Carrie Heeter - Interactivity

5/28/2018 Carrie Heeter - Interactivity

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Interactivity in the Context of Designed Experiences

Carrie Heeter

Michigan State University

Abstract

Interactivity is something researchers study, new technology commercials promote, and

designers create. It's not something people do. People use the internet, watch T, shop,

explore, learn, send and receive email, loo! things up... The word interactivity and its

derivatives are used to represent so many different meanings that the word muddles rather

than clarifies the spea!er's intent. The construct is worth salvaging carefully so future

research more clearly defines the interaction parameters of interest and specifies what

aspect"s# of interactivity are $eing examined. This article offers a conceptuali%ation of

interactivity and suggests domains for operationali%ations intended to $e useful for

researchers and designers.

The Muddle: Common uses of interact and interactive

Interactivity is an overused, underdefined concept. Everything a human does to or with

another human can $e called an interaction. &uman interactions that use media are

mediated human interactions. Everything a human does to or with a computer is a human

computer interaction.

The curriculum development group of the (C) *pecial Interest +roup on Computer&uman

Interaction "www.acm.orgsigchicdg# suggests, -there is currently no agreed upon

definition of the range of topics which form the area of humancomputer interaction.-

Instead they offer a $rief definition followed $y a chapterlong ela$oration.

-&umancomputer interaction is a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and

implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of maor

phenomena surrounding them "Chapter / p. 0#.- )ost germain to this article, -on the human

side, communication theory, graphic and industrial design disciplines, linguistics, social

sciences, cognitive psychology, and human performance are relevant. (nd, of course,

engineering and design methods are relevant.-


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Ted &anss "1222# used the word interact or interactivity 13 times in a recent tal! a$out

Internet/ applications. In addition to PE4P5E and C4)P6TE7*, here are some things he

mentioned that humans interact with using Internet/8

I9*T76)E9T* "scanning electron microscope#

D(T( "atmospheric, oceanographic#

E9I749)E9T* "fly through spaces, colla$oratively view and annotate virtual environments#

*I)65(TI49* "a farm over four seasons#

I*6(5I:(TI49* "construct, record, and preview scientific visuali%ations; )7I $rain scans#

)EDI( C5IP* "audio li$rary#

Interactivity is freavascript to provide

logic for gaming or data$ase calls to dynamically compose content. (lan Cooper "1222 p. //#

descri$es a $road domain he calls Interaction Design -the selection of $ehavior, function,and information, and their presentation to users.-

Using Interactive to Emphasize Changes in assive!

Traditional Media

?efore the Internet, $efore PCs were common, mass media industries "newspapers, $oo!s,

movies, radio, and television# created and mar!eted pac!aged content to $e consumed $y

passive audiences. )ass communication researchers studied the one way flow of

programming sent $y media industry sources over media systems to consumer audiences. In

the mid 12@As, communication researchers $egan to write a$out new technologies $ringing

interactivity to mass media. 7ice "12@B p. 0# descri$ed new media as communication

technologies that -allow or facilitate interactivity among users or $etween users and

information.-

7eacting to expanded channel lineups $rought $y ca$le T, remote controls, and prototype

videotext systems, &eeter "12@2# offered seven o$servations a$out interactivity in emerging

media systems8


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1# Information is always sought or selected, not merely sent.

/# )edia systems re


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u(45T

u)orecomwww.morecom.com

uorldgate

www.wgate.comsplashmain.html

set top $ox controller, viewed on your T set#corresponding to $roadcasts offering play alonggame shows, voting, we$ $rowsing, eCommerce.

Adds mediated interpersonal communicationwith other viewers and with TV personalitiesto viewing experience.

Chat, email, instant messaging synchroni%ed with$roadcast T.

ersonal T$

u7eplayTwww.replaytv.comhome.htm

uTIowww.tivo.com

Changes the program selection process.

Digitally records and saves up to A hours,

recording synced to daily online program guide forpoint and clic! automated recording of wee!lyshows and even genres. 5earns from your viewing$ehavior and rating of programs. *uggests shows.

Changes viewing $ehavior.

*low motion replay, pause live T and resumewhere you left off, fast forward with


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www.actv.com

uin!www.win!.com

vary depending on user choices at branchingdecision points.

Interact with live television $y changing channels"up to B (CT channels carry synchroni%ed relatedcontent such as different camera angles of thesame event, or different answers to the same trivia


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with planning for future actions and storytelling a$out past or imagined events- "9ehaniv

1222a#.

&umans therefore tend to approach and recall interaction in a way that ma!es narrative

sense. &umans possess narrative intelligence we have awareness of our own and the

o$ects and $eings in our world's history and expectations for the future ")urray 1223#. e

ma!e inferences that go $eyond our o$servations to construct coherent stories and

interpretations of events.

(ffect for humans is an aspect of situatedness in time.... Temperament, mood, and emotion

each occupy a point in emotional space. Diet% and 5ang "1222# have mapped affect to a cu$e

along (rousedCalm, Pleasant6npleasant, and ControlDominance dimensions.

Temperament is a fixed coordinate that defines one's rudimentary personality. )ood is our

persona at any given time and emotion is our emotional state at the moment.

Situated in Space (embodied)

e perceive the world from the point of view of our $odies, situated in time and space,

mediated $y the senses. 4ur $odies are our interface to the world. They represent us to the

world, and they present the world to us.

If the self is an em$odied $eing whose life is manifest in action, the relation to the

surrounding world will inevita$ly assume the form of an interaction ")acann 122 p. 0#.

The physical $ody directly interacts with its environment while psychic states endow a

distinctive point of view. It is via udgment or inference that we connect with the physical

world, $ut it is via action that we interact with the world.

Physical aspects of interaction in the world, with appropriate research instrumentation, are

directly o$serva$le. These include direction of ga%e, focal point, $ody position and motion,

speech, facial expression, and all other physical actions and reactions.

(ccompanying internal dimensions of interaction with the world and with ourselves "selective

attention, perception, interpretation, intent, thin!ing, feeling, imagining, wanting,

anticipating, etc.# are not su$ect to direct o$servation.

ived !xperience


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Paraphrasing dictionary definitions, to experience something means to participate in or live

through an event or a series of events. It implies $eing present in space and in time.

(ccording to &usserl, a lived experience is whatever is actually lived out "perceived, thought,

imagined, remem$ered# ")acann 122#.

"ifferentiating Self and #ther

&ow do humans distinguish self from nonselfF *patially, our $ody is -here- and everything

else is -there.- Throughout early childhood our differentiation of self and nonself solidifies.

&usserl emphasi%es $odily movements, and the !inesthetic experiences where the -I- comes

into contact with other corporal o$ects. 4ne's $ody 'holds sway' over o$ects of the world

through actions such as lifting, moving, !noc!ing over, etc. "Phillips 122B#.

4ur $odymind is self and everything else is nonself. *chuemie "1222# suggests we first

distinguish self and nonself, and then further divide nonself into social and environmental

components. e differentiate living and nonliving things, human and nonhuman.

4ur conceptuali%ation of other $eings is $ased upon our own experience we must

recogni%e another $ody as a lived $ody li!e ourselves another -I- which is em$odied and

holds sway. e recogni%e it as the $ody of a person, or at least a sentient $eing... ")iller12@B, Phillips 122B#.

&umans tend to attri$ute human, selfli!e .>. +i$son's concept of affordances "descri$ed in 9orman 122@#. -( roc! can


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$e moved, rolled, !ic!ed, thrown, and sat upon not all roc!s, ust those that are the right

si%e for moving, rolling, !ic!ing, throwing, or sitting upon. The set of possi$le actions is

called the affordances of the o$ect.-

hen we assess our immediate environment, we are aware of the some of the affordances

each o$ect offers. Chairs to sit on or throw, doors to open or close, !itchens to coo!, lights

to illuminate. (n affordance is not a property of an o$ect as much as it is a relationship

$etween an o$ect and the organism that is acting on the o$ect "9orman 122@ p. 1/#. The

same o$ect can have different affordances for different individuals. ( child might scan a

!itchen and notice playthings and treats, a noncoo! might notice possi$ilities for eating


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,undamentals of Communication Technologies

The $ody separates, integrates, and represents a human in the world. Communication

technologies further separate, integrate and represent the $ody in a mediated world.

Communication technologies alter the human experience of time and space. They limit,

eliminate, and sometimes amplify or alter our normal $ody inputoutput perceptions and

interactions. Context is less visi$le and must $e inferred to a greater extent. Computer

interactions result in $ehavior unconnected to physical forces, resulting in cognitive friction

"Cooper 1222#. =or example, typing E7(*E (55 on a typewriter results in a page of type that

says E7(*E (55, while typing E7(*E (55 on a computer could erase the contents of a hard

drive.

Situated in Time

Communication technologies ena$le human mediated interaction and human machine

interaction to occur asynchronously. )essages or commands can $e sent and received later.

Events can $e recorded and experienced later. The human participant always experiences

composing or receiving a communication in the present, even when the overall experience is

asynchronous, separated in time. hen we compose a message to $e received later, we

attempt to tailor the message to $e received and understood later. hen we receive an

asynchronous message, we attempt to ta!e the time warp into account as we interpret it.

5atency is a pro$lem in mediated experiences. Cheshire "122# writes, -whether we're

dealing with people or o$ects, interaction is essential. e perform some action, and when

we o$serve how the person or o$ect reacts we modify our $ehavior accordingly. *ometimes

the reaction needs to $e very oint Computer

Conference on minimal response times for a media system8

4ne tenth of a second "A.1# is a$out the limit for having the user feel that the

system is reacting instantaneously


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4ne second is a$out the limit for the user's flow of thought to remain uninterrupted,

or for the user to feel they are moving freely through information space, even though

the user will notice the delay.

1A seconds is a$out the limit for !eeping the user's attention focused on the

dialogue.

?oth ?iocca "1222# and 7eeves "1222# tal! a$out human $andwidth matching transmission

speeds with the information processing capa$ilities of users. (lready the Internet and

$roadcasting carry more information than any human could process. ?ut the amount of

content in an individual transmission is usually far less than we experience physically

through our real world $odies.

Situated in Space (embodied)

In the physical world we are here and everything else is there. e exist in an environment

surrounded $y o$ects and forces. Traditional media recogni%e our spatiality not at all. They

are another o$ect within our space, and we do not exist within their space.

Communication technologies allow us to experience spaces we could not visit $efore

spaces which do not exist in the physical world and spaces we cannot physically visit. They

afford us new means of experiencing spaces "point and clic!, fly# while they deny us familiar

!inesthetic means of $odily exploration.

Communication technologies can invo!e a sensation of presence at a fictional or distant

experience. 5om$ard "/AAA# compiled this definition of presence8

Presence "a shortened version of the term -telepresence-# is a psychological state or

su$ective perception in which even though part or all of an individual's current experience is

generated $y andor filtered through humanmade technology, part or all of the individual's

perception fails to accurately ac!nowledge the role of the technology in the experience.

&e defines time to $e an essential aspect of presence "5om$ard /AAA#.

Presence occurs during an encounter with technology and not $efore or after this encounter

"although the conse


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in varying degrees at each instant "as it seems# or /# our sense that presence is continuous

is the result of the cumulative effect of instants, which may $e as short as milliseconds, in

which presence either does or does not exist.

I suggest a slightly different definition, inspired $y 5om$ard and $uild upon the assumptions

defined here so far. Presence is the sensation of $eing spatially and temporally located within

a mediated experience. The sensation may $e fleeting or it may continue for a longer

duration. =or example, umping when a dinosaur on the movie screen lurches toward you

suggests, in that moment, you felt spatially and temporally located with the dinosaur. The

affordances changed at that moment one possi$le interaction $etween you and the

dinosaur was to $e eaten. 6sing a flight simulator recreates the visual illusion and controls of

flying, often yielding an extended period of feeling spatially and temporally present in the

coc!pit of a virtual world.

&umans are not represented directly $y their physical $odies when they use communication

technologies. 4ur physical voice, mediated $y telephone and phone lines, represents us in

phone calls. In traditional media our $odies are represented not at all. Computer mediated

experiences reduce the $ody's representation to mouse actions, !eystro!es, or low

$andwidth audio. &umans and agents may $e represented $y "em$odied as# avatars in some

internet and virtual reality chat systems, $ut the capa$ilities of these avatars are more

constrained than a physical $ody in their range of expression and motion and means of

control.

"ifferentiating Self from #thers

&umans interact with other disem$odied humans, or with a device, or an agent. 7eeves and

9ass' "122# research shows that -individuals' interactions with computers, television, and

new media are fundamentally social and natural, ust li!e interactions in real life.- 7eevesand 9ass conclude, -all people, automatically and unconsciously, respond socially and

naturally to media.- Even command line and text interfaces are, to a certain extent, infused

with social signifiers "7eeves G 9ass 122#.

7eeves and 9ass' explorations have $een of media. There is no $asis for setting limits to

human's social orientation to o$ects. It is li!ely we respond to our refrigerator and alarm

cloc! socially, too. 4ne complication for research is that humans deny that they interact

socially with media. Het research clearly shows they do treat media as social $eings.. Thus,

the phenomenon cannot $e studied directly $y as!ing a$out it. Computers are not real.


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Computer agents are not real. ?ut the automatic response is to accept what seems to $e real

as in fact real. =or researchers and designers, distinguishing $etween real and virtual

environments, and $etween human communication with other humans versus human

communication with computer agents is natural. ?ut it may not $e always $e important from

the human participant's perspective. (t some point...-we will no longer $e interested in

whether the characters we are interacting with are scripted actors, fellow improvisers, or

computer$ased chatter$ots, nor will we continue to thin! a$out whether the place we are

occupying exists as a photograph of a theatrical set or as a computer generated graphic or

al$eit whether it is delivered $y radio waves or telepresence ")urray 1223 pp. /31/3/#.-

(t least $efore they grow accustomed to using computers, humans expect entities they

interact with to have awareness of the history of interaction and they expect their interaction

partners to construct a picture of them in the course of interaction "9ehaniv 1222#. Het the

narrative structure of our computerhuman interaction is disposa$le or forgotten. Computer

$ehavior and emotionally stilted, inhuman interactions may seem strange to us at first $ut

we get used to it. e develop -calluses- after spending a lot of time using computers, so li!e

a violinist who practices fingers on strings we can play without pain.

9ehaniv "1222# suggests three ways computers could improve their apparent narrative

intelligence8

recogni%ing narrative structure

expressing narrative structure "storytelling#

having narrative structure "an auto$iography, $eing temporally grounded#

Computers and other media are changea$le. They ta!e on different personalities $ased on

the program running at the time. Thus, they are schi%ophrenic, insensitive, emotionally

retarded entities with poor human communication s!ills. 7o% Picard founded the (ffective

Computing +roup at )IT, wor!ing to ma!e computers sense human affect, recogni%e

patterns of affective expression, understand and model human emotion, and synthesi%e

"have# emotions "www.media.mit.eduproectsaffect#. Diet% and 5ang "1222# endowed an

onscreen computer agent with a su$stantial range of emotion using a model of expression

mapping. The affect of the agent changes appropriately over time as the human

accomplishes tas!s.

Creation of personas is an important part of designing experiences. hether or not there is

intent to introduce a personality into an interface, humans respond as if technology is


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human. hat happens if another real human is present in the mediated experience does

that presence overshadow or eliminate the persona of the deviceF &ow many different

personas can "or should# $e concurrently present in a device or experienceF hen there are

multiple personas, such as when a communication technology is mediating human

communication, I am guessing that the dominant persona can overshadow the other"s#. =or

example, with the telephone, we thin! a$out interacting with the other person and not much

a$out interacting with the intermediary device "the phone#. Perhaps 7eeves and 9ass would

discover that we are also polite to the phone itself. 4r perhaps in the face of a real human,

the device $ecomes less prominent.

Cooper "1222# descri$es desira$le characteristics of an interface designed for politeness.

=rom the human participant's perspective, a polite interface should $e8

interested in me

deferential to me

forthcoming

have common sense

anticipate my needs

responsive

taciturn a$out its personal pro$lems

well informed

perceptive

selfconfident

stay focused

fudga$le

give instant gratification

trustworthy

9ot only are devices and other humans disem$odied, $ut so too are we when we participate

in mediated experiences. ?iocca "1222# and 9owa! "9owa! and ?iocca, 1222# are studying

em$odiment as representation from the perspectives of representation of self and udgments

of others $ased on their em$odiment in virtual worlds.

7eeves "1222# summari%es his predictions for what the coming increases in networ!

$andwidth will do for communication technologies. hen the Internet's $andwidth is less

limited, latency will improve and new, richer sensory channels of interaction will $e possi$le.

7eeves suggests -social- $andwidth will increase, allowing more of human physical


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perception to occur over mediated channels. Emerging communication technology will $ring

more socially complete exchanges. *ocial ?andwidth will ena$le compelling automated social

relationships and ena$le technology to automate social interaction and to $ecome social

actors themselves. Technology will ena$le different social opportunities, and new forms of

interaction.

Affordances

hat are the affordances of communication technologiesF 6ses and gratifications research

loo!s at affordances sought and achieved with media reasons why people say they watch

T or read newspapers. Things li!e to $e informed, to have fun, to relax, $ecause I'm $ored,

to !now what other people in the world are doing, etc. ( telephone lets you tal! to people.

The range of affordances is vast "order pi%%a, as! for information, visit socially with a friend,

conduct $usiness, etc.# &umans may invent or perceive affordances not intended $y the

designer. )itchell points to the example of the answering machine people found it could $e

used to screen calls in addition to ta!ing messages.

The actions you can perform with the physical device of telephone or television are

straightforward and limited. The options are to turn it on, change channels, and watch for

T, or to dial, tal! and listen for telephone. The computer is confusing o$ect $ecause it canafford so many different actions, al$eit with limited inputoutput through !ey$oard or mouse.

Designers try to ma!e o$vious to the human what actions are possi$le at any time, and what

affordances are availa$le within an application or we$ site. Information appliances are and

will increasingly $e more speciali%ed, limited devices with less functionality than a computer.

They will $e designed to do only one or a few things, and thus can $e optimi%ed for those

functions.

Cooper "1222# advocates goaldirected design, focusing on human's goals rather than on

tas!s or navigation. &e starts $y developing a precise description of a hypothetical archetype

of an individual for whom the software will $e designed.

$nteractivity

Communication has $een modeled as flow of message from source to receiver over sensory

channels, exemplified $y ?erlo's "12A# classic *)C7 model.

S467CE ME**(+E C&(99E5 -ECEIE7


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hen considering interaction in the context of designed experiences, I propose an alternative

participantchannelsexperience model.

(7TICIP(9T C&(99E5* "DE*I+9ED# EPE7IE9CE

,igure "#

Designed experiences are created with intention to impact, involve, andor ena$le a human

participant. There is usually more availa$le to $e experienced in a designed experience than

what is actually experienced $y a single participant. Thus, an individual participant parta!es

of some portion of the potential experience.

The designers' goals may or may not overlap with the goals of the participant. Designers

intend certain affordances for participants. Participants perceive affordances $ased on their

own goals and the clarity and design of the experience. *o, there are intended, perceived,

and achieved affordances. hether or not the designers construct personas within a

mediated experience, the participant is li!ely to infer personas. 6nless the personas are

either real humans or agents with human characteristics, the participant is li!ely to $e

unaware of their own reaction to the hidden, em$edded persona. (nalysis of interactivity

should try to define the players or personae within a designed experience. ho or what does


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the participant $elieve they are interacting withF 7eturning to &anss' "1222# list, is it other

humans, data, instruments, an environment, an agent...

The actual realm of interactivity is limited to physical actions and reactions $y the participant

and the experience. The actions and reactions are mediated through the $ody, and, if

communication technologies intervene, through technology which limits or extends normal

physical channels.

)ore interactivity is not necessarily good. ( poorly designed interface is li!ely to re


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museum designs created for -freely moving, voluntary, leisureoriented people in pu$lic

environments.- isitor research has identified different visitor dispositions at a museum8

5inear disposition

Exploratory disposition

isual orientation

(ction orientation "visitors predispose to touch and manipulate exhi$its and ta!e part

in activities involving control, goal achievement, competition, and challenge to s!ills#

*ocial orientation "visitors, usually in groups of / or , li!e to tal!, perform, and

share social context that may directly or indirectly compete with exhi$it activities.#

Time orientation physical and psychological fatigue, hunger, other commitments

In addition to overall disposition, the participant's context and history affect the level of

motivation, attention, and effort they exert at particular exhi$it elements. =actors studied $y

*creven include8

Environmental motivating factors which facilitate or inhi$it information processing

hether the attention they devote is passivecasual or active "compare, as!


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interest, it might $e a single $loc! of time spent at a single we$site, or else time spent using

the Internet in general. It could $e the cumulative set of time spent using a single we$ site,

or a medium.

=rom the experience perspective, one can consider the total set of experiences of all

participants who visited a particular museum or we$ site or T show. Computers can store

data on every participant interaction, over time. That huge flood of data is difficult to

analy%e. )eaningful patterns must $e defined, usually after some exploration of the data

com$ined with $ehavioral expectations. =or example, wor!ing with continuous data on T

viewership from a two way ca$le system, &eeler, D'(lessio, +reen$erg, and )coy "12@B#

defined three modes of viewing $ehavior8 program viewing "at least 10 minutes without

changing channels#, sampling " to 0 minute periods of channel changes#, and extended

sampling "more than 0 minutes of fre


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experiences, and then added my own columns for nonmediated experiences and for virtual

environments.

Table .# E/perience in T$ and Computers

Television Computers

*creen resolution "amount ofinformation displayed#

7elatively poor aries from mediumsi%edscreens to potentially very largescreens

Input devices 7emote control and optionalwireless !ey$oard that are $estfor small amounts of input and

user actions

)ouse and !ey$oard sitting ondes! in fixed positions leadingto fast homing time for hands

iewing distance )any feet ( few inches

6ser posture 7elaxed, reclined 6pright, straight

7oom 5iving room, $edroom"am$iance and tradition impliesrelaxation#

&ome office "paperwor!, taxreturns, etc., close $y;am$ience implies wor!#

Integration opportunities

with other things on samedevice

arious $roadcast shows Productivity applications, user's

personal data, user's wor! data

9um$er of users *ocial8 )any people can seescreen "often, several peoplewill $e in the room when the Tis on#

*olitary8 =ew people can see thescreen "user is usually alonewhen computing#

6ser engagement Passive8 The viewer receiveswhatever the networ!executives decide to put on

(ctive8 6ser issues commandsand the computer o$eys

7eality irtual Environments

*creen resolution "amount of

information displayed#

=ull human eye capacity D goggles, large screen

proection, or computer monitor

Input devices &ead and $ody movement,

tactile, sound, sight, smell,taste, wal!ing, running

)ouse and !ey$oard, head

trac!ing, glovegesture, wand


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iewing distance aries from inches away tomiles

( few inches to six feet

6ser posture aries from prone to sitting tostanding. *itting or standing.

7oom (nywhere 7esearch la$oratory or gamingcenter.

Integration opportunitieswith other things on samedevice

(nything Can connect with physicaldevices, sensors, virtual devices.

9um$er of users aries from solitary to largecrowd

*olitary or small group or masstheater audience.

6ser engagement aries from active to passive (ctive8 not much happensunless the participant doessomething.

5et me conclude $y citing 9orman "122@# one last time for his advice for new and improved

interactive interfaces. They should include8

( central role of language "as! for things even if not visi$le#

7icher internal representation of data o$ects including user history of interaction

with documents, applications, we$ pages

( more expressive interface

Designed for expert users optimi%e for people with decades of computer experience

*hared control proactive computers and agents without human commands.

Interactivity is situated in time and em$odied $y the participant"s# in the world even when

the interaction is mediated through communication technology. There may $e a second level

of virtual em$odiment within the communication technology, $ut the physical $ody's role

remains part of the interaction. Interactivity re


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and secondary em$odiment of the participant, and creation of affordances for interaction.

=ocussing on interactivity as o$serva$le and physicalexternal separates the construct from

perception, motivation, emotions, and thoughts. Doing this gives the term interactivity a

uni


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)acann, Christopher "122#, =our Phenomenological Philosophers8 &usserl, &eidegger,

*atre, )erleauPonty, 5ondon an

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