2015). Finally, the components of University of Michigan - Ann Arbor's core curriculum looks similar the core curricula already described. In addition to their major and electives, students will take both a first-year and upper level writing seminar. Students also fulfil a race and ethnicity, quantitative reasoning, and language requirement. The goal of these requirements is to prepare students to work in a multi-ethnic or diverse environment, to develop proficiency in analyzing quantitative information, and to provide access to cultural and intellectual heritages of the non-English speaking communities (Our Curriculum, 2015). Finally, to provide more breadth to students' educative experience, the core curriculum also incorporates an area distribution requirement where students take 30 credits outside of their major in the natural sciences, social sciences, humanities, mathematical and symbolic analysis, and creative expression (Our Curriculum, 2015). Through this breadth, students are exposed to varying intellectual disciplines and develop the intellectual skillsets that are characteristic of these disciplines.SynthesisThe writing component of the curriculum seems to be one of the most fundamental portions of all the curricula. Through this component, students ideally are developing the skills to understand and communicate within different academic disciplines. This notion is key - in order to develop the 'critical thinking' or reasoning, students must first be able to comprehend the knowledge within these different fields. These skills are continually used and built upon by the other components of the curricula. The two types of reasoning that were consistent amongst the curricula were quantitative (inductive) and deductive reasoning (humanities and social sciences). Quantitative reasoning was consistently, and often overtly, prioritized across the curricula. This suggests that this type of thinking - focusing on empirical 'facts' or data instead of narratives and the 'soft' science - is implicitly prioritized within our culture. Finally, another key similarity across the different curricula is the presence of a cultural or ethnic study. Although the specific requirements differ between institutions - the goal of this component is to prepare students to work in diverse environments, once again suggesting that this may be a culturally significant mentality. Interestingly, only two of the curricula specifically center this conversation on race and ethnicity. Potentially, at institutions that vaguely address this point as 'civic engagement' or otherwise, students may be able to fulfill this component without actually experiencing conversations about race within the classroom. Overall, there were many differences across the different curricula. Each institution had its own method of naming and structuring the key components. Furthermore, some institutions seemed to have much more intentionality, or did a better job of linking the mission and values of the institution to the core curriculum, than others. For example, Georgetown University made a clear connection between their Jesuit value and mission and the theology component of their curriculum. Additionally the timeline behind completing these courses differed across institutions. At University of Pennsylvania students had the opportunity to complete these courses throughout their time at the institution while at Georgetown it is expected that students will complete the core by their second year at the institution.

IntegrationIt is generally agreed upon within the academic literature that significant and impactful learning experiences incorporate the foundational or pre-existing knowledge that students bring with them into the classroom (Fink, 2003; Nilson, 2010; Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). As previously mentioned, writing seminars are foundational courses that foster the skills necessary for students to be successful in their chosen academic disciplines. Since all students at an institution must take these courses, it logically flows that this would be one of the first opportunities for students to begin incorporating their personal narratives and knowledge into new academic disciplines. Furthermore, some of the curricula examined required students to take both a first-year and advanced writing seminar. This structure seems to mirror Perry's theory of intellectual and ethical development of college students. Students who are just entering universities may have a dualistic understanding of knowledge - it exists in absolute black and white terms independently from themselves (Nilson, 2010). First-year writing seminars, then, can begin to challenge this notion by encouraging students to incorporate their own personal knowledge into academic disciplines. In other words, the goal of these first-year writing is to encourage students to see their own voice and experience as valid sources of knowledge. Once students have come to see their own voice and knowledge as valid as the knowledge that exists external to them, advanced writing courses can then teach students the skills to add to the knowledge pools of different academic disciplines. As mentioned by Fink (2003) "the nature of knowledge in each of these domains is different, and therefore how one adds to that knowledge whether publicly or personally, is also distinct" (p. 58). Therefore, our role as educators is to move students to this place of being confident in their ability to add to knowledge. In addition to incorporating student's pre-existing knowledge into the classroom, another key element of significant learning experiences is the notion of transfer. Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (1999) define transfer as "the ability to extend what has been learned in one context to new contexts" (p. 51). This cognitive ability is key within students. Without it, the developmental work and skills acquired through one educational experience - such as writing seminars - would be unable to be applied to new educational experiences. Transfer skills are established through understanding the big picture and systems instead of focusing on memorizing all the details (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). Although none of the curricula explicitly had a goal of fostering this notion of transfer, this skill is fostered within the breadth requirement that many of the curricula included. Through exposing students to many different disciplines, they may begin to make connections in the knowledge or skills needed to be successful. It is within these connections that the transfer skills are being grown.

ReferencesBransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.) (1999). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Curriculum and Requirements. (n.d.). Retrieved January 19, 2015, from https://www.college.upenn.edu/prospective/curriculum-and-requirementsFink, L.D. (2003). Creating significant learning experiences: An integrated approach to developing college courses. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.G-PAC | Columbian Undergraduate Academic Advising | The George Washington University. (n.d.). Retrieved January 19, 2015, from http://advising.columbian.gwu.edu/g-pacGeorgetown College. (n.d.). Retrieved January 19, 2015, from http://college.georgetown.edu/academics/core-requirementsNilson, L.B. (2010). Teaching at Its Best: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Our Curriculum: The LSA Plan. (n.d.). Retrieved January 19, 2015, from http://www.lsa.umich.edu/students/yourstudentexperience/ourcurriculumthelsaplan What are the General Education Requirements? (n.d.). Retrieved January 19, 2015, from http://www.ls.wisc.edu/gened/Req.htm