Week 15a. RepriseWeek 15a. Reprise

CAS LX 522CAS LX 522Syntax ISyntax I

Starting overStarting over

Let’s take a tour of the system from Let’s take a tour of the system from the beginning, to help get a better the beginning, to help get a better “wide-angle” view of how everything “wide-angle” view of how everything fits together and to try to tie up the fits together and to try to tie up the loose ends.loose ends.

This is the final statement of where This is the final statement of where we are, what you should take as the we are, what you should take as the end result.end result.

The lexiconThe lexicon The The lexiconlexicon is where it all begins, where the is where it all begins, where the

component parts of a sentence come from.component parts of a sentence come from. A sentence is a number of lexical items, A sentence is a number of lexical items,

arranged.arranged. Lexical items have certain Lexical items have certain propertiesproperties, or , or

featuresfeatures. Some are nouns, for example. Some . Some are nouns, for example. Some are are whwh-words, some are quantifiers, some are -words, some are quantifiers, some are determiners.determiners.

Every Every headhead we see in our trees came from the we see in our trees came from the lexicon. So, C, I, lexicon. So, C, I, vv, these are also in the , these are also in the lexicon, components from which we build lexicon, components from which we build sentences.sentences.

The lexiconThe lexicon

Since phonological realization and even Since phonological realization and even aspects of meaning can be considered to be aspects of meaning can be considered to be properties of lexical items, really what a properties of lexical items, really what a lexical item lexical item is is is a bunch of features, is a bunch of features, bundled together. A thing, with properties.bundled together. A thing, with properties.

Some of the properties lexical items have Some of the properties lexical items have are in the form of are in the form of requirementsrequirements, which need , which need to be satisfied by the time the syntactic to be satisfied by the time the syntactic structure is finished (the LF tree).structure is finished (the LF tree).

MinimalismMinimalism As we try to determine what the properties As we try to determine what the properties

of this grammatical system are, we should of this grammatical system are, we should assume as little as we can get away with.assume as little as we can get away with.

Any language-like system that is going to Any language-like system that is going to create hierarchical structure is going to create hierarchical structure is going to need something that takes two need something that takes two (or more, but (or more, but let’s say that “two is simpler than any other let’s say that “two is simpler than any other number”)number”) things and puts them together into things and puts them together into something eligible for further combinations.something eligible for further combinations.

So, the machine that builds the trees has at So, the machine that builds the trees has at least the operation least the operation MergeMerge..

Our model of grammarOur model of grammar A structure is built by starting with some lexical A structure is built by starting with some lexical

items on the workbench, that are assembled by items on the workbench, that are assembled by using Merge and Adjoin between objects, and using Merge and Adjoin between objects, and Copy/Move to move things inside an object to its Copy/Move to move things inside an object to its edge.edge.

Lexicon

Workbench

Merge, Adjoin,Copy/Move

pronounce

interpret

PF

LF

XX-theory-theory A phrase is a syntactic A phrase is a syntactic

object formed by object formed by combining (combining (mergingmerging) ) two syntactic objects, two syntactic objects, with the properties with the properties inherited from one of inherited from one of them (the them (the headhead of the of the phrase).phrase).

A word is a syntactic A word is a syntactic object.object. specifier

complementX

YP X

XP

headZP

intermediateprojection

maximalprojection

minimalprojection

-theory-theory Lexical items can be classified in terms of Lexical items can be classified in terms of

being being predicatespredicates or or argumentsarguments.. PredicatesPredicates require something else for the require something else for the

computation of their meaning. They might be computation of their meaning. They might be considered to be relations between the facts considered to be relations between the facts of the world (“truth”) and some other entity.of the world (“truth”) and some other entity.

ArgumentsArguments are those other entities, that are are those other entities, that are placed in relations. These are often DPs, like placed in relations. These are often DPs, like JohnJohn or or the sandwichthe sandwich. Or, they can be . Or, they can be propositionspropositions, like , like that John leftthat John left or or John to John to leaveleave, generally combinations of a predicate , generally combinations of a predicate and an argument.and an argument.

-theory-theory

The number of participants that predicates The number of participants that predicates require are at the heart of require are at the heart of -theory-theory..

The The -criterion-criterion says that: says that: Every Every -role required by a predicate must be -role required by a predicate must be

assigned to some argument.assigned to some argument. No argument can play more than one role.No argument can play more than one role. No argument can be inserted superfluously; every No argument can be inserted superfluously; every

argument must get a argument must get a -role.-role. -roles are assigned by heads to a specifier or -roles are assigned by heads to a specifier or

a complement. That’s two per head, a complement. That’s two per head, maximum.maximum.

-theory-theory The number (and type) of The number (and type) of -roles assigned by -roles assigned by

the predicates are recorded in the lexicon.the predicates are recorded in the lexicon. ““Weather verbs”: Weather verbs”: assign no assign no -roles, there are no -roles, there are no

participants (e.g., participants (e.g., rainrain, , snowsnow).). Transitive verbs: Transitive verbs: assign two assign two -roles, often Agent -roles, often Agent

and Theme. These are assumed to assign the and Theme. These are assumed to assign the external external -roles through a -roles through a v v component. (e.g., component. (e.g., kickkick, , likelike, , seesee, , eateat))

Intransitive verbs: Intransitive verbs: assign one assign one -role, can be -role, can be external (often Agent or Experiencer) (unergative external (often Agent or Experiencer) (unergative verbs, e.g., verbs, e.g., runrun, , laughlaugh, , dancedance) or Theme ) or Theme (unaccusative verbs, e.g., (unaccusative verbs, e.g., meltmelt, , sinksink, , triptrip, , fallfall).).

““Ditransitive verbs”: Ditransitive verbs”: assign three assign three -roles, often -roles, often Agent, Theme, Goal. These Agent, Theme, Goal. These necessarilynecessarily arise from arise from a combination of a combination of vv and V. (e.g., and V. (e.g., putput, , introduceintroduce, , givegive))

Common thematic Common thematic relationsrelations

AgentAgent: initiator or doer in the event: initiator or doer in the event ThemeTheme: affected by the event, or undergoes : affected by the event, or undergoes

the actionthe action Bill kicked the ball. Bill kicked the ball.

ExperiencerExperiencer: feels or perceives the event: feels or perceives the event Bill likes pizza.Bill likes pizza.

PropositionProposition: a statement, can be true/false.: a statement, can be true/false. Bill said that he likes pizza.Bill said that he likes pizza.

GoalGoal:: Bill ran Bill ran to Copley Squareto Copley Square.. Bill gave the book Bill gave the book to Maryto Mary.. (Recipient)(Recipient)

Ditransitive verbsDitransitive verbs In order to assign three In order to assign three --

roles (for ditransitive verbs roles (for ditransitive verbs like like introduceintroduce), we need two ), we need two XPs, which we’ve drawn like XPs, which we’ve drawn like this.this.

The labor of assigning The labor of assigning -roles -roles is divided between is divided between vv, the light , the light verb that assigns the Agent or verb that assigns the Agent or Experiencer Experiencer -role, and V, the -role, and V, the main verb that assigns the main verb that assigns the Theme and Goal Theme and Goal -roles.-roles.

PP

V

V

VP

DO

v

v

vP

SUB

Unaccusatives and Unaccusatives and transitivestransitives

In In The ice melted The ice melted there is no there is no external external -role. So there is no -role. So there is no vv..

In In Bill melted the iceBill melted the ice, we add a , we add a causercauser, an , an Agent.Agent. Bill caused [the ice to melt].Bill caused [the ice to melt]. ““Bill was the agent of an ice-melting.”Bill was the agent of an ice-melting.”

So, something like this, where the So, something like this, where the main verb moves up to the light verbmain verb moves up to the light verb (which we had evidence for in (which we had evidence for in ditransitives)ditransitives)..

In general, Agent and Experiencer In general, Agent and Experiencer are always assigned by a are always assigned by a vv..

v

v

vP

DP

VP

Vthe icemelt

DPBill

DP

VP

Vthe icemelt

Unergatives,Unergatives,transitivestransitives

UnergativesUnergatives Just an external Just an external -role…-role… Bill liedBill lied..

There’s an Agent, so there’s a There’s an Agent, so there’s a vv..

Bill ate the sandwichBill ate the sandwich looks just looks just like like Bill melted the iceBill melted the ice..

vv assigns Agent to assigns Agent to BillBill, V (, V (eateat) ) assigns Theme to assigns Theme to the sandwichthe sandwich..

v

v

vP

DP

VP

Vthe

sandwicheat

DPBill

v

v

vP

VPlie

DPBill

Bill tried PRO to leaveBill tried PRO to leave There is a class of verbs (There is a class of verbs (control verbscontrol verbs) )

that embed nonfinite clauses that seem to that embed nonfinite clauses that seem to be “missing an argument”: be “missing an argument”: trytry, , wantwant, …, …

Think about the Think about the -roles; -roles; leaveleave has to has to assign a assign a -role, to the leaver, and -role, to the leaver, and trytry has has to assign two to assign two -roles, one to the -roles, one to the proposition (IP) tried, and one to the trier proposition (IP) tried, and one to the trier ((BillBill).).

But we only But we only seesee two of those arguments: two of those arguments: the IP and the IP and BillBill..

The missing argument is PRO.The missing argument is PRO.

ReluctanceReluctance……

Mary is reluctantMary is reluctant[PRO to leave].[PRO to leave].

PRO does not get Case.PRO does not get Case. *Mary is reluctant Bill to leave.*Mary is reluctant Bill to leave.

In fact, PRO In fact, PRO cannotcannot get Case. get Case. *Mary is reluctant for to leave*Mary is reluctant for to leave Mary is reluctant for Bill to leaveMary is reluctant for Bill to leave

PRO refers (like a pronoun or PRO refers (like a pronoun or an anaphor) to an anaphor) to MaryMary..

Areluctant

A

AP

DPiMary

tj

VPVj+Iis

I

IP

vPIto

I

IP

leave

ti

v

VP

V

Vk+vtk

tm

DPm

PRO

Subject and object Subject and object controlcontrol

Subject control predicatesSubject control predicates BillBillii is reluctant [PRO is reluctant [PROii to leave] to leave] be reluctant, want, try, ask (no object), … be reluctant, want, try, ask (no object), …

Object control predicatesObject control predicates JohnJohnii persuaded Bill persuaded Billjj [PRO [PROjj to leave] to leave] persuade, ask (with object), tell, convince, … persuade, ask (with object), tell, convince, …

PROPROarbarb

[PRO[PROarbarb to leave now] would be a mistake. to leave now] would be a mistake.

[PRO[PROarbarb pontificating] irritates me. pontificating] irritates me.

Structural uniformityStructural uniformity The different elements of the structure are each The different elements of the structure are each

responsible for a certain element of the meaning.responsible for a certain element of the meaning. C is responsible for the C is responsible for the clause typeclause type (or (or illocutionary illocutionary

forceforce) of the clause. It marks clauses as declaratives or ) of the clause. It marks clauses as declaratives or as questions (or as imperatives, or as exclamatives).as questions (or as imperatives, or as exclamatives).

I is responsible for I is responsible for tense interpretationtense interpretation (and also (and also subject agreement).subject agreement).

vv is responsible for external is responsible for external -role assignment-role assignment (Agent (Agent for sure, others like “Experiencer” perhaps [for sure, others like “Experiencer” perhaps [winwin]],, or or even simply marking as a verb [even simply marking as a verb [seemseem])?])?

D is responsible for definitenessD is responsible for definiteness (at least) ( (at least) (aa vs. vs. thethe)) N, V, A, P are responsible for lexical contentN, V, A, P are responsible for lexical content..

Structural uniformityStructural uniformity

As a consequence of structural As a consequence of structural uniformity:uniformity:

All All whwh-questions have a [+WH, +Q] C.-questions have a [+WH, +Q] C. Subject Subject whwh-questions: Who left?-questions: Who left? Object Object whwh-questions: What did Pat buy?-questions: What did Pat buy?

All All finitefinite embedded clauses have a CP. embedded clauses have a CP. I heard [I heard [CPCP that [ that [IPIP Tracy left]]. Tracy left]].

I heard [I heard [CPCP Ø [ Ø [IPIP Tracy left]]. Tracy left]].

FeaturesFeatures

Lexical items have three kinds of Lexical items have three kinds of features.features. Head features:Head features: Primary features… Primary features… Specifier features:Specifier features: Uninterpretable Uninterpretable

features that must be checked against the features that must be checked against the features of the specifier (at last projecting features of the specifier (at last projecting Merge).Merge).

Complement features:Complement features: Uninterpretable Uninterpretable features that must be checked against the features that must be checked against the features of the complement (at first features of the complement (at first projecting Merge).projecting Merge).

Head featuresHead features

InterpretableInterpretable:: Fundamental to the Fundamental to the meaning, crucial to interpreting the meaning, crucial to interpreting the meaning of the structuremeaning of the structure [3sg] on pronouns or D, [D] on determiners[3sg] on pronouns or D, [D] on determiners

UninterpretableUninterpretable:: Not part of the meaning, Not part of the meaning, but nevertheless part of the lexical item. but nevertheless part of the lexical item. Must be eliminated (checked off) by the Must be eliminated (checked off) by the end of the derivation. end of the derivation. [+Nom] on determiners, [+Nom] on I, [3sg] on [+Nom] on determiners, [+Nom] on I, [3sg] on

I, as well as all complement features, all I, as well as all complement features, all specifier features.specifier features.

DPsDPs Even when you can’t see D, we assume it is Even when you can’t see D, we assume it is

there. Only a DP (not an NP) can get a there. Only a DP (not an NP) can get a -role.-role. A pronoun (A pronoun (hehe, , sheshe, , II, , himhim, …) is , …) is justjust a D, like a D, like

the. the. Same for Same for whowho, and , and everyoneeveryone.. Agreement features (e.g., [3sg], [+plural]) and Agreement features (e.g., [3sg], [+plural]) and

Case features (e.g., [Nom]) are features of Case features (e.g., [Nom]) are features of DD, , not not NN. They need to be able to check features . They need to be able to check features of I.of I.

cattheD NP

DP

catsØD NP

DP

PatØD NP

DPyouDP

linguistsyouD NP

DP

Complement features Complement features (subcategorization)(subcategorization)

Heads can impose requirements on the kind of phrase that Heads can impose requirements on the kind of phrase that they can be combined with (they can be combined with (Categorial selectionCategorial selection). For ). For example, example, will will requires a bare form of the verb (we’ll requires a bare form of the verb (we’ll encode the bare form with the feature [Inf]). C needs an I encode the bare form with the feature [Inf]). C needs an I complement, I needs a V (or a complement, I needs a V (or a vv) complement.) complement.

We can encode these restrictions as We can encode these restrictions as complement featurescomplement features.. Complement features are always uninterpretable.Complement features are always uninterpretable.

He[3sg] gone

[+n]

DP

IP

I VP

IHe

[3sg] go[Inf]

willcomp: [Inf]spec: [3sg]

DP

IP

I VP

I

*

willcomp: [Inf]spec: [3sg]

Specifier featuresSpecifier features(Case and agreement)(Case and agreement)

Finite I (any I except the infinitive Finite I (any I except the infinitive toto) has a ) has a [+Nom] specifier feature (SpecIP is assigned [+Nom] specifier feature (SpecIP is assigned nominative Case).nominative Case).

Specifier features are always Specifier features are always uninterpretable.uninterpretable.

Him[+Acc] leave

DP

IP

I VP

IHe

[+Nom] leave-ed[+Past, …]

spec: [+Nom]

DP

IP

I VP

I

*

-ed[+Past, …]

spec: [+Nom]

MergeMerge

Building a tree up from the lexical Building a tree up from the lexical items we have available (on the items we have available (on the “workbench”) is accomplished by “workbench”) is accomplished by Merge of two objects together.Merge of two objects together.

When two objects are Merged, one When two objects are Merged, one projectsprojects. Generally, the one that . Generally, the one that projects is the one that had an projects is the one that had an uninterpretable complement- (or uninterpretable complement- (or specifier-) feature to check.specifier-) feature to check.

AdjoinAdjoin The operations The operations MergeMerge and and AdjoinAdjoin are two different are two different

ways to combine two objects from the workbench.ways to combine two objects from the workbench. MergeMerge takes two objects and creates a new object takes two objects and creates a new object

(with the label inherited from one of them).(with the label inherited from one of them). AdjoinAdjoin attaches one object to the top of another one. attaches one object to the top of another one. Generally Generally AdjoinAdjoin is not motivated by the need to is not motivated by the need to

check any features. check any features. EatEat doesn’t need doesn’t need quicklyquickly. . Quickly Quickly doesn’t need a verb even: doesn’t need a verb even: I want you off the ship I want you off the ship quicklyquickly..

quickly

iteat

AP

VP

V DP

VP

iteatV DP

VP

AdjoinAdjoin I generally indicate adjunction with a “double I generally indicate adjunction with a “double

branch” to keep it clear what is adjoined and what is branch” to keep it clear what is adjoined and what is not.not.

The concept here is that the VP node has been The concept here is that the VP node has been “stretched out” and the AP has been hooked into it.“stretched out” and the AP has been hooked into it.

The AP occupies a strange position in the tree. It is The AP occupies a strange position in the tree. It is not a sister, nor a daughter of VP. It is sort of in-not a sister, nor a daughter of VP. It is sort of in-between. It’s not between. It’s not fully fully dominated by VP, it’s only dominated by VP, it’s only dominated by dominated by part part of VP.of VP.

quicklyAP

vP

it

eatVi+v VP

vP

V DPti it

eatVi+v VP

vP

V DPti

AdjunctionAdjunction The main intuitive idea: adjuncts are “loosely The main intuitive idea: adjuncts are “loosely

connected” and general serve as connected” and general serve as modifiersmodifiers.. Adjuncts are generally Adjuncts are generally optionaloptional (no (no -roles in any -roles in any -grids).-grids). They seem to be able to attach either to the right or the They seem to be able to attach either to the right or the

left.left. They seem to attach to maximal projections.They seem to attach to maximal projections. The thing that the modifier The thing that the modifier modifiesmodifies is the head of the is the head of the

phrase it is adjoined to (important when deciding where phrase it is adjoined to (important when deciding where in in the kitchenthe kitchen attaches in attaches in John heard a dogJohn heard a dogbark in the kitchenbark in the kitchen).).

quicklyAP

vP

it

eatVi+v VP

vP

V DPti

AdverbsAdverbs Adverbs generally are adjoined to the Adverbs generally are adjoined to the vvP.P.

He quickly ate it.He quickly ate it. He ate it quickly.He ate it quickly.

I

I

IP

DPhe

[+Past]

quicklyAP

vP

quicklyAP

vP

it

eatVi+v VP

vP

V DPti it

eatVi+v VP

vP

V DPti

I

I

IP

DPhe

[+Past]

AdjectivesAdjectives Similarly, adjectives seem to adjoin to the NP.Similarly, adjectives seem to adjoin to the NP.

the tasty sandwich.the tasty sandwich. Pat’s tasty sandwich.Pat’s tasty sandwich.

tasty sandwichAP

NP

NP

D

DP

theD

D

DP

DPPat

’s

tasty sandwichAP

NP

NP

PPs serve the same PPs serve the same functionfunction PPs often serve to modify the event like adverbs, PPs often serve to modify the event like adverbs,

and are adjoined in the same way (on the right).and are adjoined in the same way (on the right). She ate it on the hill in the rain.She ate it on the hill in the rain.

in the rainPP

vPI

I

IP

DPShe

[+Past]

on the hillPP

vP

it

eatVi+v VP

vP

V DPti

PPs serve the same PPs serve the same functionfunction

PPs can also modify nouns, like adjectives PPs can also modify nouns, like adjectives (again on the right).(again on the right). Pat bought the book with the shiny cover.Pat bought the book with the shiny cover.

D

DP

the

with the shiny coverPP

NP

NPbook

N complementsN complements Not everything that shows up to the right of an N is an Not everything that shows up to the right of an N is an

adjunct. Some are complements. Generally there can only be adjunct. Some are complements. Generally there can only be oneone complement,it doesn’t reorder with adjuncts, it defines a complement,it doesn’t reorder with adjuncts, it defines a fundamental characteristic. Other examples (CP complements fundamental characteristic. Other examples (CP complements of N): of N): the claim that John leftthe claim that John left, , the rumor that Johnleftthe rumor that Johnleft. . OneOne replaces both the N and the complement (replaces both the N and the complement (the one by Radfordthe one by Radford, , *the one of poems*the one of poems, , *the one that John left*the one that John left))

with a red cover

of poemsbook

PP

NP

N PP

D

DP

the

by RadfordPP

NP

NP

Adjunction, dominance,Adjunction, dominance,c-commandc-command

The main thing this concept of a The main thing this concept of a “stretched” out node affects is what “stretched” out node affects is what c-commands what in this structure.c-commands what in this structure.

Dominance:Dominance: A node A node dominates a dominates a node node if if is contained within is contained within all of all of .. Under this definition XP does not Under this definition XP does not

dominate UP, because dominate UP, because part of part of XP does XP does not contain UP.not contain UP.

C-command: C-command: A node A node c-commands c-commands a node a node if: if: is not contained in is not contained in , and, and every node every node that dominates that dominates also also

dominates dominates .. By By contained incontained in, we mean either , we mean either

dominated by or “hanging off of”.dominated by or “hanging off of”.

ZP

YP

X

XP

X

UP

XH

XP

Adjunction, c-commandAdjunction, c-command C-command: C-command: A node A node c-commands a c-commands a

node node if: if: is not contained in is not contained in , and, and every node every node that dominates that dominates also also

dominates dominates .. Does H c-command YP?Does H c-command YP?

Is YP contained in H? No.Is YP contained in H? No. Does every node that dominates H Does every node that dominates H

dominate YP?dominate YP? X? X doesn’t dominate H.X? X doesn’t dominate H. X’? X dominates H and it dominates YP.X’? X dominates H and it dominates YP. The rest? They dominate H and dominate The rest? They dominate H and dominate

YP.YP. So, H c-commands YP.So, H c-commands YP.

ZP

YP

X

XP

X

UP

XH

XP

Adjunction, c-commandAdjunction, c-command

C-command: C-command: A node A node c-commands a node c-commands a node if: if: is not contained in is not contained in , and, and every node every node that dominates that dominates also dominates also dominates

.. Does H c-command X?Does H c-command X?

Is X contained in H? No.Is X contained in H? No. Does every node that dominates H dominate X?Does every node that dominates H dominate X? X’? X’ dominates H and it dominates X.X’? X’ dominates H and it dominates X. The rest? They dominate H and dominate X.The rest? They dominate H and dominate X. So, H c-commands X.So, H c-commands X.

ZP

YP

X

XP

X

UP

XH

XP

Adjunction, c-commandAdjunction, c-command

C-command: C-command: A node A node c-commands a node c-commands a node if: if: is not contained in is not contained in , and, and every node every node that dominates that dominates also dominates also dominates ..

Does UP c-command ZP?Does UP c-command ZP? Is ZP contained in ZP? No.Is ZP contained in ZP? No. Does every node that dominates UP dominate Does every node that dominates UP dominate

ZP?ZP? Yes, vacuously here, but yes for sure if XP is Yes, vacuously here, but yes for sure if XP is

embedded in any further structure.embedded in any further structure. So, UP c-commands ZP.So, UP c-commands ZP.

ZP

YP

X

XP

X

UP

XH

XP

Adjunction, c-commandAdjunction, c-command C-command: C-command: A node A node c-commands a c-commands a

node node if: if: is not contained in is not contained in , and, and every node every node that dominates that dominates also also

dominates dominates .. Does ZP c-command UP?Does ZP c-command UP?

Is UP dominated by ZP? No.Is UP dominated by ZP? No. Does every node that dominates ZP Does every node that dominates ZP

dominate UP?dominate UP? No—XP dominates ZP but not UP.No—XP dominates ZP but not UP. So, ZP does not c-command UP.So, ZP does not c-command UP.

Does XP c-command UP?Does XP c-command UP? No.No.

Does X c-command H?Does X c-command H? No.No.

ZP

YP

X

XP

X

UP

XH

XP

Adjunction, c-commandAdjunction, c-command In practical terms, an adjoined In practical terms, an adjoined

element c-commands what it is element c-commands what it is adjoined to, and everything that adjoined to, and everything that element c-commanded before the element c-commanded before the adjunction.adjunction. H c-commands X.H c-commands X. H c-commands WP.H c-commands WP.

The element adjoined to does not The element adjoined to does not c-command the adjoined elementc-command the adjoined element— they do not become sisters — they do not become sisters (which c-command each other).(which c-command each other). XP doesn’t c-command UP.XP doesn’t c-command UP. X doesn’t c-command H.X doesn’t c-command H.

ZP

YP

X

XP

X

UP

XH

XP

MovementMovement Movement is essentially just Movement is essentially just

Merge/Adjoin but with only a single item Merge/Adjoin but with only a single item from the workbench.from the workbench.

We find something inside the object, We find something inside the object, make a Copy, and then Merge or Adjoin make a Copy, and then Merge or Adjoin that Copy (in)to the object. The newly-that Copy (in)to the object. The newly-added copy must c-command the added copy must c-command the original (movement is always upwards).original (movement is always upwards).

When When pronouncingpronouncing a tree with two a tree with two copies of something in it, we pronounce copies of something in it, we pronounce only one copy (the one that c-commands only one copy (the one that c-commands the others).the others).

Three kinds of movementThree kinds of movement

Head MovementHead Movement: Movement of a head : Movement of a head to adjoin to the next higher head.to adjoin to the next higher head.

A-movementA-movement: Movement to SpecIP : Movement to SpecIP (subjects, passive objects, subject (subjects, passive objects, subject raising), to satisfy the EPP.raising), to satisfy the EPP. A-movement A-movement endsends in a Case location. in a Case location.

Operator MovementOperator Movement: Movement to : Movement to SpecCP and other things we’ll talk SpecCP and other things we’ll talk about later. A.k.a. “about later. A.k.a. “AA-movement-movement”” Operator movement Operator movement startsstarts in a Case location. in a Case location.

So A-movement precedes operator movement.So A-movement precedes operator movement.

When V moves to IWhen V moves to I When V moves to I, it will When V moves to I, it will

appear before adverbs and appear before adverbs and negation (in a head-initial negation (in a head-initial language like English or language like English or French).French). Pat is quickly eating a sandwich.Pat is quickly eating a sandwich. Pat is not eating a sandwich.Pat is not eating a sandwich. Pat does not eat sandwiches.Pat does not eat sandwiches.

V V head-adjoinshead-adjoins (adjoins, head-(adjoins, head-to-head) to I, forming a to-head) to I, forming a complex headcomplex head, (it’s an I with a , (it’s an I with a V adjoined to it).V adjoined to it).

English: English: Auxiliaries (Auxiliaries (havehave, , bebe) ) move to I.move to I.

French:French: All verbs move to I. All verbs move to I.

ti

VP

VP

vP

I

IP

DP

beAPI

I

Vi[PRES]

V…

Head Movement Head Movement ConstraintConstraint

Heads can only move to heads.Heads can only move to heads.

The HMC says that a head cannot The HMC says that a head cannot move past another move past another eligibleeligible head to head to reach its destination. (Economy)reach its destination. (Economy) Specifiers don’t count as eligible Specifiers don’t count as eligible

(though they contain a head, to be (though they contain a head, to be sure).sure).

The bottom line is:The bottom line is:Head movement adjoins a head X Head movement adjoins a head X to the head of the phrase YP that to the head of the phrase YP that has XP as its complement.has XP as its complement.

Y

YP

Xi

Y

Y X

XP

ti

The EPP (driving A-The EPP (driving A-movement)movement)

The EPPThe EPPIP must have a specifier.IP must have a specifier.

More informally, More informally, all clauses have subjectsall clauses have subjects..

Because Because rainrain has no arguments (no has no arguments (no -roles), a -roles), a special, contentless pronoun (special, contentless pronoun (itit) has to be ) has to be inserted to in order to have a grammatical inserted to in order to have a grammatical sentence. This kind of “empty sentence. This kind of “empty itit” is called an ” is called an expletiveexpletive or a or a pleonastic pronounpleonastic pronoun. . ItIt is not an is not an argument (in this use).argument (in this use).

We stipulate that We stipulate that itit is not subject to the is not subject to the --criterion.criterion.

Expletive Expletive therethere

There There is another meaningless is another meaningless element without a element without a -role (like -role (like itit) ) that can satisfy the EPP. that can satisfy the EPP.

What differentiates What differentiates itit and and therethere is is the connection between the connection between there there (the (the expletiveexpletive) and another DP ) and another DP (the (the associateassociate). The associate DP ). The associate DP is enabled to check its features is enabled to check its features “by proxy” by its association with “by proxy” by its association with therethere..

StudentsStudents is a DP (has a Case is a DP (has a Case feature needing to be checked). feature needing to be checked). The Case feature (and the The Case feature (and the [±Plural] feature), can be [±Plural] feature), can be checked with I across the checked with I across the expletive-associate feature expletive-associate feature “conduit.”“conduit.”

DPstudents

vP

v

Vj+veating

Vti

VPVi+Iwere

IP

IDPthere

VP

Vtj

DPa pizza

GovernmentGovernment Features can be checked in a local Features can be checked in a local

environment (the positions environment (the positions governedgoverned by a head). by a head).

The The specifier-featuresspecifier-features of X are of X are checked against DPchecked against DP11 in its specifier. in its specifier.

The The complement-featurescomplement-features of X are of X are checked against YP in its checked against YP in its complement, complement, or, failing thator, failing that, against , against DPDP22 in the specifier of YP. in the specifier of YP.

This DPThis DP22 position is primarily position is primarily relevant for checking accusative relevant for checking accusative Case (ECM).Case (ECM).

Y

Y

YP

…

X

X

XP

DP1

The “radius” ofgovernment

DP2

ECMECM For example:For example:

Bill finds me to be Bill finds me to be intolerable.intolerable.

Bill Bill is the is the Experiencer of Experiencer of findfind, hence has a , hence has a vvP to assign the P to assign the Experiencer Experiencer --role.role.

V

VP

vPI

I

DP

I

IP

DPime

tj

tk

[pres]

I

ti

IP

DPjBill

A

AP

VP

V

DPbe

intolerable

to

v

Vk+vfind

Small clausesSmall clauses

For small clauses For small clauses (including (including I saw I saw her in the gardenher in the garden), ), the subject also the subject also gets Case via ECM.gets Case via ECM.

(Note: the meaning (Note: the meaning represented here is represented here is compatible with compatible with meme not being in the not being in the garden)garden)

P

PP

DP

in

herDPP

the garden

V

VP

vPI

I

DPtj

tk

[past]

IP

DPjI

v

Vk+vsee

Movement for EPP/Case: Movement for EPP/Case: UnaccusativesUnaccusatives

DP

Bill

Vfall

I[past]

IP

VP

UnaccusativeV cannot

check Case

DPi

Bill

Vfall

I

IP

VP

tiFinite I cancheck Case

I[past]

PassivePassive

The passive form of a transitive verb is The passive form of a transitive verb is formed by removing the external formed by removing the external -role, -role, effectively “creating an unaccusative” effectively “creating an unaccusative” removing the removing the vvP.P.

eat Agent Theme

i j

eat+en Agent Theme

i j

PassivePassive The passive is just like the The passive is just like the

active, but without the active, but without the vvP.P. The Theme moves into The Theme moves into

SpecIP, satisfying the EPP SpecIP, satisfying the EPP (and getting Case).(and getting Case).

Notice that the DP doesn’t Notice that the DP doesn’t get Case in its underlying get Case in its underlying position (it can’t get Case position (it can’t get Case twice, and it gets Case in twice, and it gets Case in SpecIP; SpecIP; *it was eaten the *it was eaten the sandwichsandwich). ). Burzio’s Burzio’s Generalization:Generalization: No external No external argument (no little argument (no little vv), no ), no accusative Case.accusative Case.

DPj

thesandwich

Veaten

VP

Vi+Iwas

I

Vti

VP

IP

DPtj

PassivePassive

As for the optionally As for the optionally expressed Agent in the expressed Agent in the byby--phrase, we take this to be phrase, we take this to be like any optionally expressed like any optionally expressed adjoined phrase, a PP adjoined phrase, a PP adjoined to VP.adjoined to VP.

DPj

thesandwich

Veaten

VP

Vi+Iwas

I

Vti

VP

IP

DPtj

VP PPby

Bill

Subject Subject raisingraising

Subject raising occurs Subject raising occurs whenwhen the subject of a lower the subject of a lower

clause does not get Case clause does not get Case in the lower clause.in the lower clause.

the main verb in the the main verb in the higher clause has no higher clause has no external external -role.-role.

And in the last step, we And in the last step, we MoveMove the DP the DP MaryMary up up from the lower SpecIP from the lower SpecIP to the higher SpecIP.to the higher SpecIP.

Alikely

AP

IP

Ito leave

Vti

VP

tj

is

IP

IDPjMary

VP

IDP

Vi+I

Operator movement:Operator movement:whwh-movement-movement

English:English: One One whwh-phrase moves to the front.-phrase moves to the front. WhatWhat did Bill give to did Bill give to whomwhom??

Japanese:Japanese: No No whwh-words move to the front.-words move to the front. Taroo-ga Taroo-ga daredare--nini naninani--oo ageta no? ageta no?

T-nom T-nom whowho--toto whatwhat--accacc gave Q gave Q‘What did Taroo give to whom?’‘What did Taroo give to whom?’

Bulgarian: Bulgarian: All All whwh-words move to the front.-words move to the front. KakvoKakvo nana kogokogo Ivan dade? Ivan dade?

whatwhat toto whomwhom Ivan gave Ivan gave‘What did Ivan give to whom?’‘What did Ivan give to whom?’

SpelloutSpellout We handle this kind of variation by supposing We handle this kind of variation by supposing

that:that: WhWh-words need to move to SpecCP-words need to move to SpecCP Languages differ in Languages differ in wherewhere in the derivation they in the derivation they

choose to focus pronunciation (“Spellout”).choose to focus pronunciation (“Spellout”).

LFmove firstwh-word

move secondwh-word

BulgarianJapanese English

SuperioritySuperiority

Superiority:Superiority: The shortest The shortest whwh-movements -movements have to happen first. have to happen first. ((WhWh-movement isn’t -movement isn’t possible if there was a shorter one).possible if there was a shorter one).

WhoWhoii did Bill persuade did Bill persuade ttii to buy what? to buy what?

*What*Whatii did Bill persuade who to buy did Bill persuade who to buy ttii ? ?

Fitting all of the Fitting all of the whwh--wordswords

in SpecCPin SpecCP To get all of the To get all of the whwh-words in SpecCP, all of the -words in SpecCP, all of the whwh--

words after the first one move to adjoin to the first one.words after the first one move to adjoin to the first one. This way, there is still This way, there is still oneone specifier of SpecCP, but the specifier of SpecCP, but the

whwh-words are still all in the specifier of SpecCP, -words are still all in the specifier of SpecCP, attached to one another. attached to one another. (Note: (Note: right-adjoinedright-adjoined, cf. , cf. Bulgarian)Bulgarian)

C

C

DP2

DP1

DP1

DP1

CP

who

C

C

CP

who what

DP2

what

…

SubjacencySubjacency

Not only do movements of Not only do movements of whwh-words need -words need to be as short as they can be (cf. to be as short as they can be (cf. Superiority), they also have an upper Superiority), they also have an upper bound on how long they can be even if bound on how long they can be even if there isn’t a shorter competitor.there isn’t a shorter competitor.

Subjacency:Subjacency: A single movement cannot A single movement cannot cross more than one bounding node.cross more than one bounding node.

Bounding nodes (English):Bounding nodes (English):IP (if sister to C) and DP.IP (if sister to C) and DP.

Bounding nodes (Italian): CP and DP.Bounding nodes (Italian): CP and DP.

SubjacencySubjacency The way Subjacency violations are The way Subjacency violations are

avoided is through the use of avoided is through the use of successive-successive-cyclic movementcyclic movement: A moving : A moving whwh-phrase will -phrase will stop off in each SpecCP on the way from stop off in each SpecCP on the way from its original case position to its scope its original case position to its scope position.position.

If a SpecCP is full along the way, the If a SpecCP is full along the way, the whwh--phrase would have to skip past that phrase would have to skip past that SpecCP, which would entail a movement SpecCP, which would entail a movement that is too long (that is too long (whwh-island violations).-island violations).

What will they bake?What will they bake?

We start out with We start out with essentially the essentially the structure of structure of They They will bake whatwill bake what as as shown here.shown here.

WhatWhat is a DP, but is a DP, but it’s a it’s a whwh-DP, a -DP, a [+WH] DP.[+WH] DP.

What will they bake?What will they bake?

What will they bake?What will they bake? For For whwh--

questions, we questions, we have an have an additional item additional item on our on our workbench, a workbench, a [+Q,+WH] C.[+Q,+WH] C.

Two features it Two features it needs to check: needs to check: [+Q], checked [+Q], checked by moving I to by moving I to C; [+WH] C; [+WH] checked by checked by moving a moving a [+WH] DP to [+WH] DP to SpecCP.SpecCP.

What will they bake?What will they bake?

What will they bake?What will they bake?

Who left?Who left?

Note that I and V are still adjacent.Note that I and V are still adjacent.

Successive cyclicSuccessive cyclicwhwh-movement-movement

When a When a whwh--word moves, word moves, it has to it has to move to the move to the closestclosest SpecCP. It SpecCP. It can’t can’t skipskip a a SpecCP (or it SpecCP (or it would have would have to cross two to cross two IPs).IPs).

What did you hear that they bought?

Successive cyclicSuccessive cyclicwhwh-movement-movement

When a When a whwh--word moves, word moves, it has to it has to move to the move to the closestclosest SpecCP. It SpecCP. It can’t can’t skipskip a a SpecCP (or it SpecCP (or it would have would have to cross two to cross two IPs).IPs).

What did you hear that they bought?

Successive Successive cycliccyclic

whwh-movement-movement The The whwh-phrase -phrase

moves first to moves first to the intermediate the intermediate SpecCP.SpecCP.

What did you hear that they bought?

Successive-cyclic Successive-cyclic movementmovement

Then, the Then, the whwh--phrase moves phrase moves from the from the intermediate intermediate SpecCP to the SpecCP to the main clause main clause SpecCP.SpecCP.

What did you hear that they bought?

Successive-Successive-cyclic cyclic

movementmovement Then, the Then, the whwh--

phrase moves phrase moves from the from the intermediate intermediate SpecCP to the SpecCP to the main clause main clause SpecCP.SpecCP.

What did you hear that they bought?

Successive-Successive-cyclic cyclic

movementmovement Then, the Then, the whwh--

phrase moves phrase moves from the from the intermediate intermediate SpecCP to the SpecCP to the main clause main clause SpecCP.SpecCP.

What did you hear that they bought?

WhWh--islandsislands

Now, Now, suppose we suppose we have an have an embedded embedded whwh-question.-question. You wonder You wonder

what they what they bought.bought.

And try to And try to question the question the subject.subject.

WhWh--islandsislands

Now, Now, suppose we suppose we have an have an embedded embedded whwh-question.-question. You wonder You wonder

what they what they bought.bought.

And try to And try to question the question the subject.subject.

WhWh--islandsislands

Too far—Too far— WhWh-movement -movement

can’t go past can’t go past the middle CP the middle CP without without “stopping off”“stopping off”

IP and IP and DP are DP are both both bounding bounding nodes, so nodes, so you can’t you can’t move a move a whwh-word -word out of a out of a DP.DP.

Complex NP Complex NP islandsislands

Relative Relative clausesclauses

The structure of a The structure of a relative clause is relative clause is like this.like this.

A [+Q, +WH] CP is A [+Q, +WH] CP is adjoined to the NP, adjoined to the NP, like an adjective, or like an adjective, or a PP modifier.a PP modifier.

The meaning is The meaning is essentially “the man essentially “the man with the property of with the property of being the answer to being the answer to ‘Who did I meet?” ’‘Who did I meet?” ’

C[+WH][+Q]

C

CP

IP

I met ti

man

NPDthe

DP

NP

DPi

who(m)

OpOp

In relative clauses, we sometimes find In relative clauses, we sometimes find OpOp, the silent , the silent whwh-word-word..

That is, That is, the book which Mary readthe book which Mary read and and the book Mary readthe book Mary read are really are really exactly the same except that in one exactly the same except that in one case you pronounce the case you pronounce the whwh-word, and -word, and in the other, you don’t.in the other, you don’t. the book [the book [CPCP which whichii C Mary read C Mary read ttii ] ]

the book [the book [CPCP OpOpii (that) Mary read (that) Mary read ttii ] ]

Op, DFC, & Op, DFC, & RecoverabilityRecoverability

The The Doubly-Filled COMP filterDoubly-Filled COMP filter is the traditional “explanation” is the traditional “explanation” for why for why *the book which that Mary read*the book which that Mary read is bad. is bad.

Doubly-Filled COMP filter:Doubly-Filled COMP filter:*[*[CPCP whwh-word if/that/for…]-word if/that/for…]

Recoverability condition:Recoverability condition: The content of a null category The content of a null category must be recoverable.must be recoverable. the place [the place [OpOpii (that) Mary bought that book (that) Mary bought that book ttii ] ] the day [the day [OpOpii (that) Mary bought that book (that) Mary bought that book ttii ] ] the reason [the reason [OpOpii (that) Mary bought that book (that) Mary bought that book ttii ] ] the way [the way [OpOpii (that) Mary bought that book (that) Mary bought that book ttii ] ]

This is why you can’t just ask a regular This is why you can’t just ask a regular whwh-question -question with with OpOp..

Yes/no questionsYes/no questions

There is also reason to There is also reason to think that there is an think that there is an OpOp occupying SpecCP occupying SpecCP in yes-no questions as in yes-no questions as well.well. *Who did you wonder if *Who did you wonder if

John met?John met?

thesandwich

tk

V DP

VP

I

I

IP

DP

tm

v

vP

DP

v

v

Vk

ti

eat

CP

OpC

C

[+Q]CIm

[+Past]DPi

you

Subjacency for overt Subjacency for overt movementmovement

Who believed the rumor that John bought what?Who believed the rumor that John bought what? Who remembers where we bought what?Who remembers where we bought what?

These sentences would suggest that These sentences would suggest that covert covert whwh-movement is not sensitive to -movement is not sensitive to whwh-islands-islands. . A very widely adopted assumption about A very widely adopted assumption about Subjacency is made to explain this:Subjacency is made to explain this:

Subjacency only holds for overt movement.Subjacency only holds for overt movement. Thus:Thus:

All overt All overt whwh-movement is successive-cyclic.-movement is successive-cyclic. Covert Covert whwh-movement can move directly to SpecCP.-movement can move directly to SpecCP.

QuantifiersQuantifiers

These phrases which don’t refer to These phrases which don’t refer to specific people/things in the world but specific people/things in the world but rather seem to do things to sets of rather seem to do things to sets of people/things are people/things are quantifiersquantifiers. Examples . Examples include:include: most studentsmost students twelve angry mentwelve angry men fewer than half of the membersfewer than half of the members some custodiansome custodian nobody in their right mindnobody in their right mind

QRQR

Sue read every book.Sue read every book.For every book For every book xx, Sue read , Sue read xx..

After Spellout, the quantifier After Spellout, the quantifier movesmoves to to a position above the sentence, so there a position above the sentence, so there is then a direct mapping between the is then a direct mapping between the structure and the logical form.structure and the logical form.

[every book][every book]ii [ [IPIP Sue read Sue read ttii ]. ].

QR: Covert adjunction to QR: Covert adjunction to IPIP

QR adjoins the quantifier to IP.QR adjoins the quantifier to IP.

Moving a quantifier (QR) is required Moving a quantifier (QR) is required because the because the quantifierquantifier needs to get needs to get out of the IP (for interpretation). IP out of the IP (for interpretation). IP itself itself has no need for quantifiers.has no need for quantifiers.

Moving to SpecIP or moving to Moving to SpecIP or moving to SpecCP is motivated by some need of ISpecCP is motivated by some need of I (EPP: SpecIP must be filled)(EPP: SpecIP must be filled) or Cor C ([+WH] C needs a [+WH] in its ([+WH] C needs a [+WH] in its specifier)specifier)..

vPI

I

IP

subj

IP

QP

QR: multiple quantifiersQR: multiple quantifiers

QR adjoins the quantifier to QR adjoins the quantifier to the IP.the IP.

QR must happen for every QR must happen for every quantifier.quantifier.

A quantifier is interpreted A quantifier is interpreted with its c-command domain in with its c-command domain in its scope.its scope. Detail: For multiple adjunction Detail: For multiple adjunction

structures, we need to assume structures, we need to assume that QPthat QP11 c-commands QP c-commands QP22 but but QPQP22 does not c-command QP does not c-command QP11. .

vPI

I

IP

t1

IP

QP2

IP

QP1

t2

Weak CrossoverWeak Crossover

*Who*Whoii does his does hisii roommate like roommate like ttii ? ? WhoWhoii ttii likes his likes hisii roommate? roommate?

Weak Crossover (WCO):Weak Crossover (WCO): A coindexed pronoun cannot A coindexed pronoun cannot intervene between an operator and its variable.intervene between an operator and its variable.

[Every girl][Every girl]ii [ [IPIP her herii roommate likes roommate likes ttii ]. ]. For every girl For every girl xx, , xx’s roommate likes ’s roommate likes xx..

[Every girl][Every girl]ii [ [IPIP ttii likes her likes herii roommate]. roommate]. For every girl For every girl xx, , xx likes likes xx’s roommate.’s roommate.

Binding TheoryBinding Theory Principle A.Principle A. An anaphor must be bound in An anaphor must be bound in

its binding domain.its binding domain. Principle B.Principle B. A pronoun must be free in its A pronoun must be free in its

binding domain.binding domain. Principle C.Principle C. An r-expression must be free.An r-expression must be free. The The binding domainbinding domain for an anaphor is the for an anaphor is the

smallest of (i) An IP that dominates it, (ii) A smallest of (i) An IP that dominates it, (ii) A DP, with a specifier, that dominates it.DP, with a specifier, that dominates it.

BoundBound: coindexed with a c-commanding : coindexed with a c-commanding antecedent (antecedent (FreeFree: not bound).: not bound).

Pronouncing at SpelloutPronouncing at Spellout Lexical items come with some information about Lexical items come with some information about

how to pronounce them. That is, how to pronounce them. That is, catcat is pronounced is pronounced [kæt].[kæt].

Some lexical items can be pronounced alone.Some lexical items can be pronounced alone. Some lexical items are affixes that attach to other Some lexical items are affixes that attach to other

kinds of lexical items.kinds of lexical items. English Tense/Agr (I), for example, is a suffix that is English Tense/Agr (I), for example, is a suffix that is

pronounced together with (usually at the end of) a pronounced together with (usually at the end of) a verb.verb.

Occasionally PF will be faced with the task of Occasionally PF will be faced with the task of pronouncing a suffix without a host nearby to pronouncing a suffix without a host nearby to attach it to.attach it to.

PF: PF: dodo-support-support When a verbal suffix is “stranded” like this, the When a verbal suffix is “stranded” like this, the

only way to pronounce it is to pronounce a verb only way to pronounce it is to pronounce a verb along with it.along with it.

The “default” verb in English is The “default” verb in English is dodo.. So, “stranded tense” affixes get pronounced So, “stranded tense” affixes get pronounced

attached to attached to dodo: : dodo-support-support.. DoDoes John eat constantly?es John eat constantly? John John dodoes not eat constantly.es not eat constantly.

Note: Note: dodo is not in the tree. It is inserted as we try is not in the tree. It is inserted as we try to pronounce the tree. It therefore also doesn’t to pronounce the tree. It therefore also doesn’t (and couldn’t) have any effect on the meaning.(and couldn’t) have any effect on the meaning.

A few things to look forA few things to look for -criterion: Are all -criterion: Are all -roles assigned to exactly one argument?-roles assigned to exactly one argument? Is there an Experiencer or Agent? (Then there’s a Is there an Experiencer or Agent? (Then there’s a vvP)P) Do all DPs get their Case features checked?Do all DPs get their Case features checked? Is the EPP satisfied everywhere (all IPs have a specifier)?Is the EPP satisfied everywhere (all IPs have a specifier)? Have all of the quantifiers adjoined to IP by LF?Have all of the quantifiers adjoined to IP by LF? Are all Are all whwh-words in SpecCP by LF?-words in SpecCP by LF? Did any Did any whwh-movement cross two or more bounding nodes (for -movement cross two or more bounding nodes (for

movement before Spellout)? (Subjacency violation)movement before Spellout)? (Subjacency violation) Are all anaphors bound in their binding domain? (Principle A)Are all anaphors bound in their binding domain? (Principle A) Are all pronouns free in their binding domain? (Principle B)Are all pronouns free in their binding domain? (Principle B) Are all r-expressions (completely) free? (Principle C)Are all r-expressions (completely) free? (Principle C) Did an Operator movement cross a coindexed pronoun? (WCO Did an Operator movement cross a coindexed pronoun? (WCO

violation)violation) Have the auxiliaries moved to I?Have the auxiliaries moved to I? Has I moved to C (in main clause questions)?Has I moved to C (in main clause questions)?

Some sentences from Some sentences from previous finals/practicesprevious finals/practices

2002F:2002F: What does every agent suspect Jack gave to Nina?What does every agent suspect Jack gave to Nina? Jack successfully convinced Vaughn to fire Will.Jack successfully convinced Vaughn to fire Will. Which memo is likely to have been dropped behind Leo’s Which memo is likely to have been dropped behind Leo’s

desk?desk? 2001PF:2001PF:

Every father wants to know what the children are watching.Every father wants to know what the children are watching. What had Bert’s mother said was stolen from the living room?What had Bert’s mother said was stolen from the living room? Ralph’s puppy seems to like to chew the sofa.Ralph’s puppy seems to like to chew the sofa.

2001F:2001F: What had Bill expected to buy at Wal-Mart?What had Bill expected to buy at Wal-Mart? Every serious linguist will eventually need to know what Every serious linguist will eventually need to know what

Chomsky has written.Chomsky has written. My tape of Benton’s last episode appears to have been My tape of Benton’s last episode appears to have been

misplaced.misplaced.

Some sentences from Some sentences from previous finals/practicesprevious finals/practices

2000PF:2000PF: Who do you think bought the laptop which Mary Who do you think bought the laptop which Mary

said she sold?said she sold? Which student will Mary say took every Which student will Mary say took every

prerequisite?prerequisite? Mary said that John’s mother was chosen.Mary said that John’s mother was chosen.

2000F:2000F: Which test will Mary say that every student took?Which test will Mary say that every student took? Which senator said that Congress will pass which Which senator said that Congress will pass which

bill?bill? The pen which Larry’s assistant thought that The pen which Larry’s assistant thought that

Artie lost was found under the table.Artie lost was found under the table.