Caribbean Studies notes

Module 1 Caribbean society and culture

Location of the Caribbean

Greater Antilles: Cuba, Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic), Jamaica, Puerto Rico

Lesser Antilles:• Windward islands: Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique• Leeward islands: Antigua and Barbuda, St. Kitts-Nevis, Montserrat, Anguilla, Virgin islands

Netherland Antilles: Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao (ABC"islands); Saint Marten,Saba, St. Eustatius

Mainland Territories: Guyana, Belize, Suriname, Cayenne (French Guyana)

Others: Barbados, Trinidad & Tobago, Cayman Islands, Bahama Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands

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B. DEFINITIONS OF THE CARIBBEAN REGION

The Caribbean is a disjunct land bridge between North and South America with an East -

West stretch of almost 3000 Km and a North -South reach of some 1500 Km. Only 10% of

this is land. Geographically the Caribbean is defined as the land area which has its coastline

washed by the Caribbean Sea. This would mean that the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the

Cayman Islands and the islands of the Netherland Antilles all belong to the Caribbean. By

this definition Turks and Caicos Islands and the Bahamas would however be excluded from

the Caribbean. It would also include Belize, Colombia, Venezuela, Costa Rico; Panama,

Nicaragua and Honduras and exclude the mainland territories of Suriname, Guyana and

French Guiana ( Cayenne).

This is the area colonized by European powers (Spanish, British, French and Dutch) and

which has been deeply affected by the brand of European Colonialism. The Spanish through

the encomienda system and other means exterminated the original inhabitants. The British

introduced the plantation system and with it, the enslavement of Africans and the

indentureship of the Chinese and East Indians. The Dutch and French not only colonized but

were involved in an ongoing trade within the region. It has become common way to identify

the Caribbean based on the experience of specific European colonialism. Within this historic;

context has arisen a multiracial society with marked social stratification and racial

hybridization.

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CARIBBEAN DEFINITIONS

Spanish French Dutch English

GEOLOGICAL CARIBBEAN

The Caribbean is seen as that area of the region defined by the Caribbean Plate and which therefore experiences the same

tectonic, seismic and volcanic features and processes. The lands of the Caribbean are said to be formed from earth

movements called Plate Tectonics. In the Caribbean about 140 million years ago the smaller Caribbean plate moved

under the North American plate to be re-melted in the earth's mantle causing volcanic activities and consequently the

formation of the Greater and Lesser Antilles. The islands in this Caribbean chain are believed to be the tops of submerged

mountains linked to the Andean mountain range in Central America, There is a rich variety of landscape features in the

Caribbean as a result of the structure of the islands and mainland’s.

All the mainland territories of the region have high mountain ranges, large rivers and vast areas of lowland. There are

volcanic peaks in the ranges, crater lakes high up in the mountains, swamps and lagoons. With the exception of Cuba, all

the continental islands ofthe Greater Antilles are mountainous. Cuba has wide elevated plains (plateaus) over 1000m in

altitude. The mountain ranges restrict settlement and present transportation difficulties. Many of them however

have valuable minerals deposits. Most of the Caribbean mountain ranges are joined to those of Central America.

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In the Greater Antilles there are also many low-lying alluvial plains and steep limestone hills with caves. The

rivers on these plains are not very large and many disappear underground.

The smaller volcanic islands of the Eastern Caribbean are also rugged and mountainous. Volcanic eruptions have

occurred on some of these islands in the past (Mt Pelee). Recently there have been eruptions in St Vincent and

Montserrat. These eruptions have caused much damage to surrounding settlements. Hot springs, crater lakes and

fumerole; are the only evidence of past volcanic activity in some islands. Over the years the steep slope: of some

of these mountains have been changed by the work of the sun, wind, rain and running] water (weathering and

erosion). Volcanic islands have a good water supply and deep fertile soils. The rugged mountains, narrow

valleys and swift flowing streams make beautiful scenery.

The Limestone islands are built up from the skeletal remains of coral polyps in the warm Caribbean Sea. These

islands are flat with no large rivers and very few lakes. Soils on limestone rock lack depth and are mostly

infertile. Some of the limestone islands like Barbados are raised high above sea level. Many small ones, as those

found in the Bahamas, are just at sea level. There is no great variety of scenery in limestone islands.

iv. Political Caribbean Politically there is very little coordination within the region (except CAR1COM and French Department). Three

kinds of governmental systems exist: independent states, associated states and colonial dependencies. Several of

the former colonial powers still possess territories in the Caribbean or have very close relations with them.

Guadeloupe, Martinique and French Guyana are so called "de-partementes d'outre-mef' and thus are pa of

France's sovereign territory and part of the E.U.; Anguilla, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Montserrat

and Turks and Caicos are still British crown colonies; Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao, Saba, Saint Marten and St

Eustatius are dependencies of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and Puerto Rico is associated with the USA.

In terms of political arrangements, Cuba has a communist system, Puerto Rico is annexed to the USA, Guyana

and Trinidad and Tobago are republics. The rest of the one British W.L still hold to the British traditional form of

government, based on the Westrninster

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. V

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- Whitehall model. By and large the Caribbean has a rich post colonial democratic tradition with

a few exceptions of Cuba, Dominican Republic and Haiti.

Independent States \</^ Associated States

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THE CARIBBEAN REGION

Dependencies

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2. Characteristics of society

A Society is the largest unit or group to which an individual belongs. To the layman

society is usually understood to mean a collection of persons, living in the same

geographical area with which one feels a sense of belonging (similar cultural background

and who live in a specific geographical area.) The limits of the state, (be it an island

surrounded by water or mainland territory bordered by other states) often act as the

geographic border of the society and members are usually citizens. To the sociologist who is

involved in the systematic study of society, the important aspect in defining society is its

group structure framework. Each society has a social structure - that is a network of

interrelationships among individuals and groups. Sociologists study these various

relationships in order to determine their effects on the overall function of the society.

Many elements determine the general social conditions of a society, these elements

can be classified into five major areas (1) population characteristics (2) social behaviour (3)

social institutions (4) cultural influences and (5) social change

Population characteristics determine the general social patterns of a group of people living

within a certain geographical area. There are two chief kinds of population studies,

demography and human ecology. Demography is the systematic study of the size,

composition and distribution of human populations. Demographers compile and analyze

various studies, including people's age, birth and death rates, marriage rates, ethnic

background and migration patterns. Many demographic studies explain the effects of social

conditions on the size and composition of a population. For example, several studies of the

1900's found a direct correspondence between the growth of science, medicine and industry

and a decline in the death rate. Human ecology on the other hand deals mainly with the

structure of urban environments and their patterns of settlement and growth. Studies in human

ecology explain why and how cities and other communities grow and change.

Social Behaviour is studied extensively in the field of sociology. Social psychologist

usually work with small groups and observe attitude change, conformity, leadership morale

and other forms of behaviour. They also study social interaction which is the way members c

a group respond to one another and to other groups. In addition, sociologists examine the

results of conflicts between groups such as crime, social movement and war. In most societies

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standard of behaviour arc passed on from one generation to the next. Sociologists and

psychologists observe how people adjust their behaviour to conform to these standards (a

process called socialization). Sociologists also study social roles (the function or expected

behaviour of an individual within a group) and status (a person's importance or rank).

Social Institutions are organized relationships among people which tend to perform specific

Inaction within the society. These institutions include business organizations, churches,

government, security forces, hospitals, family and schools. Each institution, has a direct effect

on the society in which it exists. For example, the attitudes and the goals of an entire society

are influenced by the transmission of learning and knowledge in educational institutions. Some

branches of sociology study the influence of one particular type of institution. These branches

include the sociology of the family and the sociology of law. Sociologists also study

relationships among institutions. For example, sociologists try to discover whether distinct

types of social classes and governments are associated with particular systems of economic

production.

I. Characteristics of cultureThe term culture has been defined in many ways. It is often used in a narrow sense t* refer to

activities in such fields as Art, Literature and Music. In that sense a cultured person someone

who has knowledge of and appreciation for the fine arts. But under the broader definition used

by social scientists, culture includes all areas of life and therefore every hum society has a

culture. Culture includes a society's arts, beliefs, customs, institutions, inventions, language,

technology and values. Culture produces similar behaviour and thought among most people in

a particular society.

People are not born with any knowledge of a culture. They generally learn a culture by

growing up in a particular society. They learn mainly through the use of language especially by

talking and listening to other members of the society. They also learn by watching and

imitating various behaviours in the society. The process by which people lean their society's

culture is called ENCULTURATION. Through enculturation, a culture is shared with members

of a society and passed from one generation to the next. Enculturation unifies people of a

society by providing them with common experiences. Social scientists identify certain aspects

of culture as POP CULTURE or POPULAR CULTURE. Pop culture includes such elements of

a society's arts and entertainment as television, radio, recordings, advertising, sports, hobbies,

fads and fashions. There are several important characteristics of culture. The main ones are (1)

a culture satisfies human needs in a particular way (2) a culture is acquired through learning (3) 8 | P a g e

a culture is based on the use of symbols (4) a culture consists of individual traits and groups of

traits called patterns. All cultures serve to meet fee basic needs shared by human beings. For

example, every culture has methods of obtaining food and shelter. Every culture also has

family relationships, economic and governmental systems, religious practices and forms of

artistic expression. Each culture shapes the way its members satisfy human needs. Human

beings have to eat but their culture teaches them what, when and how to eat E.g. many British

people eat smoked fish for breakfast but many Americans prefer cold cereals. In the Mid

Western US, people generally eat dinner at 5/6 p.m. but most Spaniards dine at 10 p.m., many

Turks prefer strong coffee with grounds (dregs) left in the cup, but most Australians filter out

the grounds for a weaker brew. Many Japanese eat their meals from low tables while sitting on

mats on the floor. Canadians usually sit on chairs at higher tables.

Culture is acquired through learning not through biological inheritance.-That is, no person

who-is born with a culture. Children take on the culture in which they are raised through

enculturation. Children learn much of their culture through imitation and experience. They also

acquire culture through observation, paying attention to what goes on around them and seeing

examples of what their society considers right and wrong. Children may also absorb certain

aspects of culture unconsciously. For example, Arabs tend to stand closer together when

speaking to one another than most Europeans do. No one instructs them to do so, but they learn

the behaviour as part of their culture. Children also learn their culture by being told what to do.

For example, a parent tells a son/daughter, "say good morning,' 'thank you' *don*t talk to

strangers'. Individual members of a particular culture also share many . memories, beliefs,

values, expectations and ways of thinking. In fact, most cultural learning results from verbal

communication. Culture is passed from generation to generation chiefly through language.

Cultural learning is based on the ability to use symbols. A symbol is something that stands for

something else. The most important types of symbols are the words of a language. There is no

obvious or necessary connection between a symbol and what it stands for. The English word

“dog” is a symbol for a specific animal that barks. But other cultures have a different word

that stands for the same animal, “mbwa” (Swahili), “perro” (Spanish) “dawg” (Jamaican).

There are many other kinds of symbols besides the words in a language. A flag, for example,

stands for a country. In China, white is a colour of mourning while in western societies it is black. All

societies use symbols to create and maintain culture.

Cultures are made up of individual elements called cultural traits. A group of related traits or elements

is a cultural pattern. Cultural traits may be divided into material culture or nonmaterial culture.

Material culture consists of all the tangible things that are made by the members of a society. It includes

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such objects as (architectural styles) buildings, jewellery, machines, cuisine, forms of technology,

economic organization, paintings and artistic creations. Nonmaterial culture refers to a society's norms,

beliefs, superstitions and values that guide their behaviour. A handshake, a marriage ceremony and a

system of justice are examples of nonmaterial culture. Cultural patterns may include numerous traits

(both material and non material). The pattern for agriculture for example includes the time when crops

are harvested (nonmaterial) the methods (nonmaterial) and machines (material) used in harvesting and

the structures for storing the crops (material). Most traits that make up a cultural pattern are connected

to one another. If one custom, institution or value, that helps to form a cultural pattern, changes other

parts of the pattern will probably change too. For example until the 1950's the career pattern for most

women in western societies was to work full time as home makers and mothers. By the late 1900's the

pattern was for most women to get jobs outside the home. As part of the new pattern, attitudes about

marriage, family and children also changed. The new pattern includes marriage at a later age than ever

before, a dependence on alternative child care systems and more frequent divorce. People who grow up

in the same nation can be said to share a national culture. But they may be part of other societies within

the nation that have separate cultural traditions. Social scientists sometimes use the term

SUBCULTURE to describe variations within a culture. Social groups often develop some cultural

patterns of their own that set them apart from the larger society of which they are a part. Subcultures

may develop in businesses, ethnic groups, occupational groups, regional groups, religious groups and

other groups within a larger culture e.g. Maroons in Jamaica. Many cultural traits and patterns are

limited to a particular culture but many others are common to more than one culture. For example,

cultures in the same part of the world often have similar patterns. A geographical region in which two

or more cultures share cultural traits and patterns is called a CULTURAL AREA. Northern Europe is an

example of a culture area. Some cultural traits have spread throughout the world. For example some

clothing, music, sports and industrial processes are the same in many areas of the world. Cultural

traditions that extend beyond national boundaries form what is called INTERNATIONAL CULTURE.

For example, countries that share an international culture include Australia, Canada, the United

Kingdom and the United States. Their common cultural traditions include the English Language and a

heritage of British founders.

Multicultural ism/Pluralism . Some societies have traditionally been associated with a single

culture'(Pacific Islands) while other societies are multicultural societies (USA) because they include

many distinct cultures. A multicultural society supports the view that many distinct cultures are good

and desirable and so they encourage such diversity. Thus in the United States, millions of people speak

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both English and the language of their culture. They eat both American food (apple pie, hamburger) as

well as their ethnic food. They celebrate both national holidays (4m July and Thanksgiving) and their

ethnic holidays. For example, many Mexicans Americans celebrate Mexican Independence day (16^

Sept). In Chinese communities across the country, parades and other festivities mark the Chinese New

Year. Multicultural ism succeeds best in a society that has many different ethnic groups and a political

system that promotes freedom of expression and awareness and understanding of cultural differences.

Ethnic groups can bring variety and richness to a society by introducing their own ideas and customs.

A-shared cultural background makes people feel more comfortable with others from their own culture.

Many people initially may feel confused and uneasy when they deal with people of another culture. The

discomfort that people often feel when they have contact with an unfamiliar culture is called

CULTURE SHOCK. Cultural shock usually passes if a person stays in a new culture long enough to

understand it and get used to its ways. People of one culture who move to a country where another

culture dominates may give up their old ways and become part of the dominant culture. The process by

which they do this is called ASSIMILATION. Through assimilation, a minority group eventually

disappears because its

members lose the cultural characteristics that set them apart. In a multicultural society however

assimilation does not always occur. However, ethnic groups which keep their own values and traditions

can also threaten national unity. In many parts of the world conflicts often erupt with

neighbouring ethnic groups which dislike and distrust one another. In some cases, these feelings

have even led to war (Shiites and Sunnis in Iraq). Many people in all cultures think that their own

culture is right, proper and moral. They tend to use their own cultural standards and values to

judge the behaviours and beliefs of people from different cultures. They regard the behaviour and

beliefs of people from other cultures as strange or savage. This attitude is called

ETHNOCENTRISM. Ethnocentrism is harmful if carried to extremes. It may cause prejudice,

automatic rejection of ideas from other cultures and even persecution of other groups. The

opposite view of ethnocentrism is called CULTURAL RELATIVISM. It contends that no culture

should be judged by the standard of another. This view can also present problems if carried to

extremes. An extreme cultural relativist would say there is no such thing as a universal morality.

An extreme cultural relativist would argue that the rules of all cultures deserve equal respect, even

rules that allow such practices as cannibalism and torture. But many social scientists would reply

that certain values are common to all societies - a prohibition against incest, and support for

marriage.-They would argue that international standards of justice and morality should not be

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ignored. Culture is not static; it changes with time and events although all parts of a culture do not

change at the same time. For example science and technology may sometime change so rapidly

that they lessen the importance of customs, ideas and other nonmaterial parts of a culture. At other

times changes in ideas and social systems may occur before changes in technology. The failure of

certain parts of a culture to keep up with other, related parts is referred to as cultural lag. A number

of factors may cause a culture to change. The two main ones are (1) contact with other cultures

and (2) invention. No society is so isolated that it does not come in contact with other societies.

When contact occurs, societies borrow cultural traits from one another. As a result, cultural traits

and patterns tend to spread from the society in which they originated. This spreading process is

called DIFFUSION. Diffusion can occur without firsthand contact between cultures. Products or

patterns may move from A to C through B without any contact between A and C. Today diffusion

is rapid and widespread because many cultures of the world are linked through advanced means of

transportation and communication. When two cultures have continuous firsthand contact with each

other, the exchange of cultural traits is called ACCULTURATION. Acculturation has often

occurred when one culture has colonized or conquered another or as a result of trade. In addition to

adopting each other's traits, the two cultures may blend traits, e.g. If the people of the cultures

speak. Social Change is any significant alteration in the social conditions and patterns of

behaviour in a society e.g. replacement of an elected president by a dictator (there would be a

change in the structure of government) Such a change may be caused by fashions, inventions,

revolutions wars or other events and activities. Technological developments have led to many

social changes during the 1900's. A number of sociological studies have concentrated on the

changes in education, social values and settlement patterns that occur in newly industrialized

nations.

There are four main types of social change:

- change in the number and variety of positions and roles

- change in obligation or duties attached to positions

- . new ways of organizing social

- the redistribution of facilities and rewards such as power, education

Changes can take pace gradually or suddenly and can result from deliberate planning as well

as it could be unintentionally. These changes can be beneficial to some as well as punitive to

others and as such it is inevitable that there will be resistance to some changes

To a large degree, culture determines how members of a society think and feel; it

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directs their actions and defines their outlook on life. Members of society usually take their

culture for granted, ft has become so much a part of them that they are often unaware of its

existence. Culture defines accepted ways of behaving for members of a particular society.

Such definitions vary from society to society. This can lead to considerable misunderstanding

between members of different societies. Every society has certain common problems to deal

with and the solutions to them are culturally determined; they vary from society to society.

The solution offered in one society may be indefensible in another e.g. culture of Islamic

countries to theft as compared to ours. Every culture contains a large number of guidelines that direct

conduct in particular situations. Such guidelines are known as norms. A norm is a specific guide to

one's action which defines acceptable and appropriate behaviour in a particular situation e.g. norms

governing dress code on what to wear for formal/informal functions, funeral, wedding. Norm are

enforced by positive and negative sanctions i.e. rewards and punishments. Sanctions can be informal

such as a disapproving or approving glance or formal such as a reward or a fine by an official body.

Certain norms are formalized by translation into laws which are enforce* by official sanctions e.g.

streaker appearing nude in public. Unlike norms, which provide specific directives for conduct,

values provide more general guidelines. A value is a belief that something is good and

desirable. It defines what is important, worthwhile and worth striving for. Our values represent

how strongly we feel about certain, qualities. Our cultural value is really how we rank the

importance of these qualities within our culture, e.g. hospitality, kinship support, informality,

family as a support system etc; It has become accepted that individual achievement and

materialism are major values in western industrial societies. Thus an individual believes it is

important and desirable to come top of the class, to win a race or reach the top of their chosen

profession. Like norms values can be seen as an expression of a single value - the value placed

on human life in western society is expressed in terms of the following norms: hygiene in the

home, rules and regulations dealing with transport. Sociologists maintain that shared norms and

values are essential for the operation of human society. Unless some norms are shared

members of society would be unable to cooperate with or even comprehend the behaviour of

others. Similar arguments apply to values. Without shared values, members of society would

be unlikely to cooperate and work together. Thus an ordered and stable society requires shared

norms and values. Within the Caribbean these cultural values are manifested in behaviour

typical of our region. These include: achievement, material success, migration, gender roles,

celebrations, insularity/mitigation, hospitality/friendliness, foreign tastes/products, and work

ethic, food, race/colour and kinship/family ties.

All members of society occupy a number of social positions known as statuses. In society an

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individual may have several statuses - occupational, family, gender. Statuses are culturally

defined despite the fact that they may be based on biological factors such as sex. Some statuses

are relatively fixed/ascribed and there is little an individual can do to change their assignment

to a particular social position - race, gender, aristocratic titles. Statuses that are not fixed by

inheritance, biological characteristics or other factors over which the individual has no control

are known as achieved statuses. All achieved status is entered as a result of deliberate action or

choice e.g. marital status and occupational status. Each status in society is accompanied by a

number of norms that defines how an individual occupying a particular status is expected to

act. This group of norms is known as role. Social roles regulate and organize behaviour. In

particular they provide means for accomplishing certain tasks.

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3. Characteristic of Caribbean society and culture

A. Diversities

In order to define Caribbean culture one must bear in mind the population make up

each territory and its culture. Within the region there are some cultural differences. In most

instances a particular culture which is indigenous to an island/country diffuses to other

Caribbean countries. Furthermore Caribbean countries acculturate each other's culture which

gives rise to a mixed culture. Within each culture there are some defining characteristics

which are similar to many countries.

This is due to the shared historical experiences as well as the environmental factors exemplified

within the Greater Antilles. These include their 'discovery' by Columbus and the later arrival of

the French and English, the destruction of their aboriginal societies, slavery, indentureship and

then the straggle for independence. Within this melee was the introduction of European

agricultural capitalism based on sugar cane cultivation, African labour and the plantation

system. Within the plantation system developed an insular social structure in which there was

sharply differentiated access to land, wealth and political power and the use of physical

differences as status markers. These experiences have effectively created multi racial societies

with mixed culture and a social stratification based on race, education and wealth.

There are of course similarities as there are differences. Jamaica is the only one in 1 group

(Greater Antilles) that had British colonization and, similar to Haiti, a predominantly black

population in excess of 90%. Cuba, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico were Spanish

colonies. Spanish is their primary language and they have a more balanced racial mix between

blacks and European descendants. All these territories have dialects due to racial mixes and the

need to communicate. Cuba is the only communist territory in. the region and the only o: where

the strong religious heritage is not encouraged. The Spanish speaking territories have tended to

embrace Roman Catholicism while in the British dominated territories the Church of England

(Anglican) and to a lesser extent Methodists have had influence. It was the Baptists in Jamaica

that the slaves were able to identify with mostly and this attraction later led to the development

of the evangelical movement.

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In all these territories, food types are somewhat different as a result of racial mix and colonial experience. While

some types of foods were here before the Tainos, they and other ethnic groups who came, brought with them

different types of food So what we eat today in these territories are as a result of this cultural evolution. Only

the, Africans., by large were not able to bring food with them due to their mode of travel through the Middle

Passage. They however found some common staples that they were used to and developed new menu over time

with the new foods to which they were introduced, in the Caribbean we like to eat and drink and have a good

time. In Jamaica for example on Sundays we eat rice and peas and chicken. We also enjoy curried goat, boiled

bananas, rice and dumplings as well as the national dish (ackee.and saltfish introduced as food for slaves).

Being islands, these countries continue to have a vibrant .fishing industry and so sea food is a common item on

menus in these territories. The Tamos brought cassava, corn, possibly pineapple and sweet potato, various beans

and .water cress. They also brought hot peppers, chocolate, sweet basil, pimento and annatto,. tomato, sweet

pepper, .peanuts and pear. The Amerindians had cultivated most of these in South America and so they brought

them along. The Spaniards brought cattle, pigs, chickens, plantain and bananas, sugar cane and citrus (lemons,

oranges and limes). They also, introduced escoveitch fish. The English brought the making of buns, cheese, the

use of ham, bacon, sausages, some wines, ale, stout and beer. They developed the making of rum. The English

also introduced imported wheat flour, salt fish salt beef and salt pork from Canada and USA.

Within the LESSER ANTILLES islands like Barbados and Antigua have similar racial mixes as Jamaica and

other British colonies. The past and present association of Caribbean territories with different metropolitan

powers are clearly important for comparative analysis. Present effects of previous association rule out. the

treatment solely in terms of the contemporary distribution of territories among British Americans, French or

Dutch. American St Thomas still reveals the influences of its. former masters, the. Danes. Within the British.

Caribbean islands such as Trinidad, Grenada, Dominica and St. Lucia differ as a group from certain other

territories by their continuing affiliation to Catholic tradition — a pattern laid . down in earlier days by French

or Spanish. masters.

The St. .Lucian folks probably have more in common linguistically with French ... colonies in terms of their

present association with metropolitan powers. We must therefore keep in mind present cultural variations and

continuities within and across these divisions which reflect historical factors of various kinds. Within the British

colonies the main distinction reflects differences of racial population ratios and composition, Protestant or

Catholic affiliation; insularity or its opposite. Together with the Caribbean colonies of other nations,

these British territories share a multiracial composition, (from which Amerindian

elements are largely absent) dependence on agriculture, low levels of urbanization and low

urban ratios.

On the mainland territories such as Guyana, there is a strong East Indian population

(51% )which co-exists alongside a strong black population( 45%). The East Indians have

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been particularly noted for their insular culture and do exert influences on these societies. The

Chinese are particularly noted, in the countries that they went as indentured servants for their

industriousness in establishing small groceries and supermarkets after their period of

indentureship. They too have tended to have an insular culture and have .remained distinct .

ethnic groups in the societies that they live. Belize and Suriname have a more significant-

Amerindian element in their population and so blacks are not dominant. They represent large

influx of indentured labour of Europeans and Asians. So here again the culture will be subject

to ethnic cultures and sub-cultures.

Music and cultural expressions continue to be very popular in the Caribbean from folk music, hymns,

reggae and calypso to soul and salsa. We can therefore conclude that the Caribbean is not a

homogeneous culture but a multi or diverse culture, based on ethnic origin and Caribbean historical

process. Within this context erasure and retention are prevalent more so among Africans than any other

ethnic group. The Caribbean continues to display an interplay of small scale agriculture and peasantry

with plantation like structure. While there has been attempt at diversification the Caribbean is still

predominantly agriculturally based. Hence the attitude of the WTO ruling recently has greatly affected

the future of small Caribbean Islands. In all of this however there have been exceptions. Trinidad has

developed its petroleum industry and this has aided its economic growth and consequently increased

expenditures on social services such as health and education.

Common to all Caribbean territories have been the effect of the media and trade link with other

countries especially USA. In addition the Caribbean countries have fairly buoyant tourist trade which

has further impacted on the way of life of the people of the region. This has taken the form of dress,

language, business culture, music, food education, religion, me technology and even politics. Puerto

Rico is an annex-state of the USA so it has been directly influenced by the US culture: The Bahamas on

the other hand uses the US dollar, its second currency and with little agriculture, its economy is based

predominantly on tourism and offshore banking. Most Bahamian shop in Florida, USA and while there

is retention of culture in terms of food and social structures, the society reflects strong US influence on

their present.culture.

The legacy of the historical processes that the region has undergone is more pronounced in those

territories where there has been relatively low economic growth in recent years. Examples of this

situation can be found in Jamaica, Haiti and Guyana. All of these territories have a heavy dependence on

agriculture and reflect a degree of individualization and sharp social stratification based on education,

colour and wealth.-The politics of these territories display a high degree of political party support They

show a readiness to fight for the scarce benefits that the state has to offer. This poor economic

performance leads to increase poverty and social discontent. Most Caribbean territories however see a

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legacy structure that reflects evidence-of ethnic origin in one part but erasure in the other. 'The region by

large displays an extended family culture, promiscuous lifestyle of men, high teenage pregnancy and

consensual unions. Also the concept of godparents still exists though not as popular. This reflects

retention of the African tradition such as nine nights celebrations, community involvement in funerals

and tomb buildings. Labour Day and work day projects are still features of the region particularly where

there is strong African heritage.

The region also continues to have the view that light skinned people are more beautiful than afro-

Caribbean people as reflected by beauty pageants and advertisements. One of the emerging realities of

the Caribbean commonality is that its young people are slowly losing their sense of nationalism or

regionalism. They are primarily attracted to the North American way of life. Many see education as the

path to social mobility or for some to be successful business people

Positive Impacts of diversity Negative effects of diversity

add richness to region's society creates insularity/narrow mindedness

exposure to multiculturalism √ ethnocentrism arises

recognition and appreciation of other √ impedes communication - different

people's lifestyle languages and dialects

basis for growth into tourism product √ animosity .

creates strong patriotism √ strong patriotism to the point where

objectivity is lost

learn to do things differently . √ dominant culture displaces cultural traits

gives awareness of cultural heritage of smaller nations

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Ethnic and cultural differences do exist but is more prevalent in Guyana and Trinidad where there is a strong

African (31 %, 41 % respectively) and East Indian (51 %,31 % . respectively) population. Economic power is

vested in the Indian community. This can lead, to

unrest/rebellion, racist practices, isolation and ethnocentrism. In Jamaica the difference is not

so much along ethnic lines (grouping according to common traits and customs) as it is along

stratification based on class (upper, middle, lower) and skin colour. These differences have

created a false value system among Jamaicans. Those of darker shade want to achieve lighter

complexion as well-as straighter hair.

Thus Caribbean society characterised by hierarchy of groups such as Trinidad and Tobago; St. Kitts and Nevis; St

Vincent and the Grenadines. For the smaller 'partners' there is understanding that their societies are distinct in

terms of their separateness from their larger members. The island usually determines the extent to what an

individual/citizen thinks of as his/her society e.g. Jamaica, Antigua etc

• In mainland territories the presence of language groups in neighbouring countries serves to

reinforce and delimit the borders of these societies.

• There is the movement to recognize the wider Caribbean as the limit of Caribbean society

CARICOM ties.

• B. Social stratificationThis refers to a system whereby society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy of classes (upper, middle

and lower class) based on criterion or a combination such as religion, colour, race, wealth, age, sex,

occupation, education, language, geographical area, membership in social club. It represents the structured

inequality characterized by groups of people with differential access to the rewards of society because of their

relative position in the social hierarchy. It ranks some people as more deserving of power, wealth and prestige

than others and as such they are treated differently depending on where their social position lies in the overall

hierarchy.

The sources of the stratification the Caribbean include race, age, ethnicity, gender, sex. The categorizing by race is

a social phenomenon rather than a biological one: It is society that categorizes people into races based on physical

characteristics. Ethnicity refers to a population known and identified on the basis of their common language,

nationality, culture. Gender stratification refers to those differences between men and women that have

been acquired or learned and hence to the different roles and positions assigned to males and females in a

society - hairstyle, clothing family and occupational roles; Across society women have been

systematically denied certain rights and opportunities based on assumptions regarding their abilities: Age

stratification refers to the ways in which people are treated differently depending on their ages. This

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stratification is concerned with the attitudes and behaviour we associate with age and to the different

roles and statuses we assign to people depending upon their ages.

Within the Caribbean society, stratification is as a result of the plantation system

which existed in the West Indies during the period of slavery. The society was rigidly

stratified by race, and colour; directly correlated with occupational status without any kind of

social mobility. White planters and administrators stood, at the top with slaves firmly at the

bottom. In between these two ranks were the skilled whites. Emerging from among the blacks

was a racial and cultural half caste (coloured). This group was more privileged than pure

blacks and frequently made up the staff of house servants; Slavery was a closed system of

socials stratification because one could not change the basis or the category that made one a

slave-race (ascribed status). After emancipation, education opened opportunities for ex-slaves but this

only served to expand ranks of the middle group rather than effect any change in the general social

structure. As a result, social mobility depended on how successful blacks were to assimilating the culture

of the whites. This set the stage in the process-whereby black people sought social mobility by aspiring to

a European way of life: education, manners of dress and speech, residence, religious belief and practices,

social values and attitudes and general lifestyle. This served to distinguish blacks who had "made it' from

those who had not.

Today traces of stratification by colour and race can still be found e.g. white persons can predictably be

expected to be in the upper classes of society. Stemming from miscegenation a continuum of colour exists

in Caribbean societies. As a result of the plantation legacy light or dark skin colour may prove to be a

help or hindrance in gaining economic and other opportunities as some of these prejudice still make up

part of the cultural values of Caribbean people. Also prominent is the matter of wealth/money. The

classes with the surplus money tend to be the descendants of whites and coloureds who have had alliances

with whites or in the case of Trinidad where the East Indians have accessed money through frugal living,

farming and business sense of their ancestors; similarly are the Chinese and the Syrians and Lebanese.

Another factor in contemporary stratification is friendship and family networks

(ain't who you know but who knows you). Here elites act as gatekeepers in utilizing selective

hiring and firing practices to prevent certain social groups from accessing social mobility.

Education has been the basis for new class formation to combat legacy of plantation society.

Today same racial and ethnic groups are found in all strata of society largely because of the

meritocratic systems brought about by education (meritocracy/intelligentsia). Through

education members of society can get access to elitist social clubs as well as professional

clubs. Of course if you lack education then you are confined to menial jobs/blue collar. In the

Caribbean the traditional practice has been for affluent males to many lighter skinned

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females. This has led to upward social, mobility for females. The offspring of such unions are

expected to access even higher levels of the social strata because of the combination of light

skin and inherited wealth. ...........

Mobility of blacks and the browns were generally through marriage to white foreigner. Another form of mobility

was through the occupational ladder. Modernization of economy has altered stratification system and created

modem enclaves thus creating new social classes and a changed stratification system; high and low wage sectors;

increased opportunities for white collar and professional occupations. Status is therefore now based on income

earning ability rather than on middle class acculturation (high prestige and high income as well as low income and

low prestige white collar class). Mobility between the two was based on varying combination (education, network,

skin colour). Indigenous and former exclusively white upper classes no longer dominate the upper layer of society.

Material influence and income are the main determinants in. contemporary Caribbean not withstanding the fact

that race, colour and education and training still affect life chances of individuals.

C. Social mobility

Social Mobility refers to the ability of a given individual/group to move up the social strata. Structural mobility

refers to factors at the societal level that affect mobility rates. Social mobility may be either relative (entire

occupational structure is upgraded such that only .. content of work changes not relative position in hierarchy) or

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absolute (son's education,. occupational prestige and income exceeds that of his father).

: THE CLASS SYSTEM The Ruling Class

Land owning class (plantocracy)

• the capitalist: owners of the means

of production; own large acreage of

• members of exclusive private clubs;

expensive houses on high

• altitudes

• shops abroad;

• elite schools for children

The Middle Class

• Upper (professionals)

• Middle (teachers, nurse)

• Lower (police, military)

Hybridization

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The working class

• Hire for; wage

• Work specific hours

• Normally work for capitalist organization

• Member of union

• Skilled and unskilled workers

Intelligentsia

• "most intelligent" class in society

• theorists, writers on politics and economy

• usually university professors

• normally advisors to government

Hybridization generally refers to the mixtures and syncretic forms which occur in society (race, religion,

language, food etc). Hybridization began with the era of discovery when European and Amerindian copulated

which resulted in the creation of the Mestizo. This later became entrenched in plantation society with the

European and African producing the mulatto or coloured). A cpigmentocracy' evolved where continuum of colour

exhibited by individuals was deeply analyzed and discussed. It became a norm to describe someone using their

colour as a major descriptor. It also refer to the intermarrying (miscegenation) between the races and the

production of the offsprings from that union e.g. mestizo, mulatto, mustifmo, dougla, quadroon (3 Caucasian

grandparents), Octoroon (7 great grandparents who are Caucasian) and Sambo (full blooded African)." Through

hybridization members of society can gain social mobility based on factors such as inherited wealth, lighter shade

complexion, ownership of property, membership in social clubs.

E. Cultural Erasure/ Retention/ Renewal Loss of cultural practices (cultural erasure) occur as a result of tension/conflict between traditional way

of doing things and the modern or progressive way. The traditional way when compared to modern way

seems redundant, laborious and time consuming e.g. cottage craft pieces versus mass production in

factory; story telling vs. videos and electronic games.

Erasure occurs because traditional ways do not conform to rnodern/progressive/western lifestyle.

Erasure also occurs because traditional cultural values are not being taught to younger generation and as

older folks die so do the practices with them (sometimes too younger generation are not interested in

learning traditional folk forms). Cultural diffusion or the meeting of a dominant culture can also wipe

out a more primitive culture (contact of Europeans with indigenous population in the region;

enslavement of Africans by Europeans). Catastrophic events can also wipe out the population of an area

and with it culture (wars, . earthquakes, volcanic eruption, tsunamis etc).

Efforts to salvage parts of our past by fashioning new practices based on the old are referred to as

cultural renewal. This stems from the feeling that there is much value to be learned from some of the

practices we have ignored and/or allowed to be almost wiped out. People are making more effort to

preserve cultural heritage while others are becoming more aware of their cultural legacy. For others, it is

in response to an identity crisis of who are we. Schools and government have been getting into the act by

teaching cultural heritage as well a passing legislation to enforce compliance with renewed interest

( Emancipation day in Jamaica).

In an effort to keep traditional practices alive, there has been much cultural retention. This may be as a

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result of deliberate desire to do so as well as the need by some minority group to keep their sense of

identity. Small groups may feel alienated within larger community and so they deliberately work at

preserving their traditions. Some governments in ethnically diverse countries also try to give each group

national prominence so their traditional folk ways and practices may be celebrated nationally. For others,

retention of the traditional practices is for economic rather than cultural gain (tourism packages).

Retention. has occurred in many cases because of their relevance to the existence of the society, no

better way has been discovered to replace the existing one, older members are indoctrinating younger

members, to show sense of belonging within society as well as forced practice by elders/authority within

the group.

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IMPACT OF HISTORICAL PROCESSES

Post ColumbianMIGRATIONS Pre Columbian

The pre-Columbian migratory period is believed to originate from NE Asia across Bering Strait to

Alaska then southwards into the Americas. From South America (Venezuela and Guianas) the Kalinagos

and Tainos moved northwards through the Lesser Antilles.

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RESPONSE TO OPPRESSION HISTORICAL

PROCESSES

,. TOWARDS INDEPENDENCE

. . Economic enfranchisement

Political enfranchisement

Tainos:

family — village settlements along river

valleys, coastal areas.

Social organization: women did farming,

(slash and burn) men did hunting and

fishing, their society was hierarchical and

pacific

Government: independent Arawak

community ruled by cacique; hereditary

ruler who was also high priest and judge, :

mitaynos,

Religion and spiritualism,: cacique was high

priest, believed in coyaba

Customs: flattened forehead of babies,

singing, dancing tobacco smoking, playing

bates,

Food: seafood, vegetables, pepper, pepper

soup, cassava, agouti,

Architecture: rectangular houses. Using

indigenous material (thatch, poles)

Technology: skilled in constructing dugout

canoes, stone tools, spears, bows and arrows,

straw baskets, hammocks

Farming methods: subsistence farming;

slash and bum , primitive tools

Kalingoes

• family-village settlement,

• Social organization : women did farming, men

did hunting and fishing, their society was

militaristic.

• Government: family independent, justice

carried out on a personal level, civil leader

supervised farming and fishing, answerable to

'ouboutu'

Religion: spiritualistic, special boys trained as

priest, each person had their own maboya

(spirit)

• Customs: singing, dancing, smoking tobacco,

initiation into manhood, flattened babies' forehead

• Architecture : rectangular houses made from

indigenous material (thatch and pole) Technology,

skilled in constructing dugout, effective fishing

methods

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Migratory movement during the Columbian period was westward across the Atlantic

with the aim of finding the 'Indies' and getting its riches by trade or conquest.

Columbus was supported by the Spanish royal family who was hoping to get riches

from the orient before her rivals, spread Catholicism and for personal and national

glorification. Columbus did reach the Americas because of his knowledge of

navigation, winds and currents. He pioneered the trade winds to and from Caribbean,

and in so doing became the first European to visit the regions and parts of the Central

America . He was the first to set up permanent contact between Europe and Caribbean

although he was a poor colonizer and administrator.

Spaniards became the first European masters of the New World. Amerindians became the

conquered race subjected to Spanish rule, domination and oppression resulting in destruction

of .their culture (assimilation), new language, religion, technology, tools, food, animals etc.

Spanish greed resulted in the enslavement of Tainos under the encomienda system: noblemen

were granted lands under repartimiento and Tainos under encomienda so they could be

protected, converted and instructed, in return they we're required to work the land and pay

tributes. It became a system of using a supply of forced labour (slaves) for economic

production (mining, farming, and ranching). It ensured Spanish expansion, settlement, and

control of lands. The vast lands could not have been economically viable without the support

of the encomienda system. It began a pattern of forced labour and oppression that

characterized European relations with its colonies.

The superior technology of Europeans became the instrument to enslave and plunder the

simpler indigenous societies of the region. Religion was introduced as an instrument of

conquest and imperialism. It resulted in the genocide of the Taino groups and mass murder of

others. This had far reaching impact on the Caribbean region namely: (1) a change in the

social composition of the region: whites, Amerindians and Mestizos) end the stratification

within the society according to caste and class. (2) genocide of Amerindians from diseases,

guns, swords and suicide. (3) marroonage as some Amerindians fled to the safety of the

mountains, forests and caves in territories such as Dominica, Guyana, Jamaica, St. Lucia and

St. Vincent. (4) It began a pattern of rebellion and resistance among peoples enslaved by the

Europeans (attack on La Navidad, 1625 Kalinago attacked Warner in St: Kitts (5) Amerindian

co-operation where Tainos and Kilanagos diverted energies of fighting each other to fighting

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Europeans 6) cultural exchange: Amerindians introduced tobacco smoking, use of hammock

medicinal properties of plants and herbs, tropical products such as root crops, beans etc.

whereas the Spaniards introduced better inland transport (horse), sturdier houses( Spanish

wall), more elaborate system of government Cabildo, Viceroys), a new religion (Christianity),

new crops such as sugar cane, banana, citrus (except grapefruit), different style of dressing,

new animals such as chickens, pigs, goats cattle.

Today significant numbers of indigenous peoples are to be found in Guyana (Arawak, Caribs,

WaiWai, Warau), Belize (Garifuna), Dominica (Caribs) and Surinam! This is so because

Guyana, Belize, Suriname were too large for colonial masters to establish full control over the

entire territory. This meant that Amerindians could retreat into the interior and live. On the

other hand Dominica was not greatly populated by Europeans (too mountainous to cultivate;

lacked mineral wealth) so Amerindians could therefore survive in such an environment. In the

wider Caribbean, Amerindians decimated by hard work and harsh treatment (encomienda),

European diseases, genocide, suicide and infanticide. Post Columbian westward movement

continued with the coming of other European nations (English, Dutch, French) trying to break

Spain's monopoly. Through their actions other groups migrated westwards either forcedly in

the case of the Africans or voluntarily in the case of the Asians.

COMING OF THE AFRICAN

The decline of tobacco in the Caribbean brought about by the large scale productions

in Virginia'-(USA) necessitated a change; Another crop was heeded to replace tobacco. Sugar

was experimented with and accepted, as there was a great demand for a sweetener in Europe.

The cultivation of sugar cane needed extensive labour as this was a plantation crop.: To satisfy

this demand the Europeans turned to Africa and thus began the Atlantic Slave Trade. This

brought about a dramatic change into the Caribbean society- a new system of production

based oh private ownership of land and people. It heralded in a new class structure and '

division of labour. This movement was a forced one and because the success of the European

planters depended on the oppression of the Africans, forced culture change took place. The

Europeans did everything-in their power to alienate the African from their cultural identity-"

new names, laws forbidding religious worship, scattering of different cultures. Despite these

attempts, many different African cultural forms have survived. Examples of these are evident

in: the elements of West African religious practices which can be recognized in the cults of

obeah, voodoo and Shango. These were passed down from one generation to the other. Some

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African slaves in Jamaica kept a strong belief in the power of obeah and myalism (which

developed into pocomania). These practices involved sorcery, witchcraft and the use of

charms. It is through dancing and music that these cults are kept alive and active in

contemporary Caribbean.

West Africans who were forced to work and live together when they were brought to the

Caribbean invented a common tongue (language). This led to the emergence of patois

(mixture of African, French, English and Spanish dialects) The West African influence in

patois is more dominant, not only in vocabulary but also in: pronunciation and grammar eg.

nyam, su-su. Kas-kas, bufbuf, bafan, booboo). Certain foods found and eaten in the

Caribbean are also a part of the West Africa culture which often times bear the same

name (yam, cocoa, asham, fu-fu, susumba, peanut, duckoonoo).

Medicine: This involves the use and administration of herbs and bushes. Folk

medicine has survived in the Caribbean regardless of the fact that modern medicine

has been instituted. The use of herbal medicine came through visions and experiments

by the slaves who brought the knowledge of nature and its uses. The obeah men were

the slave doctors who administered various teas, baths, potions and oils for the

purpose of healing (love bush for fevers, leaf of life for common cold, Jamaican

Quassie for malaria, soursop leaf to expel worms from the body etc.)

Music and Art: African music can be identified in some Caribbean churches, festivals

and theatre. The call and answer style of singing is indigenous to Africa. Also, the use

of drums which escaped the dominating hands of the planters who tried to wipe it out.

In. Jamaica some of the melodies and rhythms brought here by slaves are present in

our music—spontaneity, polyphony, complicated rhythms, speech tunes. Some

musical instruments of African descent are still prevalent in Caribbean today (congo -

talking drum, Abeng, xylophone, bamboo fife, Jamaican banjo). The majority of West

Africans imported in the Caribbean were skilled and talented. This rich cultural

heritage was retained and reflects outstandingly the Caribbean “air”.

Much of the ceramics, carvings and sculptures reflect a deep African influence. The

styles of Caribbean artists can be recognized as being similar to those of the African

artists. Festivals/celebrations: various festivals/celebrations have a strong link to West

African practices. Some examples are Jonkonnu, Nine Night, Bruckins Party, Dinki

Mini, session and yam festivals.

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Social relations: These included the concept of a village raising a child, family based

on kinship; blood ties, common ancestral spirits, respect for the elders, extended

family to include all blood relations and otherwise. The Africans were able to keep

these cultural forms alive which they passed down the generations by practicing them

secretly and on special occasions. The planters attempted to brain wash the slaves by

forcing them to believe that the African culture was barbaric and inferior. To avoid

punishment, slaves were forced to adopt some of the cultural practices of Europeans.

These Africans however began to mix the two cultures together in order to plea their

masters and to remain faithful to their heritage. The African culture emerged to be the

more dominant and was able to survive. The cultural practices of the Africans were

also retained through their association with religion, song and dance which the

planters viewed as harmless and as a result they survived from one generation to the

next. The Sunday market also acted as a medium through which African culture was

retained as it became a meeting place for the slaves. It gave them the opportunity to

not only sell their goods but to also consult the obeah men, listen to stories or music

and to take part in dances

COMING OF THE ASIANSWith the abolition of slavery, the planters turned to. Asia for a new supply of labour

and for decades thousands of East Indians(1838) and Chinese{1853) were brought to

the West Indies under a contractual arrangement to labour on the sugar plantations

mainly in Guyana Trinidad and to a lesser extent Jamaica. The Chinese came in small

numbers when compared to other groups. Although they were hard working they

lacked experience and physical capability to work on the plantations. As soon as they

could, they left the plantations and became involved in more suitable activities such as

shop keeping, retailing, and huckstering They too added to the class structure of the

region. Like the Africans many of their cultural practices were erased or acculturated

thus contributing to the cultural diversity existing in the region. Their language, many

customs and their religion were erased. Many Chinese tended to intermarry with East

Indians and Africans (Dougla).

The East Indians came in larger numbers (approximately 400,000 0 and were from

31 | P a g e

different castes - agricultural, Untouchables and Brahmin. They were housed together

and placed in gangs regardless of their caste. For the East Indians plantation life

afforded them privilege of retaining many of their cultural practices. These new

immigrants brought new religions, language, food, dress, festivals, music and general

lifestyle. For some, plantation life in the region was one of oppression and as soon as

they could they left the plantations became involved in business( peasant proprietors

who worked part time on the estate and cultivated their lands (sugar cane, rice,

ground provisions, fruits).

IMPACT OF IMMIGRATION INTO THE REGION

• Opened the Caribbean to Europe, Africa and Asia

• Introduction of new technologies- processing of sugar cane

• New systems of government

• New architectural style using different building materials: Spanish wall,

Georgian

• New languages: Spanish, English, Dutch, French

• New crops/dishes: sugar cane, bananas, citrus, rice, mangos, curry dishes, pak

choi

tamarind, mango, Chinese dishes, buns, etc

• New religious beliefs: Christianity, Hinduism, Muslim

• Adequate and reliable (although inefficient) use of labour force which maintain

monoculture production

• New system of production - (slavery & indentureship)

• Created a multi-racial society with diverse culture

• Caused a loss of identity for migrants and threatened family structure

• Stimulated growth "of social services especially medical care

• Contributed to growth of peasant farming, huckstering, shop keeping

• New skills introduced into the region : metal, leather, irrigation

• Movement from plantations by ex-slaves: free villages; growth of peasant farms

• Movement westwards / SW to Central America: Cuba (sugar, domestic, dress

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making, Costa Rica, Nicaragua (banana), Panama (railway >canal banana),

Venezuela (oilfields)

• Movement northwards to USA (WWII- war time jobs)

• Eastwards to England, France (WWII- war time jobs; reconstruction after WWII ii

transport, construction, postal, service nursing)

• Northwards to North America - economic as well as political ( Cuba, Haiti,

Dominican Republic

IMPACT OF CARIBBEAN EMIGRATION

Brain drain- loss of skilled members of society- which region could ill-afford

Governments must spend additional money to replace loss skills Region does not

benefit directly from investment made in human resources Unemployment levels..are

lowered

Remittances sent home by emigrants used to improve social and economic cc

Pressure on limited social services lowered- education, health, and housing.

Ease pressure on unemployment / underemployment level

Returning nationals brought new experiences and ideals to the region trade

and self government

Male seasonal workers caused disruption in family life — single parent, weak

parental control '. .

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SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION

Communal system : This existed during the pre-Columbian time when the Amerindians occupied the

region . Under this system ownership of land was in the hands of the villagers and production of crops

was a community effort for the entire village. Encomienda: This system was introduced by the

Spaniards in the 16th century whereby each encomiendero was allocated 30 Amerindians who laboured

in the mines, on the ranches or on the farms. Produce was for the encomiendero who in turn offered

protection, education and Christian teaching -Roman Catholicism (somewhat similar to the feudal

system which existed in Europe). It became a system of using forced labour for economic

production in Spanish territories. This led to the enslavement and eventual extermination the

Amerindians. This system facilitated Spanish expansion, settlement and control of la the New

World. It ensured the economic viability of Spanish America and the Indies. An impact was

that it started the pattern of forced labour and oppression that came to climax European

34 | P a g e

-•<\

relations with its colonies. European superior technology became an instrument to plunder

and enslave simpler indigenous societies.

Slavery: has its origin in the Old World but its climactic expression as a comprehensive way

of life in recent history took place in the New World and more so in the Caribbean. Between

1600's and 1800's over three million Africans were brought to the Indies in response to the

sugar revolution. It impacted on land tenure, land prices, new " farming practices, population

size and structure.

Indeutureship: British whites in the 17m century came to work in cotton and tor fields -

labourer signed contract in return for passage and subsistence, at the end of the contract the

servants were free to remain or return home. The scope became more extensive after

emancipation when Asians (Indians and Chinese) were recruited to work on plant'

PLANTATION SYSTEM

This system maybe described as, "A form of operation emerging out of, and d^-to suit,

tropical circumstances. It featured extensive cultivation of single (export) crops, huge farms

using gang labour. Each plantation became a self contained unit or 'total -institution'

catering to the needs of its resident population and ruled by men who held absolute power of

life and death over the enslaved population". (Waterman p. 42) Total, institutions formed

isolated and enclosed communities. The lives of the members are controlled by authority -

daily life /relationships are stipulated by rules, and established^ procedures. Also of interest is

how individuals adapt to the: institution that each has his own personalities, disposition and

value system. The institution seeks to socialize individuals to adopt new norms and values

important in their survival.

"The plantation system was an instrument of political colonization. It brought capital,

enterprise and management to create economic structures which have remained basically the

same. It brought together different races from various parts of the world to labour in its

service and thus determined the population and social structures now existing in the region. It

introduced new crops, the cultivation of which still represents the chief means of livelihood in

the region. It has helped to shape the whole environment of the region. The system was based on

cheap land often "purchased" with beads and mirrors, where the locals may have had no idea of the

concept of land sales and assumed they were just making land available for temporary use; cheap

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labour: originally slaves, then indentures labour from elsewhere (India and China) or local people,

capital: the plantations were set up by European companies now more locally based or multinational

with local component and integrated marketing: often the products were’ directly used by the same-

company-(Vertical integration from production to final sale to consumers). The long term impact of

these forms of forced labour have become as entrenched as they were closely incorporated into the

prevailing economic, political and social structures.

Economic structure: it was an inefficient system of production where labour costs were grossly

undervalued, monocropping tradition.

Social Structure: Race was the guiding principle of stratification; tradition of interracial violence,

reproductive role of men and women diverted from the family for the benefit of the plantation;

traditional gender roles displaced; replacement of African culture with a West Indian Creole culture.

Demography: severe overpopulation of some areas.

Land use: consolidated ownership among the wealthy, entrenched obstacles against divesting land to

the peasantry.

Chief characteristics:

• Monocropping • Export oriented

• Foreign owned • Bureaucratically organized

• reliance on metropolitan countries • Vertical integration

• Patterned relationship of people to • Classified people into different the

land and determined how the land statuses together with formal people

live on definition of the

with one between them relationship another

• Gave rise to peasantry we • It was both a social and an

experience in the region today. economic system

The advantages of the plantation system:

• regular and efficient production, • planning for depreciation

• uniformly high quality products, • scientific research and

• economies of scale, • improvement in infrastructure

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From the plantation system we have inherited a plantation society: - our society is

characterized by unstable family organization; hierarchical class relations low level of

community involvement, mobile populations always on the move (migrating to find seasonal

employment, organized to fulfill plantation goals - profit, it's a monoculture society -

dependence on one main industry/economic activity.

c OPPERSION OF CARIBBEAN PEOPLE AND THEIR RESPONSE

OPPRESSION: unjust, unfair treatment

• Tainos were oppressed by Kalinagos through raids and enslavement of women folk.

• Tainos were oppressed by Spaniards through the Encomienda System- overworked,

beaten, tortured, killed.

Africans were oppressed by Europeans through chattel slavery:- economic oppression

psychological & ideology, social, cultural and physical

• Plantation owners and ex-slaves oppressed indentured servants: confined to estates,

subjected to fines, and imprisonment, unsanitary barracks, despised, meagre wages.

• Present day Caribbean people are oppressed for various reasons; gender biases, socia

• class, poor infrastructure, low wages, poor working & living conditions.

RESPONSES

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• Migration: to Greater Antilles by Tainos; to urban centers by indentured servants; other

countries by present day people.

• Passive resistance: pretence (deaf, lack of understanding of oppressors language, fake

illnesses, malingering , satirize /mimic European lifestyle, suicide, infanticide,)

• Active resistance: Destruction of property (maiming of animals, damage to machine

burning of fields); killing of overseers; riots and rebellions: attack on La Navidad

(Amerindians), 1831 Christmas Rebellion, Maroon wars, Haitian Revolution, Berbic revolt,

Bussa revolt, Bush Negro uprising, Tacky Rebellion, Guadeloupe blow up

• Marronage - escape to hills, wage wars- attacks and raids),

• Purchase contracts thus freeing themselves, went into business (indentured servants}

• Accepted Christianity or practiced African religion (voodoo, obeah, myalism).

• Today: demonstrations, riots, looting & burning, protest songs, radio talk sho

debates, strikes, 'sick out', 'go slow' etc.

MOVEMENT TOWARDS INDEPENDENCE

A. EXTERNAL FORCES

World wide movement to give up colonies ( decolonization)

Article 739 (1945) of United Nations required advancement to self government of

countries.

1947 Britain granted independence to largest colony in world (India).

Labour Party in power in Britain supported self-government for colonies.

B. INTERNAL FORCES * (Response to metropolitan rule)

constant criticism of British rule in Trinidad and B. Guiana

violent response to British rule (Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica)

campaign for elected representatives in the British colonies

10 years war (1868 - 78) in Cuba against Spanish rule (Maceo)

revolt by Betances in Puerto Rico

C. GROWTH OF NATIONALISM

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Racial Awareness led by Garvey and UNIA

Economic Depression (1929 - 1938) unemployment, high prices & low wages led to

discontent with Crown Colony government. This led to series of disturbances

throughout English speaking Caribbean ( 1934 in Trinidad, 1935 in St Kitts, St

Vincent, St. Lucia, British Guiana, 1937 in oil industry in Trinidad, 1938 in Jamaica

and British Guiana). This showed Crown Colony government was out of touch

with the masses hence the need for representative government.

Working Class Solidarity : this led to birth of trade union movement in the region;

this provided the muscle for political parties demanding independence (Cipriani, Butler, Critchlow,

NW Manley, Bustamante, Coombs, Vere Bird snr.)

Moyne Commission set up to investigate disturbances in British colonies and recommended

Strengthening of trade unions (leadership training in industrial relationship and negotiation; A

labour department for inspection of protective laws; W.I. welfare fund to provide relief measures

(health, education, housing land settlement, labour department & social welfare)

Agricultural Reforms: land settlement schemes to help alleviate unemployment and raise standard

of living; in rural areas.

D. POLITICAL ENFRANCHISEMENT IN BRITISH COLONIES

• Creation of political parties - JLP & PNP in Jamaica; Barbados Progressive League

& Democratic Labour Party in Barbados; Progressive Peoples Party & Peoples ..

National Congress in B. Guiana; DLP and PNM in Trinidad - .(Formal : birth in disturbances of

1930's)

• Began with constitutional change: Election of representatives to the legislature

• Universal Adult Suffrage: Every man/woman over, 21 has the right to vote in an election thus

enabling elected members to make laws.(1944 in Jamaica, 1945 in ; Trinidad, 1953 in British Guiana

1950 in Barbados,l?60 in Belize).

• Ministerial system Elected members of legislative council from, the majority party . heads a

department of the civil service ( 1950 in Trinidad, 1953 in Jamaica, 1954 in Barbados, 1957 in British

Guiana)

• Full internal self government: Elected representatives 9premier and cabinet) are in control of

all matters of governance, governor still in charge of foreign affairs and defense - 1959 in Jamaica,

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1961 in Barbados, Trinidad, British Guiana, 1964 in Belize and Bahamas,1967 in Antigua, St Lucia.

• Independence: All affairs transferred to citizens of country (1962 Jamaica. Trinidad: 1966

Barbados and British Guiana; 1973 in Bahamas, 1974 in Grenada, 1979 in St Vincent, St Lucia, 1981

in Belize)

SPANISH COLONIES

• 1895 — 1898 revolution ended with Treaty of Paris; Cubans obtained independence from

Spain but US army occupation

• 1898 Puerto Rico ceded to US

• 1898 - 1902 Estrada Palma as president but US A had "blank cheque" to interfere i Cuban

affairs

• 1916 Universal adult suffrage in P. Rico .,...........

• 1938 Munoz Marin founded Popular Democratic Party- in P. Rico .,

• 1952 P. Rico became commonwealth

• 1902 - -195 9 series of dictatorship, in Cuba with and without US support

• 1959 overthrow of Batista by Castro

ECONOMIC ENFRANCHISEMENT

Not only were Caribbean people yearning for political independence but with it economic

freedom at both individual as well as national level

INDIVIDUAL LEVEL

Movement from the plantations involved not only freedom from the system but freedom in

earning for oneself. Ex slaves established free villages and peasant farming. Many became

hucksters (higglers). For the indentured workers economic enfranchisement came in the

retail/shopkeeping/restaurant business for Chinese. East Indians established their market

gardens, horticulture, rice farms and transportation. They used their skills to advance

economically.

NATIONAL LEVEL

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In addition to the importance of agriculture in the economy of the region, governments have

made effort to diversify not only the agriculture sector but other areas as well with the

intention of gaining economic independence. Efforts included developments in forestry,

mining, manufacturing and tourism.

• Agricultural diversification included lime cultivation in Dominica; cocoa in Trinidad,

nutmeg in Grenada, arrowroot in St. Vincent and rice in Guyana.

• The mining of bauxite in Jamaica and Guyana, oil and asphalt in Trinidad, natural gas

in Barbados, salt production in St. Kitts, Anguilla

• Light industries — consumer goods such as cigarettes, soap, matches, biscuits, bay rum-

aerated beverages, confectionery, beer garments, printing

• Tourism- sun, sea sky- post WWII

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5. IMPACT OF GEOGRAPHICAL PHENOMENA

A. PLATE TECTONICS

The plate tectonics is the study of the movement of landforms which result from these

movements. This theory explains that the crust of the earth is broken into seven major and

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several minor plates - continental and oceanic - which move about due to convection

currents in the mantle. The continental is made up of older, lighter granitic rocks (Si Al) and

the oceanic is made up of younger, denser basaltic rocks (Si Ma). These plates -either move

towards, away from or alongside each other. It is along these plate margins that most of the

world's major landforms develop and where seismic, volcanic and tectonic actions take

place. Along each margin different movements occur which impact on the eart1 surface and

by extension our existence. Three types of movement can be distinguished: divergent,

convergent and transform.

Along the convergent margin/boundary there is destruction as heavier plate (oceanic) sinks

under lighter one (continental). The heavier plate is destroyed forming sea trenches and island

arcs with volcanoes. The main activities are volcanic and earthquake activity and mountain

building. Along the divergent margin/boundary new oceanic crust appears forming mid ocean

ridges with volcanoes. Along the transform margin/boundary the plates slide pass each other,

and as they do they build up stress, earthquakes are the main activity.

Within the region, the North American Plate is moving away from the Mid Atlantic Ridge

(divergent) and moving towards the Caribbean Plate (convergent). The N.A. plate moves

under the Caribbean plate and is destroyed. The destructive boundary' to the east of the

Caribbean is responsible for the creation of the Puerto Rico trench and the volcanic islands in

the Windward Islands. Molten rocks are forced up at the edge of the Caribbean plate. In

Greater Antilles the plates move alongside each other (transform) creating faults. There is no

volcanic activity present but instead sudden movements cause earthquakes to occur.

43 | P a g e

EARTHQUAKES

Earthquake is a vibration or a series of vibrations due to sudden movement of crustal rocks.

They occur wherever stresses build up within the crust as result of crustal plat* movements

(transform). As stress is applied to an area the rocks will gradually bend to accommodate the

forces being exerted. Eventually, however the stresses will become so great that they will exceed

the strength of the rocks which will then break, releasing large amount of energy. This sudden

release of energy produces an earthquake.

The location of the stress within the crust is called the focus, and the position on the earth's

surface, directly above the focus is called the epicenter, with the vibrations spreading outwards

in concentric circles from the point. The effect that an earthquake has on the surface depends on

the types of rocks near the focus as well as the distance from the epicenter. The shock waves of

an earthquake are recorded by a seismograph winch calculates the intensity a Richter scale

which ranges from 1-10. Between 1 and 3.5 there is no effect, this tremor WJ only recorded by

the seismograph. Between 3.5 and 5.5 the tremor was felt but there is no structural damage.

Between 5.5 and 8 the effects become more devastating; with anything over 8 there is total and

widespread destruction.

44 | P a g e

f^M ?LMTHE CARIBBEAN REGIONcr

Plate movement

When earthquakes originate under the ocean, it causes a disturbance of the water which, then

results in tsunamis being generated. These gigantic waves cause considerable damage to coastal

areas (Asian tsunami 2004). The most disastrous earthquake in the Caribbean was in 1692 in

Port Royal. Jamaica, when most of the city was destroyed and about half of it was submerged.

Two thousand people were killed in the earthquake; another four thousand were later killed by

disease and starvation. In 1907. much of Kingston was destroyed by the earthquake, which was

then followed by a fire and then a tsunami wave.' In 1993 Jamaica felt another earthquake

which rocked large portions of the island but caused minor damages. There were no losses of

life. The most recent earthquake took place in January 2010 in Haiti and which destroyed most

of the capital Port-au-Prince. It is estimated that the death toll may reach as high as 300,000.

Earthquakes can have the following effects:

• Destruction of life and property and this is accompanied by disruption of

communication lines, in addition to this is the outbreak of uncontrollable fires from broken gas

lines.

• The earthquake triggers landslides and rock fall.

• Gigantic waves called tsunamis result in destruction of coastal areas For exam in

1692 great damage was done to Annotto Bay, Buff Bay and Port Antonio in Jamaica In addition,

35 of 115 French buccaneers who were raiding the town St. Ann's Bay were killed by both the

Earthquake and tsunami waves.

Towns built on solid rocks suffer less damage than those built on consolidated materials.

VOLCANOES

There are three types of volcanoes - lava cone, ash and cinder cone and composite cone - based

on the material which makes up the volcano. In addition volcanoes are classified according to

their level of activity. The active volcanoes are the ones "which erupt or show.,; signs of

eruption on a regular basis. The dormant volcanoes are the sleeping ones which have not

eruption for a long time but have signs or grumbling. The extinct ones are those which have not

erupted for centuries; they have practically died out.

The Caribbean region is part of the belt of volcanic activity in the world. There are many

evidences of volcanic activities in the region. These include Soufriere eruption in St.., Vincent

in 1979, Mt. Pelee eruption in 1902 and the Soufriere eruption in Montserrat in 1995. In

addition to these there are many evidences of volcanism such as Crater Lake in Grenada,

45 | P a g e

volcanic plugs in St. Lucia, fumeroles which sends out steam and gases and sulphur dioxide (St

Lucia and Dominica)

Negative impacts

• Destruction of lives and property; displacement of people and sometimes loss of

culture

• Pollution due to contamination of water supply by ash, dirt and gases.

• Poisonous gases released into the atmosphere resulting in respiratory ailments

• Mudflows which destroy vegetation and infrastructure

• Changes in weather pattern due to clouds of ash which decrease the amount of

sunlight reaching the earth

Positive impacts

• Valuable minerals such as gold, nickel copper in areas such as Pakaraima area in

Guyana

• Good farming soil from weathered volcanic rocks e.g. slopes of Mt. Misery in St.

Kitts

• Hot springs which are potential for thermal energy in countries such as St. Lucia

and Dominica

• Major tourist attraction - sulphur springs in St. Lucia, boiling lake in Dominica

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• Export of pumice rock - Dominica

• Creates consciousness among Caribbean people as to the threat of natural disa;

• Causes governments to enforce building codes to mitigate against the effects earthquakes

and other natural disasters

B. HURRICANES

These are severe and intense tropical storms which derive their energy from the \ tropical

waters over which’ they pass. They are characterized by a well developed center

calm or eye, low pressure, strong winds which move in an anticlockwise direction. This

weather system brings heavy/ torrential rain to the region as they move from east to wes.

norm westerly direction

THE GLEANER FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER. 17. 20W

Life cycle of a hurricane

HOY/ hurricanes - giant Y/hirlwindstha't feed on ho!, tropical winds - develop:

Cold air

2 Tropica!depression {__ //•Storms -~L\hgather into . !&*'",/*$ one depression/ !'>■'-' ■begin to spin ( '•"■ counter- clockwise

47 | P a g e

. V Spiraling band* ■'•wfnd, rain'canbc io'2^0 mi. (400 r . rfrorn center; can—' ■-'spin off tornadoes

S Some air mov inward'ahd sinks storm center ion>r~ eye., a.relatively c ciear.lo.w-pressur-

2t?«5a

1Tropica!

disturbanceThunderstorms form over ocean _ . as warm, wet air f "*■ rises and hits A"'."' cold air; winds qflv* African coast vv mcv9 storms wes.h.vard

3

Tropicalstorm ' '-4.Spiraling winds produce turbulent'.^ seas; sea spray absorbed into storm, & which picks up mor91? .moisture, strength . Maximum sustained winds: 39to73mph(62to117kph)

.'*•**,-(

Maximum sustained'."'.^ winds:'38;'mph(6Ckph) flwa^TairNecessary ingredients

9 Water temperature

a:teast80cF(27'C) in upper 20C ft (60 m) of ocean

S Warm, humid air

B Weak wines moving in same direction as ' developing stormS 23C4 KSTSourca. U.S. Nator-i Ocaanic ao3 ' Airrosp^opx Administration. San c^ajc • Sla'a iV-vsrs*!-. "Eyswtewss Sccte Waaler Gracnie: ?ai Cor;, Laa Huitsnc '

#■ T* ..<,!.. J

48 | P a g e

circulates in opposite direction' Ey*e of

storm"' • -7" ""•■-. ■■ ^^^*%*

Hurricane /Maximum / sustained winds: At least 7-mph{H6kph)

O Air below 40,000 ft. (12,130 m) fiows toward storm center, is whirled upward

Hot air spirals up eyewali, creating strongest winds, torrential rains

NEGATIVE IMPACTS

• Disruption of settlements- flooding, damaged infrastructure, roofs,

• Loss of lives by drowning as well as by missiles blown by wind

• Pollution and water contamination

• Disruption in communication military lines, landslides, inundated roads

o Destabilize the economy through destruction of crops and farmlands in general-

especially crops susceptible to strong winds such as bananas and other fruits,

flooding of fields causing crops to rot, destruction of poultry, industry sugar cane,

food shortage

o Social displacement: persons have to seek shelter in schools and churches,

schools

sometimes have to close .

o Looting

o epidemics

POSITIVE IMPACTS•

replenishes aquifer: breaks drought, increases domestic water supply.

• generates employment in construction industry as buildings have to be

replaced and general reconstruction

• region receives foreign exchange through increased remittances,, donations

towards reconstruction

• forces adherence to proper building code

• promotes neighbourliness, unity and brotherhood as members of the

community /society assist each other in recover}' efforts and reconstruction.

C. SOIL EROSION AND CONVERVATION

Soil erosion is the removal of the topsoil from the land. This is due to several factors

but basically the chief cause is man's misuse of the land (human-mismanagement). In

the Caribbean soil erosion is very prevalent in areas such as the Christiana and

Yallahs Valleys in Jamaica, Scotland District in Barbados and slopes of the

49 | P a g e

Northern Range in

Trinidad. The types of erosion are: •

• Sheet erosion, which is the removal of uniform layer of soil by moving water. It

is most common in sloping fields where water causes tiny -particles to move

downwards.

• Gully erosion which is the removal of soil by the action of water

especially in steep areas where the water creates gullies

• Wind erosion, which is me removal of loose soil through the process

of deflation. This occurs in areas where the land is bare and dry resulting in

the particles become loosened and therefore susceptible to force of the wind

Types of misuse

• Overgrazing by livestock; animals crop the grass to a low level thus leaving soil

bare and open to wind action e.g. SE Montserrat, Rupununi Savanna in

Guyana, NE Barbados

• Cultivation along steep slopes: this results in gully erosion

taking place e.g. Tobago, Christiana area in Jamaica and Scotland District

in Barbados

• Over cropping as well as monocropping: this leads to soil

deterioration as minerals and organic matter are depleted e.g. Hillsides in

Jamaica, Grenada, St Vincent

• Shifting cultivation: this is practiced in forested areas in Belize

(Maya Mt.) Guyana and Dominica and as a result heavy flooding have

induced soil erosion :

• Deforestation: removal of vegetation from forested hill slopes for

lumbering, " cultivation which results in sheet and gully erosion e.g. Haiti,

Jamaica, Scotland District, Northern range in Trinidad

• Mining: open cast/pit method causes soil to be exposed thus making it

susceptible to wind and water erosion'

50 | P a g e

Soil Conservation

To achieve this there has to be proper management of the land, better farming

techniques and a gradual return to permanent grass Or forest.

• Terracing: flat step like structures cut on steep slopes. This reduces

rate of run off. In

addition earth banks, spillways and drainage channels may be employed

• Strip cropping: crops are grown close together in strips to ensure

soil cover

• Crop rotation and diversification: prevents soil exhaustion as one crop

replaces

nutrients used by another; irrigation provides moisture preventing wind

erosion; application of fertilizers mirdmized soil deterioration

• Controlled'grazing'zero grazing (paddocks)

• Afforestation and reforestation: planting and replanting of trees

respectively which act as protection for soil from heavy downpours, roots

absorb excess water, and bind soil particles together

• Contour ploughing: crops are planted in horizontal rather v than vertical

furrows. This

reduces runoff and helps to maintain soil moisture.

• Windbreaks and shelter belts: trees planted in a line along the path of the

wind. This checks wind speed and force

D. Coral Reefs

A coral reef is a large strip of wave resistant coral rocks built up by carbonate

organisms. They maybe found close to the surface or even rising above it.

They are confined to tropical and sub tropical regions of the world between

30° N and S of the equator. Coral reefs need warm; clear, clean water 20° -

27° C; normal salinity,: shallow sunlit water (45 m below) and warm ocean

currents. There are three main types of coral reefs: fringing, barrier and atoll.

Fringing is low lying platform close to shore separated by narrow lagoon e.g.

51 | P a g e

Buccoo Reef off SW coast of Tobago. Barrier reef lies parallel to the coast

separated by wide lagoon e.g. East Coast of Belize. Atoll is a circular ring like

reef usually made up of several islands which enclose a lagoon e.g. In the

Bahamas and Tuneffe islands off Belizean coast

Benefits of Coral reefs

• Protects coastline from the destructive waves and storm surges as they

act as a barrier and so prevent beach erosion

• Provide harbours and beaches

• Tourist attraction ( diving, photography) which generates much needed

foreign exchange for the region

• Breeding ground for fish and other marine life thus impacting on

lives of people along coast and especially in Caribbean where island culture

exists - fisherfolks and so destruction would result in change in their

livelihood

• Habitats, shelter and food for marine fauna and flora and

so .destruction of coral reefs could result in migration/extinction of marine

fauna

• Provides aesthetic value to region

Threat to Coral reefs

• Coastal development; construction of hotels, marinas provide turgid

waters choke coral growth.

• Silt from land due to run off destroy coral organisms

• Fertilizer run off from farm lands as well as oil spills destroy marine

life

• Damages caused by recreation and tourism- anchors, boat grounding

and to' trampling

• Over exploitation by fishermen

• Destructive fishing methods such as dragging fish net dynamiting

• Global warming will result in rise in sea level. Waters will become too

52 | P a g e

deer, corals to survive.

E. DROUGHT }

Drought has long been recognized as one of the most insidious causes of

human misery. It can occur in areas that normally enjoy adequate rainfall and

moisture levels. Drought, as commonly understood, is a condition of climatic

dryness that is severe enough to reduce soil moisture and water below the

minimums necessary for sustaining plant, animal, and human life. In the

broadest sense, any lack of what the normal needs of agriculture, livestock,

industry, or human population may be termed a drought. The cause may be

lack of supply, contamination of supply, inadequate storage or conveyance

facilities, or abnormal demand. Drought differs from other disasters in its

slowness of onset and its commonly lengthy duration. Before there were

modem water-consuming cities, drought was an agricultural disaster. Now,

with having expanded faster than water supplies can be made available, the

specter of d faces both the farmer and the urban dweller. The main causes of

drought are: widespread and persistent atmospheric calm areas called

subsidence, which do no precipitation; Localized subsidence induced by

mountain barriers or other physical features, Absence of rainmaking

disturbances caused by dry weather, absence o humid airstreams, and human

activities such as overgrazing, poor cropping meth" and improper soil

conservation techniques.

IMPACT

Primary Effects (immediate): result from a lack of water. As a dry period progresses an water supplies dwindle, existing water supplies are overtaxed and finally dry up. This may result in loss of crops, loss of livestock and other animals, and loss of water for hygienic use and drinking.

Secondary Effects (resulting): If drought is long term, it may result in permanent

changes of settlement, social, and living patterns. Secondary effects of droughts also

include major ecological changes, such as increased scrub growth, increased flash

flooding and increased wind erosion of soils.

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The Impact of Droughts on Development

If a drought is allowed to continue without response, the impact on development can

be severe. Food shortages may become chronic. The country urban growth may be

accelerated. To respond to this, the government must borrow heavily and must

divert money from other development schemes in order to meet these needs. All

serve to undermine the potential for economic development. If drought response is

treated as only a relief operation, it may wipe out years of development work,

especially in rural areas. Agricultural projects in particular are most likely to be

affected by droughts. A balanced agricultural program that develops good water

resources, addresses the problems of soil erosion, adopts realistic limits on the

expansion of animal herds, or accompanies herd expansion with comprehensive

range management will contribute to the mitigation of drought impact. The same

philosophy i used for reconstruction in the aftermath of a drought. It is an ideal time

to introduce improved animal husbandry techniques, rangeland management, water

resource development schemes and erosion control measures. The most serious

impact of droughts can be that of creating famine. Famines can occur unexpectedly.

More frequently, famine is predictable, in other words, the creep onset of crop failure

or food emergency is predictable from a series of meteorological, agricultural,

political and/or economic indicators that may be monitored continuously. 1 primary

purpose of relief operations during famine is to provide food to inhibit occurrence

of malnutrition. Often public health programs, particularly immunization

campaigns and primary health care services, accompany the provision of food

assistance to disaster victims.

Disaster Mitigation Strategies

To reduce the threat of droughts and to lessen their impact should they occur, a

number of measures can be taken. The first step in disaster mitigation is to

identify areas that are at risk to drought. In recent years, a large number of

studies have identified drought-prone areas. To establish whether an area is

drought-prone, individual analyze historical records to determine whether or 54 | P a g e

not droughts have previously occurred. Once vulnerable areas have been

identified, priority zones should be established. These zones are normally

the most marginal settlements. Once the priority zones have been identified,

comprehensive integrated rural development programs should be

initiated. Within the Caribbean, drought tends to occur on the leeward sides of

the range on shore winds left moisture on the windward sides and are

therefore dry des winds e.g. south coast of Jamaica

1983: 79% of Jamaica received below normal rainfall, worst drought in 55

years.

June/July 1985: 8 parishes affected in Jamaica; reservoirs almost empty,

water restrictions enforced, pastures dried up animals starved, root crops

withered, fruits fell from trees tree crops destroyed.

2005: St. Elizabeth, Manchester, Clarendon badly affected, crops destroyed,

fires

IMPACT OF NATURAL DISASTER IN THE REGION relocation of settlements - volcanic eruption in Montserrat, earthquake in Royal, Hurricane Ivan (Portland Cottage)

Reconstruction of schools, houses businesses and roads

Discomfort of having to live in emergency shelters - little privacy &

over

Migration( internal/external)

Destruction of crops - bananas in Jamaica, windward islands, sugar

cane,

Loss of life, injury respiratory illnesses

Psychological stress- homes destroyed life changed - Post Ivan Stress

Adherence to building codes and location

Increased emphasis on disaster preparedness and mitigation education

Training for disaster relief

Increased COL -insurance costs, price gouging (food, building

material etc.)

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6. IMPACT OF SOCIETAL INSTITUTIONS ON THE CARIBBEAN

SOCIETAL INSTITUTIONS

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Institutions are characterized by their organized structure, sanctions and rewards, endurance over

time, service to society. Social institutions are not tangible they are represented through our beliefs,

values, ideas and images about what we want from society. They are what society uses to shape

our lives. Social institutions are the major frameworks of society. In other words social institutions

are collections of norms, roles and values put into an organized way of living.

A. FAMILYNancie Solien defines the family as "group of people bound by that complex set of relationships

known as kinship ties"; for others it is a group characterized by common residence, economic co-

operation and reproduction. It is the basic unit within society which ensures continued existence of

society - procreation of new generations; it is within the family that sexual activity; child bearing;

maintenance, support and socialization of the young are performed. There is a wide variety of family

forms in the Caribbean - nuclear, common law, single parent, extended, sibling households,

reorganized/blended. The family is the primary unit within society as it is within the structure that

family members learn their earliest set of concepts, values, knowledge and skills; it is there that the

child is provided with its place in society- prestige or status; it is the focal point, in many cases, for

leisure.

Relationships in household are clearly defined - men and women spend very little time together; they

belong to different clubs, they go to separate gatherings and outings and play different games. In the

lower classes men go to bars, rum shops and stand around street lights or on a corner or play game

under a tree. Women meet at church, market and at home. In the lower classes women regard children

as a blessing (at least one will provide support and companionship in later years)

As an economic unit, all members work together to get the work done, most times the share chores

around the house. In most legal/religious marriages the male partner is the breadwinner; whereas in

common-law relationships the economic role of the female partners is more dominant. In middle class

families working and non-working mothers/wives depend on the financial position of family. Greater

job opportunities, family planning methods, earlier maturing and independence of children have

created changes within the family. Many families have working wife/mother and have a more

egalitarian form of a family structure.

57 | P a g e

RELIGION

B. EDUCATION• Teaches values and skills- develop hidden talent/skills of the members of society

• Manifest functions; transmission of culture & prepares young for adult roles in socie.

• Latent consequences: respect for authority, importance of competition, need to follow

rules,

perpetuates social class status quo

• Formal, non-formal and informal

• Further step in socialization; transmits culture and heritage

• Acquisition of academic skills, mastering of occupational skills, development of

aesthetic

appreciation and analytical modes of thinking, formation of attitudes, values and aspirations,

assimilation of pertinent knowledge and information

• Important to national and regional development as lack of education leads to economic

backwardness (low labour efficiency, factor immobility, limited specialization, deficiency in

supply of entrepreneurship), the economic quality of the population remains low and there is

under investment in human capital.

• Provides vehicle for social nobility

• Keeps children out of the labour market

• Serves as an instrument of change

• Provides recreational and social activities for the community

• Provides opportunity to meet new people

• Standing Conference of Ministers responsible for regional education — consider

various programmes of regional production and distribution of textbooks, improving of

facilities for secondary schools and education of physical and mentally challenged children

• UWI seeks new ways and means to ensure that Commonwealth Caribbean would

always have people with knowledge, skills needed for regional development

• CXC- provides relevant secondary school leaving examinations, ensures that standard

of exam are regionally and international Bly accepted

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C. RELIGION

"Men in every society throughout the ages have pondered over questions dealing with such

matters as existence, purpose and divinity. To help explain the unexplainable, provide a sense

of purpose in life and make the unknown future less threatening, every society' has developed

the institution of religion"(Campbell, 2002). All societies have developed values, norms and

roles related to religious beliefs:

• Belief in a superhuman power embodied in a personal God (Gods and Goddesses)

responsible for the creation and preservation of the universe; system of belief about the

individuals place in the world and reason for existence within it; unified system of beliefs and

practices relative to sacred things- beliefs that unite into a single community all those who

adhere to them; provides the individual with a sense of purpose;

• Gives sacred authority to society's rules and values; maintains social solidarity- codes

of conduct which bring about co-operation and cohesion among members; importance

conservative force;

• Legitimates the power and material advantage employed by the dominant

groups/rulers of society;

• Commands major influence in society; affects non religious institutions such as the

family and is instrumental in bringing about social changes;

• Creates social cohesion as it exerts a strong influence on social control and sets

behavioural norms;

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• Influences morality - values (such as pre marital sex) influence*

teachings

• Inculcates work ethic - honesty, punctuality, productivity; prov

welfare services to the society

• Perceptions of health governed by religion in some cases SDA,

Mormons

• Impacts on discipline in society- create stability as it instils a cc

and norms

• Means by which man can escape the suffering and oppression 1

conflict of economic interest

e Oppressed people seek solace in religion and the promise of a 1

sorrows and troubles; provides direction and focus for life's jo\

• In the region; melting pot of people from all over the world - \

creation of new ones to meet needs of particular group.

D. JUSTICE SYSTEMSocial control- interaction of crime, law and judiciary as well as th

services

• In hands of the judiciary which interprets the laws and see that

members of society

• "Rule of law" important: infringement of persons rights sanctk

accused of breaking the law must be brought to trial speedily a

before he can suffer any penalties

• Sources of law; that which validates law, means by which law

material from which we learn the law

• Common Law

• Civil law - private matters

• Criminal laws- ones concerning public issues

• Magistrates, Supreme, Privy Council ( CCJ)

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-,^<\

7. CARIBBEAN- GLOBAL INTERACTIONA. IMPACT OF THE OUTSIDE WORLD ON THE CARIBBEAN

The impact of the outside world is strong and pervasive and highly skewed. The strength of the

influences comes mainly from history; forged by the competition among European superpowers

resulting in cultural domination from metropolitan countries. Today much of the impact is based on the

interaction through trade, education & global information due to our small size, limited resources and

little power. French & Dutch territories are still "living outposts" of metropolitan lifestyles and values.

Independent territories especially former British colonies still maintain ties with their former colonial

power through investment, aid (funds for development in specific areas such as health, education) ,

trade ( ACP), educational connections, traditions of government and law.

• Westminster - Whitehall Model of Parliament- legislature (bicameral with Senate

and House of Representative), Executive (with P.M. and Cabinet), and Judiciary

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POLITICS/LAWS

INFLUENCE OF EXTRA REGIONAL SOCIETIES ON THE CARIBBEAN

CULINARY PRACTICES

MEDIA / INFORMATION

PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM

(magistrate, Supreme Courts). Overlapping of legislature and E independent of the other two.

• Education: similar structure - 4 levels of pre-primary, primary, tertiary, until recently (70s)

school leaving certificate based on Certificate of Education; North American System encroaching

Community Colleges concept, naming of classes as grades rather than school

• Electoral System: determines kinds of elections and lays dowr to be followed. First Past the

Post/simple majority: contest bet\ candidates for seat in parliament, candidate who polls most vote

(therefore quite possible for party to win majority seats but not Proportional Representation: number

of seats gained by a party proportional to number of votes polled

( no gerrymandering, in politics)

• Mass media: means used to communicate messages to large numbers simultaneously) T.V.,

radio, Internet, newspaper, magazines, films/documentaries. Media informs, educates, entertains and

influence behaviour, values and culture. Impacts on taste/consumption pa music, language, lifestyle

etc. Impact greatest where visual imp internet and magazines. We are kept abreast of what's

happening

• Tourism results in positive impact: Foreign exchange earnings retention (cultural/heritage

tourism), infrastructural development understanding and appreciation of ones culture; Negative

impact values (nudity and dress codes, prostitution, drug trafficking, environmental pollution

(beaches, damage to coral reefs, erosion through hotel construction, destruction of natural vegetation,

prejudice, landownership etc

• Economic of dependence- trading with mother country, got pi export (banana and sugar)

• Politics of dependence: our economic potential is influenced Atlantic Nations, their MNCs and

trade organizations

• Sports and recreation:: cricket, soccer, tennis, netball as well as maypole dances (European

influence); basketball, hip hop, rap, American football . Halloween (Norm American

influence)

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IMPACT OF THE CARIBBEAN ON THE OUTSIDE WORLD

Culture of migration characterize Caribbean societies as migration means better life. This has

resulted in major cities in the North Atlantic (USA, Canada, England) are heavily populated

with Caribbean nationals. Natural increases have created 2n and 3rd generations within these

countries. Caribbean nationals and their offsprings make up a significant segment of the

population in England, Canada and USA. In US they number over 22 million (Strategy

Research Corporation). In New York City they make up almost 25% of the population and

within the tri-state area- New York, New Jersey and Connecticut- they number close to 5

million.

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ECONOMIES

In US the Caribbean nationals are more socio-economically mobile than African- Americans and

Hispanic (New York's Newsday Newspaper Survey). Their entrepreneurship is quite evident in

many parts of New York City (Richmond Hill Hillside Avenue, South Bronx and other areas, as

well as other states such as Florida Washington, Texas and California. Thus they represent not

only very significant power (over 1 billion per annum) but they generate jobs and contribute

to the e development of the areas they choose to reside in.

• Caribbean nationals helped to rebuild the war tom economies of Europe (i.e France)

• Brain gain: nationals educated at expense of Caribbean states migrate to developed

countries where they establish themselves thus contributing to their economy

• Carnival celebrations help to generate millions of dollars to the economy of Canada and

England when Caribbean festivals are held; boosts tourism; promotion of sales for businesses

• Migrant farm workers have worked in USA and Canada especially harvest! when crops

have to be harvested before onset of winter

• Offshore banking in the region which provide tax haven for clients in metropolitan

countries- Cayman islands, Bahamas, Turks and Caicos, Virgin islands

POLITIES

Political influence of Caribbean on outside world is based mainly on the issue of migration that

Caribbean nationals have been associated with from the beginning of the century. Migration from

the region to North America and Europe has forced countries such as the USA, Canada and

England to revisit and look at the immigration laws hence revisiting immigration policies, illegal

entries, quotas, illegal sales of passports and visas, and importantly the needs and wants of the

migrant community. Faced with this large immigrant population, these countries have also had to

take an active interest in the domestic p the region, as what happens here will have rippling effect

on their societies.

Of course with such numbers, the immigrant population is in a position to form groups to

influence policy making on issues such as education, unionization, discrimination. After all they

comprise are voters who can use the 'Caribbean vote' to affect the business power in

metropolitan countries. Immigrants are usually supporters of the status quo and so they generally

accept the norms and values of these societies. They form a pool of voters or whom politicians

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rely on to vote in a conservative manner (they are mainly interested in protecting their jobs and

economic livelihood). Those immigrants from countries like Cuba and Dominican Republic tend

to accept propaganda about the evils of communism and that capitalism offers a better alternative

for development and so they form strong lobby group in favour of US policies.

The Caribbean impact in politics is quite evident in the tri-state area and other parts the US, in

the number of state and city legislators of Caribbean heritage during national elections. Note that

the first African-American woman to sit in congress and to run for the presidency was a

Caribbean national - Shirley Chisholm. The first non-white chairman oft Joint Chief of Staffs and

Secretary of State was a Caribbean - Colin Powell. In addition the millions of Caribbean

nationals present a large voting group. This has impacted on the politics of the host country

because they make demands on the state (education, health etc). The government in response has

created laws in their favour: ('Wet foot dry foot' policy in regards to Cubans, detention and

deportation of Haitians, Ship Rider Agreement, Immigrant (resident visas, supporter of Helms-

Burton Act)

In Britain, major cities have Caribbean nationals who have long settled in the count (3rd and 4

generations). They have become integrated in the societies to the extent that they have entered

local politics and many are councilors. These Caribbean politicians form a group, which seeks

the well being of Caribbean people in terms of employment, education, discriminatory practices,

immigration laws etc. In addition the presence of large number of immigrants generate

unfavourable criticisms from members of host countries who periodically speak out on issues

such as stemming the flow of immigrants e.g. Enoch Powell in Britain in the 60s and more

recently federal Government (USA) policy on Haitian 'boat people"

CULTURE

Caribbean music has developed from African, European and Asian mix with African music

having the dominant role. The African characteristics in Caribbean music are

• close relationship between rhythm and speech tone (as in calypso)

• spontaneity in rhythm and melody

• willingness of performers to extemporize and their ability to do so

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• polyphony: emphasis on many voices and parts in music and the bringing

these voices in harmony as well as keeping them separate

• arrangement of complicated rhythms (as in Haitian music)

Music from Trinidad: Steel band music originated from the social distress of 193C

tamboo bamboo was banned and so people turned to oil drums on which they beat c

rhythm in 'panyards'. Varying depths were cut from the oil drums to create sounds (

was bass-pan, cellopan, guitarpan and pingpong). Ellie Mannette created tuning oft

Carypso theme is like a ballad (simple song with musical accompaniment) inherited"

Europe. African influence lies in the melody following speech tones and when the tl

lampoon on leading characters in society. Carnival formalized calypso. Some calypso

incorporate Spanish, Yoruba. Ashanti and Creole words which make it difficult for r

Trinidadians to understand (plantation legacy) eg. Mighty Sparrow, Soca is derived

and calypso thus it is a blend of jazz from Deep South in USA with Calypso and use

Indian instruments like Sitar, mandolin and tabla.

Music from Jamaica: mento , ska, reggae, Reggae’s Jamaican folk music with the

varying from militancy of black power, Rastafarian message to folk songs French

Music: Cadence, Beguine Cadence from Guadeloupe, Martinique and Dominica

became internationally known in the 80s. Its appeal ranges from unemployed youth in

the Caribbean to the rich young night club set in Europe. Spanish music: plenas,

rhumba

IMPACT

• Steelband men or pannists have gone abroad and settled and have taught citizens

and tune the pans. Today steelband music is on the curriculum of some schools in

America and the fashioning of the pans is a growing skill, which has potential to

contribute to the economies of these countries in North America and Europe. Oc

saw over 600 pannists from Europe, North America and Caribbean taking part in

International Steel band Festival. There is the Pan European Association promoter

development of the pan in Europe.

• The staging of Reggae Sunsplash festival has caught on in all parts of the world

Japan and North America attesting to the roots that reggae has spread to all parts of

the world. Reggae is now incorporated into music of other countries e.g. Sayoko ha

Sukiyaki to reggae, in Nicaragua protest songs against the government.

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• In Zambia, Sunsplash is staged in Lusaka each year. Reggae music is being used to market

products like Levi jeans, it is being used in movies-arid has been incorporated into other

musical forms like Jan rock. The University of Vermont even has a course in the Rhetoric of

Reggae.

FESTIVALS

. In the Caribbean Diaspora, festivals have come to play a big role in the lives of the migrants.

In North America (Canada and USA), England and elsewhere, large Caribbean festivals are

staged featuring our music, food, craft, fashion and general culture. At these carnivals the

parade is made up of bands revellers dressed in costumes depicting a common theme,

participants jump up. to the music while competing for 'Band of the Year' title. Along with

parade is the Calypso Monarch competition (best calypso performer). There is also a junior

carnival competition - (inculcation of carnival traditions so it won't die)

NOTTING HILL CARNIVAL (England)

This carnival is staged in Notting Hill, London on the last weekend in August (since 1956). It

began with the black immigrants from W.I especially from Trinidad. It served as a form of

uniting the immigrants who were facing racism, unemployment, poor housing and general

oppression which led to the suppression of their self esteem. (It grew out of demonstration/

street procession following the racially induced death of Kelso Cochrane a Jamaica.) Steel band

was invited so as to appeal to the vast numbers of WI who felt alienated in the community.

Soon calypso was joined by reggae making it a Caribbean blend. Nothing

Hill festival reflected a blend of old and new - the Caribbean carnival with the English summer.

It became the vehicle for protest and demonstration on part of immigrant but later became the

model for other different and smaller festivals. It helped to focus on and encourage respect for

Caribbean traditions.

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CARIBANA (Canada)

Every summer, Toronto (Canada) blazes with the excitement of calypso, steel pan and elaborate

masquerade costumes during the annual Caribbean Festival. Caribbean is the largest Caribbean

festival in North America. Presented by the Caribbean Cultural Committee, the two-week

Festival attracts over a million participants annually, including hundreds of thousands of

American tourists. Among the highlights is the Caribbean Parade, one of the largest in North

America. Thousands of brilliantly costumed masqueraders and dozens of trucks carrying live

soca , calypso, steel pan, reggae and salsa artists jam the 1.5 km parade route all day, to the

delight of hundreds of thong include the King and Queen of the Bands Comjr-Caribbean Arts Festival.

Outdoor concerts and glamourous dances round out the entertainment. Caribana was created in 1967. Based on Trinidad Carnival, the Festival exhibits costumes of Jamaica, Guyana, the Bahamas.

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slaves, under the concealment of disguise, brought their dances, their songs and their festival

traditions to the streets, recreating in symbolic ways the freedom from the cane fields. This

period was characterised by the participation of the "jamette" or underclasses, and by cross-

racial costumes. Archtypical characters-devils, bats, royalty, indians and death figures - were

gradually refined into such traditional favourites as the Jab Jab, Jab Molassic, Midnight Robber

and pierrot Grenade (versions of which persist to the present day).

Throughout the mid-19th century, the middle and upper classes were extremely uneasy with

this torchlight revelry. It seemed too bawdy, too raucous, and too liable to provoke riot and

violence. Various measures were taken to prohibit public disorder, especially after 1881, when

police and revellers clashed in the "Canboulay riot". As the turn of the century approached,

however, Trinidad began to recognize that Carnival was here to stay. Official competitions

were established, while some of the more provocative elements were suppressed. Merchants

began to understand the economic benefits of an annual street celebration, and soon a wider

segment of society - including people from all races and classes - were "playing Mas" (that is,

dressing up in masquerade costumes). The early 20th century saw the dawn of the great era of

Calypso, the steel drum was bom; a wedding of African ingenuity and the cast-oil industrial

waste of foreign navies. The three art forms of Trinidad Carnival - masquerade or Mas', Steel

Pan and Calypso - were developed as forms of social commentary that could criticize the law,

the government or society at large without fear of punishment. Competitions in all three genres

elevated the skill of their practitioners, so that today Trinidad Carnival is known by many as

"the greatest show on earth."

Thus, Toronto's Caribbean Festival is a complex hybrid. It has inherited African, East Indian

and European festival traditions from Trinidad and Tobago Carnival. Over the years Caribbean

has also welcomed the festival traditions of members of many other communities that are now

present in Toronto, including Jamaican, Brazilian, Cuban, St. Lucian, Guyanese, Bahamian,

Antiguan, Barbadian and Dominican. Trinidad Carnival falls just before the Christian season of

Lent, so that a time of excess and indulgence is balanced by a time for introspection and

abstinence. Coincidentally, Toronto's Caribbean Festival falls on the anniversary of the

emancipation from slavery in Trinidad (August 1, 1834), and also on the date of a European

festival celebrating the first loaf of the New Year's wheat and the opening of the fields for

common pasturage. These themes of liberation and renewal are essential to the Festival, and

help to explain its enduring popularity. Meanwhile, Caribbean is still in its

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infancy, even as it approaches its 35th anniversary. Its potent message for the rest of thi will

continue to be spread for generations to come.

LABOUR DAY IN BROOKLYN (USA)

The West Indian American Day. Carnival is the biggest parade in New York with 3 million

participants each year. The parade depicts elaborately designed costumes, illustrating beauty

and pageantry. There are many masqueraders and huge sound trucks with live performers. The

service roads have stands of vendors lined up selling foods, books, clothing, art, jewelry, and

much more. The parade begins at 1 lam and ends at 6 There are live performers in front of the

viewing stage at the Brooklyn Library. The pa rout begins at the comer of Rochester & Eastern

Parkway and ends near Grand Army 1 where non-masqueraders can jump up with the bands.

There is plenty of food to taste on Carnival Day- various dishes from every Caribbean island.

Large numbers of people are lined up along the service roads selling jerk chicken, chicken fried

chicken, beef stew, oxtail, rice and peas, salad, macaroni pie, fried flying fish, cui goat, roti,

callaloo, souse, salt fish, fried bake, coconut bread, and much more. Radio stations, newspapers,

and word of mouth are the best ways to find out what ever maybe taking place carnival

weekend. Newspapers like the Daily News contain a section called the Caribbeat, which features

weekly events in the Caribbean-American community. Radio stations such as WWRL (1600am)

inform the public of the different fetes and shows take place. They also play the latest soca and

reggae music, to get in the mood for Can J'Ouvert or jour ouvert in French meaning daybreak,

began in Trinidad in 1937. Toda; J'Ouvert is also celebrated in New York as a predawn festival

on Carnival day.-In keej with tradition, steel drums are the only forms of music that will be

played. Revelers in J'Ouvert wear costumes also, but unlike Carnival day, L'Ouverture costumes

are inexpensive are often creations that mock political issues, celebrities, and prominent events.

During and after the Slave trade when many people were uprooted and transferred to the

Caribbean Islands by force, their traditions were kept residually in their souls. These were then

incorporated by slaves in La Trinity (Trinidad) and other Caribbean Island the French and other

land owners settled. Parts of these festivities and celebrations called the French Mardi Gras.

Therein lies the birth of Carnival in the Caribbean. However Carnival is continuously evolving

and today bears no resemblance to the original. Spanish and British aristocracy held grand and

lavish costume balls, feast and small street parades. Slaves were not permitted to participate.

After the abolishment of slavery, thousands of freed slaves celebrated, by lampooning their

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former masters and mimicking the dress and behavior of the European people. The character of

Carnival changed - becoming more boisterous, noisy and disorderly while at the same time

getting more colorful and spectacular with magnificent and elaborate designed costumes. The

people of the Caribbean have exported their carnival traditions to Canada, England, several US

cities. However the New York version of this celebration far exceeds any like celebration in the

US.

Carnival In New York

Ms. Jessie Waddle, a Trinidadian and some of her West Indian friends started the Carnival in

Harlem in theT930's by staging costume parties in large enclosed places - like the Savoy.

Renaissance and Audubon Ballrooms due. to the cold wintry weather of February. This is the

usual time for the pre-Lenten celebrations held in most countries around the world. However,

because of the very nature of Carnival and the need to parade in costume to music - in door

confinement did not work. The earliest known Carnival street activity was held during the

1940's when Ms. Waddle, a Trinidadian secured the first street permit for a parade type event on

the streets of Harlem. During the'1960's. another Trinidadian - Rufus Goring.' brought Carnival

to Brooklyn: In 1967, Goring passed the reigns over to Carlos Lezama, who later became

president of WIADCA and who nurtured the organization and carnival celebrations till 2001,

when, due to his ill-health he retired and his daughter. Yolanda Lezama-Clark was elected

president. Both lived in Trinidad during their formative years: -

"Labor Day Carnival Parade" has grown over the years from thousands of participants and

tourists to over 3.5 million people in attendance since the-mid- 1990's according to then Mayor

Rudy Giuliani. The influx of tourists from all over the world has benefited New York City on

an economic level, most recognizably with large corporations, small businesses and the

tourist/service industry.

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SOMETHING IS MISSING HERE – I CAN’T FIGURE IT OUT

against colonialism. According to Leonard E. Barrett Sr., author of The rastqfarians,

Jamaica's African population "suffered the most frustrating and oppressive slavery ever

experienced hi a British colony ... Under such complete domination two reactions were

provoked: fight and flight.*1 The Jamaican Maroons—African slaves, who, following the

British defeat of the Spaniards in 1655, escaped to the mountains—waged guerrilla warfare

against the British colonizers. In 1738 the British were compelled to grant them a limited

freedom: although the Maroons were allowed their own lands and leaders, they were also

required to police the plantation slaves, a duty which they accepted. Henceforth, the

Maroons were loyal to the Crown. Plantation slaves took up the freedom movement Indeed,

in 1831, under the leadership of the slave and Baptist religious leader Samuel:-. Sharpe,

Jamaica's slaves waged a mass rebellion against the planters. Like Sharpe, many Jamaican

slaves believed that God was calling on them to fight for their freedom—a messianic-vision

partly influenced by Baptist and Methodist missionaries, who, during the mid-18th century,

established churches in Jamaica and contributed to a syncretism of Christianity and the

island's African religions. Although the rebellion was violently suppressed by the British

authorities in Jamaica, it was one of the key factors in the British Parliament’s decision to

abolish slavery with a law that went into effect on -August 1, 1834.

In 1865 the Morant Bay Rebellion, another large-scale uprising of Jamaica's rural blacks

against the colonial elite, forced political and economic reforms that diminished the power

and privileges of Jamaica's Riling, white planter class. Jamaica became a crown colony. The

British drew up a new constitution that removed direct rule from the hands of the local elite

and gave decision-making power to an appointed British governor, who presided over .a

legislative council. Yet the reforms only went so far, the overwhelming majority of council

members, nominated by the governor himself, were white, and the gulf that existed between

Jamaica's poor blacks (a significant majority of the island's population) and middle-class

whites and mulattoes continued to widen. Jamaica's black population was systematically

repressed until 1962; the year British colonial rule came to an end. Indeed, Jamaican blacks

did not have the freedom to assemble or organize trade unions; abysmal working conditions

led many to seek employment abroad. In 1914 the Jamaican worker Marcus Garvey founded

the Universal Negro Improvement.

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Moreover, Jamaica's economic crisis continued to worsen. Black workers, plagued by

malnutrition and low wages, turned to practical action instead of religion as a form of

resistance. Spurred on by these developments, the Rastafarian movement became

increasingly politicized. During the 1940s and 1950s, leaders intensified their opposition to

the colonial state by defying the police and organizing illegal street marches.

During the late 1950s, Claudius Henry, head of a Rastafarian meeting house in Kingston, set

up a guerrilla training camp and in 1959 unsuccessfully tried to repatriate a group of

Jamaican Rastas to Africa. Soon after, the police invaded Henry's headquarters, where they

found a supply of arms and a letter inviting the Cuban leader Fidel Castro to take over

Jamaica. Henry was arrested and tried on charges of treason. Throughout the■ ■• . . ■ . ■ ■ • . ■■ ■' • ■ ■ ■. ■.'•>

1960s, Rastafarian demonstrations against segregation and black poverty were violently

repressed by the Jamaican police and military. While several Rastafari were killed in such

clashes, hundreds more were arrested and humiliated by being forced to have their

dreadlocks cut off.

Philosophically opposed to a culture of violence, many Rastafari soon turned to more

peaceful means of resistance a goal considerably aided by the visit of Haile Selassi to

Jamaica in the 1960’s. which saw the mass of the black populace thrust forward to pay

homage to the Ethiopian monarch. So profound was the popular feeling expressed for Africa

that the Jamaican ruling class realized that it could not simply write off Rastafari.

Rastafarian culture was explored and promoted in a plethora of academic studies in Jamaica

and abroad, while the Ethiopian Orthodox Church was recognized as an institution worthy of

respect. Rastafarianism also gained a new measure of credibility among Jamaica's middle-

class blacks and mulattoes who, during the late 1960s, formed their own Rastafarian group,

the Twelve Tribes of Israel.

In 1968, Guyanese university lecturer Walter Rodney started the Black Power Movement,

which significantly influenced the development of Rastafarianism in the Caribbean. Black

Power was a call to blacks to overthrow the capitalist order that ensured white dominion, and

to reconstruct their societies in the image of blacks. In Dominica, Grenada, and Trinidad,

Rastafarians played a central role in radical left-wing politics. In Jamaica, Rastafarian

resistance was expressed through cultural forms, particularly reggae

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■<\

organized Rastafari groups exist in Jamaica: the Bobos and the Twelve Tribes of Israel. The

Bobos maintain a communal life on the fringes of Kingston, where they earn a living producing

and selling brooms. The Twelve Tribes, on the other hand, is a predominantly middle-class group,

led by Prophet Gad. Members of the Twelve Tribes accept the authority of designated group

members, pay dues, and hold regular meetings and events. In addition, there is the House of

Nyabinghi, a loosely organized assembly of Rasta elders, who settle disputes between brethren and

organize events. "Beyond the Assembly of Elders," notes Chevannes, "there is no membership, as

such. All are free to come or stay away, to participate or remain silent, to contribute or withhold

financial dues the openness of this sort of structure permits a great measure of democracy, in

which all are equal, regardless of age, ability or function." Rastafarianism remains a culture of

resistance in many parts of the world. Although the Rastafarian movement has experienced a

turbulent social history in Jamaica, it retains significant moral authority there, and its influence is

increasingly felt beyond Jamaica. Indeed, it was one of the first full-fledged movements to

confront issues of racial identity and prejudice, and to incite r£ Jamaica's middle-class blacks to

reflect on the importance of their African heritage.

CUISINE

There has been limited acceptance of Caribbean culinary practices, foods, seasonings and

beverages in mainstream America and Europe. The little acceptance there is tends to focus in the large

cities where there are concentrations of Caribbean people- Miami, London, Toronto, New York. These

food and products are largely purchased by the immigrants. Cultural diffusion of Caribbean foods

maybe slowly seeping from the immigrant base to the wider public through friendship and visitors who

are knowledgeable on Caribbean cuisine. Evidence that Caribbean foods are not widely accepted can be

seen in the lack of representative in menus across UK, USA and Canada (mainly in Caribbean

restaurants such as Bahamas Breeze, Tover Royale, golen crust, Caribbean Food Delights). The thought

exists that with increase travel generation X and Y (18 - 34 yrs) have been so exposed and adventurous

that ethnic restaurants are doing booming business moreso the cuisine that has a spicy kick to it. In

Britain places like Brixton market imported Caribbean produce has become a familiar sight

and an important part of the economy.

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human digmty, sense of worth and respect. All people and societies seek some form oi

self esteem, although they may call it authenticity, identity, digmty, respect, honour oi

recognition. The nature and form of this self-esteem may vary from society7 to society

from culture to culture. However with the proliferation of the modernizing values of

developed nations many societies in third world countries have had a profound sense i their

own worth suffer from serious cultural confusion when they come in contact wit

economically and technologically advanced societies. This is because most universal

measure of self worth is attached to material values in developed nations. Worthiness self

esteem are now-a-days increasingly conferred only on countries that possess economic

wealth and technological power; thus who are developed. • Increasing people's freedom

by enlarging the range of their choice variables and by-increasing varieties of consumer

goods and services. Here freedom is understood to t emancipation from alienated material

conditions of life and from social servitude to nature, ignorance, other people, misery',

institutions and dogmatic beliefs. Freedom involves an expanded range of choices for

societies and their members together with minimization of external constraints in the

pursuit of some social goals w7e call development. Economist \V. Arthur Lewis stressed

the relationship between econom growth and freedom from servitude when he concluded

that the advantage of econor growth is not that wealth increases happiness but that it

increases the human choice Wealth can enable people to gain greater control over nature

and the physical enviro e.g. through the production of food, clothing and shelter than they

would have of the were poor. It also gives the freedom to choose greater leisure, to have

more goods a services or to deny the importance of these material wants and live a life of

spiritual contemplation. This concept of human freedom should also encompass various

components of political freedom including personal security, trie rule of law:, freedo

expression political participation and equality of opportunity. To study developmeD

therefore involves looking at both the economic as well as the non-economic progn made

by individuals as well as societies.

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the cheapest and-most timely route from raw material to finished product. Essentially, productivity is

a ratio to measure how well an organization (or individual, industry, country) converts input

resources (labor, materials, machines etc.) into goods and services. This is usually expressed in ratios

of inputs to outputs. That is (input) cost per (output) good / service. It is not on it's own a measure of

how efficient the conversion process is.

The Productivity Conceptual Model (see Appendix) takes the form of a 'productivity tree'. The roots

denote the inputs to the system, the trunk the conversion process and the foliage and fruits the

systems outputs. The successful management of this process is ultimately the key to survival of any

organization. It should be the concern of and a development goal for, all organizational members,

irrespective of their position. To raise productivity domestic savings and foreign finance must be

mobilized to generate new investment in physical capital goods and build up the stock of human

capital through investment in education and training. Institutional changes are also necessary to

maximize the potential of this new physical and human investment. These changes might include

diverse activities such as reform of land tenure, corporate tax, credit and banking structures, the

creation/strengthening of an independent honest and efficient administrative service and

restructuring of educational and training programs to make them more appropriate to the needs of the

society.

These and other non-economic inputs into the social production must be taken into account if

strategies to raise productivity are to succeed. Level of productivity is attributed to quality of human

resources, the organization of the production system, then institutional arrangements undertaken to

accelerate their productive growth. Evidences of rise in production can be measured by the number

of industrial action taken by workers, absenteeism through sick leaves etc, employment level, rise in

export hence foreign exchange earnings, pace of industrialization, and a favourable balance of

payment,

Increase in modern knowledge refers to the influence of 'modernizing' institutions such as schools

and factories, which are thought to promote urban, industrialized societies. Such knowledge

emphasizes efficiency, cost effectiveness, rationality, logic, planning technological know-how, and

organizational skills. Surveying the number of schools and factories in a country and comparing it

internationally can measure this.

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Social and economic equalization: this refers to the difference between social classes in

terms of income earned and the quality of life experienced. If each social group in a country

moves closer together in terms of the kind of lifestyle they experience there will be less of a

gap in those having higher status jobs and those not having those jobs. Equity is difficult to

achieve in region because of historical circumstances (many of the social and cultural

institutions continue to support the status quo - racial and class prejudice against certain

groups which affect whether they are hired or fired), political realities (political power

supported by elites who will actively withdraw their support if their policies are enacted to

make the poor 'well to do' and the rich less so).

Inequity is maintained as historically poor people were able to access social mobility and

move towards wealth re distribution through education. However majority of students leaving

schools with credentials are poor - low income, low status jobs or no jobs. Education system

has historically been oriented towards an elitist education and had done little to improve low

ability, low SES students. In addition social stratification inherited from colonial days remain

intact. Status quo remains intact and even though accessing wealth is meritocratic there is still

selective hiring and firing that discriminate.

Redistribution of wealth is difficult as economic and political ideologies support capitalism

and free enterprise. Surplus wealth of elites is not distributed among workers but serves to

expand production. Elites (wealth, status, prestige and power) control political power. Political

policies therefore support economic and labour market practices maintaining status quo.

Inequities are maintained because of urban bias. - Historically towns, ports and capital cities

have experienced development rather than rural hinterland. Today still that concept-

personnel, opportunities and resources are concentrated there and this increases differential in

quality of life a between town and country. There is relatively little rural development to help

poor rural folks to earn comparable income to those in towns. Caribbean countries are

involved in exploitative relationship with capitalist countries. Developing country' is unequal

partner in the relationship therefore the ability to redistribute wealth is not wholly in the hands

of Caribbean countries. Measures to bring abut social and economic equalization often

involve deep seated changes in society- redistribution of lands- and such policies can bring

about civil unrest especially from those groups losing their privileged status and those seeing

themselves as being denied status.

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FACTORS THAT PROMOTE OR HINDER DEVELOPMENT

Political ideologies

This fosters fragmentation and makes countries vulnerable to external interference in domestic affairs of

the countries e.g. Grenada, also limits the extent to which countries are able to forge a coordinated foreign

policy. On the other hand the region has been able to maintain stable and democratic governments, which

have provided opportunities for economic stability and favourable investment climate e.g., Barbados &

EC states

The political ideology that a government embraces can have a profound impact on development. The

capitalist system or free enterprise is the preferred choice of most Caribbean states. This ideology is

intricately connected to the world's capitalist system and therefore Caribbean states, which embrace this

philosophy, receive a stamp of approval from the fust world countries of the World Capitalist System.

Countries of the Caribbean which practise/embrace any other forms of ideology (planned economic

system) receive little or no support from the major capitalist countries of the world and so they fmd it

extremely difficult to embark on a development path. E.g. Cuba (economic blockade by USA; Grenada

which embarked on a socialist path was invaded by USA in 1983 and the government overthrown.

Jamaica under Michael Manley was destabilized by USA and suffered great economic hardship because of

its decision to pursue an ideology known as democratic socialism in 1970s)

Distribution of wealth

If wealth is unevenly distributed then this can hinder development. When concentrated in the hands of a

few it can lead to low level of investment, high unemployment, high level of unskilled labour force as

there is low expenditure on education. It can also result in corruption. As a consequence there is low

productivity among high-income earners, capital flight and brain drain. It leaves government with a high

borrowing from international sources, which results in higher taxation rate and rising inflation. To solve

this, incentives for production have to be offered to attract investors and government has to increase its

involvement in areas such as infrastructure! development, education, minimum wage, high tax on luxury

items, harsh penalties for offenders, better auditing and accountability. Most countries of the Caribbean

esp. Jamaica display an inequitable distribution of wealth (skewed distribution. In Jamaica it is skewed in

favour of the ruling class, which consists of large landowning families, local capitalists, international

capitalist and a small number of strategically placed professional managers. These classes of people in

Jamaica control the

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commanding heights of the economy (in 1970s less than 1% of the population controlled 70%

of the wealth in the economy. Majority of the wealth concentrated in the hands of 21 families

The repercussions of this for development:

• It facilitates some form of development (economic but not holistic). It facilitates enclaves

• Produces antagonism between workers and managers/owners

• Fosters alienation, which can lead to revolution if not addressed. People become

alienated from the productive forces of the country because

they enjoy very little of the wealth of the country

they are forced to pay burdensome taxes like GCT

they have corrupt political leaders

most vulnerable in society become hopeless

the majority of the people have no stake in the economic wealth of the country

without a leader to speak for them there can be no change

Changing class boundaries

If within society there are no avenues or scope for social mobility then this can lead to

antagonism as people will see themselves as inferior as or less important than those who occupy

higher status. A rigid class structure breeds insecurity/ mistrust and this can have a negative

impact on development. Some avenue for upward social mobility must exist to reward people

who are industrious, visionary and productive

DEFINITION OF THE CARIBBEAN

(See module 1: Caribbean society and culture - Historical Processes)

The countries of the Caribbean are frequently affected by natural disasters such as earthquakes,

volcanoes and hurricanes. Over the past 200years the region has been affected by 8 major

earthquakes, which have resulted in 16000 deaths. Similarly volcanic activities have been

constant especially in the Lesser Antilles. Most of the countries v/within the region lie within

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the hurricane belt making the hurricane season a constant reminder to Caribbean people of the

physical constraints we face. These natural disasters have contributed to tremendous financial

burdens to the region as a result of damage to property, infrastructure

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and economic sector such as agriculture and tourism (the mainstay of the economies of almost

all the territories). As a result of these disasters occurring, governments have to change

■•developmental plans in order to deal with the short term or immediate situations -

reconstructing roads, buildings, restoring agriculture, utilities and so funds earmarked for

developmental projects have to be diverted to immediate needs and this hinders development.

(See module 1: Geographical Phenomena- Earthquakes, volcanoes, hurricanes, and drought)

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TourismSmallness of size: Except for Guyana and Belize CARICOM countries are relatively small

and mountainous (Plate tectonic/volcanic activity). This has resulted in high population

densities. This causes a scarcity of large areas of flat land for agricultural production and so

the region has become large importer of food. The other factor is high densities esp. in urban

centers - traffic congestion, pollution, slum development negative social conditions.

Fragmentation: highly fragmented, countries spread out Belize in west, Guyana in south

Barbados in east and so communication is restricted, prevents free movement of people from

one country to another, and creates constraint on cost of moving resources and goods within

the region ;

Resource endowment: absence of mineral, forestry and other resources in most territories. This

has placed some limitations on development strategies and options. Except for Jamaica,

Guyana, Trinidad and Belize, a lack of resources prevent production and the resources

available to all allows for production of the same products hence difficulty in finding markets

Proximity to USA: this allows for easy penetration of NA culture and lifestyle- cultural

imperialism. This is detrimental as it stifles local/regional initiatives and introduces unwanted

social habits.*-

OPPERTUNITIES

Congenial climate: tropical marine - warm with long spells of bright sunshine. This attracts

tourist from around the world

Absence of large rivers means less silt deposits along coastline. This allows beach to remain

unpolluted, reduction of threat to coral reefs

Coral reefs promote tourism

Smallness - attractive to tourists who want to escape hustle and bustle of large conurbations

Fragmentation: maintenance of cultural diversity- cultural richness attracts tourists - carnival

crop over mashramani

Proximity to USA — region can tap in large tourism market

Cultural & socio economic conditions

Cultural pluralism- ethnic diversity makes it difficult to foster a truly single Caribbean

identity,, lead to misunderstanding,, suspicion, racial insecurity and disturbances On the other

hand facilitates a broader mix of ideas and experiences that can support development

initiatives and activities, promote rich cultural heritage

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Small ness of size: limit consumption patterns, production options and demand and supply of commodities

also restricts production of some commodities at the same time the smallness of economies allows for

avoidance of the more intractable problems experienced in mass production and high consumption

societies e.g. pollution, high crime rates, social and cultural alienation

Regional Economic problems Despite the many efforts made by the region to deal with economic development, there are still many

problems with which the nations have to grapple

• high "unemployment due to the fact that many people are untrained. There is a great

demand for skills training but educational institutions focus on theoretical aspects of

schooling , )

• some countries are unable to attract foreign investment because the political and social

conditions are not considered right or sufficiently stable

• insufficient number of local businesses

• inadequate supply of foreign currency needed to purchase raw materials for the

manufacturing sector •

• overpopulation puts pressure on the social services sector.

Human behavior and Development

a. Population growth takes place as a result of natural increase or net migration. In the

Caribbean this is associated with high rates of natural increase rather than migration (migration tends to

act as a safety valve). Natural increase results from an excess in births over deaths. In Caribbean birth rate

is estimated to be between 27 and 36 per 1000 of population. Death rates on the other hand are lower. This

is attributed to the tremendous improvement in medicine, hygiene, sanitation, recreation and nutrition.

This translates into less people dying and more living longer. In addition life expectancy has also

increased tremendously. When reflecting on issues of population growth in Caribbean one has to consider

the traditional Caribbean attitudes towards family life, marriage, sexual relationships, child bearing and

women's role in the home. Having children is an important cultural value. High birth rates translates into a

young population (fertility levels are high). Marriages and consensual relationships tend to occur from

very early in life. Even though birth control has been heavily promoted, attitudes remain ambivalent. The

best method of curbing rampant

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population growth is to educate the women and facilitate their entry into the labour market

(higher education seems to increase awareness of options and choices for women beyond the

traditional. The different roles ( wife, mother, career, own person) force women to make

practical choices such as limiting size of family. Large population create strain on resources -

schools, health services, employment which become hindrance to development

b. A predominance of young people creates an unhealthy dependency ratio, (the less

persons dependent on you the better you are able to enjoy a higher standard of living). In the

Caribbean there is a huge struggle for working population to provide for their dependents.

Governments are forced into providing basic needs therefore there has to be a cutback on

development programmes such as job creation, provision of services and building

infrastructure. Providing for large population puts pressure on land. Carrying capacity is

exceeded, inappropriate farming techniques are used and marginal lands (hilly) drawn into

cultivation on a regular basis. These lands have to be carefully cultivated to reduce effects of

fertility loss and soil erosion (see pages on over grazing, deforestation, contour ploughing,

slash and bum)

c. Urbanization (growth in the number of persons living in towns). This can be through

rural- urban migration and the high birth rates of urban residents (in migration and natural

increase). In the Caribbean there is high level of urbanization (65%); urban centres have very

high densities which threaten carrying c?.p?™*y of the land. Migrants to city find, shelter in

ghetto, shanty towns, slums and squatting sites. In these sprawling urban centres poor and

substandard housing, unreliable clean water, or sewage and garbage disposal become a fact of

life which impact on health and well being of migrants. In Caribbean it is a common cultural

value that even though life might be difficult in towns it is preferred to life in a rural area.

The behaviours associated with population growth, agricultural land use patterns and

urbanization can be traced to our colonial history and the ways in which the territories were

involved in forms of economic exploitation. A consistent pattern found throughout the region

is related to how the Europeans organized their system of production. They invested primarily

in plantations on flat fertile plains where they built up roads and linked them to ports to export

raw materials to Europe. This was tied to industrialization in Europe where we supplied raw

material and they supplied finished products. Ports and capital cities therefore became the

focus of development. Heavy investments were made in infrastructure, administrative

machinery, commercial enterprises, education and housing. Today there is still clear evidence

of this. Cities are overlarge, have concentration of economic opportunity, facilities amenities

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and services which serve as major pull factors for migrants. The dark side to this is the

underdevelopment of the interior of the colonies/countries

Glossary of terms Capital accumulation: Increasing a country's stock of real capital (net investment is fixed

assets). To increase the production of capital goods necessitates a reduction in the production

of consumer goods. Economic development depends to a large extent on the rate of capital

accumulation. The more capital goods a country has is another hallmark of development.

Development is based on the country's ability to save. Savings can be used to re-capitalize the

country

Common market: this is a step beyond a customs union. In addition to internal free trade and

a common set of external trade barriers there is free movement of capital and labour within

the common market.

Customs union: this is a step beyond a free trade area. Not only is three e free trade among

member countries, there is also a common external tariff and a common set of quantitative

restrictions against outside countries

Dependence: situation in which LDCs have to rely on developed country's domestic and

foreign policies to stimulate their economic growth. Dependence can also mean the LDCs

adopt developed country's education system, technology, economic and political systems

attitudes, consumption patterns, dress etc

Disposable income: the income that is available to households for spending and saving after

personal income taxes and other salary deductions are made

Economic Union: this is the highest form of economic cooperation among countries. In

addition to a common market, there are common economic, financial taxation and social

policies. Because of the high degree of corporation between countries involved, an economic

union comes very close to a political union

Enclaved societies: less developed countries in which there are small pockets of

economically developed regions (often due to the presence of colonial or foreign firms

engaged in plantation or mining activities) with the rest of the larger outlying areas

experiencing very little progress.

Fixed inputs: inputs that do not vary as outputs vary e.g. a hectare of land is a fixed input in c

small family farm because it can be used to produce different quantities of crops without the

size of the land changing

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Social Cost: the cost of an economic decision (whether private or public) to society as a whole.

Where there is external dis-economics of production e.g. pollution or consumption, social cost will

normally exceed private cost and decision based solely on private calculation will lead to

misallocation of resources

Trickle down Theory of development: the notion that development is purely an economic

phenomenon in which rapid gains from the overall growth of GNP and IPC would automatically bring

benefits(trickle down) to the masses in the form of jobs and other economic opportunities. The main

preoccupation is therefore to get the growth job down while problems of poverty, unemployment and

income distribution are perceived to be of secondary importance

Under development: economic situation, in which there are persistent low levels of living along with

absolute poverty, low income per capita. Low rates of economic growth, low consumption levels,

poor health services, high death rates, high birth rates, dependence on foreign economies and limited

freedom to choose among opportunities that satisfy human wants

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Globalizations

The process that results in the creation of a global market and economy is characterized by :

• the world being one huge market

• use of the most advanced technology

• creation of competitive world market

• Resource and Technology as the most valuable source

• more controlling power as technology advances

• capitalist states control world's economy

Impacts

• region forced to adopt liberal economic model or be left out in the cold

© Increased access to markets for goods

• Free movement of capital

• Erasure/hybridization of culture, values and norms ( foreign media influence)

• No preferential trade agreement

• Increase in inequality of income distribution

• Destruction of local production base

• Forces local businesses to become efficient

Multinational / Transnational Corporations

This is a business organization/corporation /enterprise that has its headquarters (parent company)

in one country (usually advanced capitalist/industrialized countries) and has

branches/subsidiaries/franchises and plants in many countries (capitalist companies with

branches word wide). They seek out the best profit opportunities and are largely unconcerned

with issues such as poverty, inequality and unemployment alleviation. Such organizations carry

out substantial amounts of financing, production sales research and development in their foreign

operations. They have great economic power (large capital base such as cash, stocks bonds and

technology). They are usually based on manufacturing or mineral industries (extractive and

primary industries) and operate in fields that involve frequent technological change. Such firms

have a large research organization at its headquarters base where they develop new products and

processes. They then train workers in

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foreign plants to use these skills. Some MNCs grant foreign companies licences to use their

methods and processes instead of setting up plants of their own. A MNC may have fewr

plants in one country that produces complete products to be sold in several countries while

in other cases the plants in many countries may produce components or parts of the finished

products. This gives MNCs a larger area from which to choose the most economical

locations for specialized plants. The companies can then sell products at lower prices than

would otherwise be possible. Firms develop into MNC in order to

• obtain control over the supply of resources,

• take advantage of the lower costs of foreign labour and material,

• avoid paying tariffs on imported goods

• and to avoid high production costs and taxes associated with certain operations in

the home country.

They invest heavily in Third World Countries providing that their demands are met which

usually include:

• large pool of cheap labour

• tax. holiday on production-

• freedom to bring in all sorts of goods needed

• provision of proper irrfjrdi>irueiuic

• politically stable country

• freedom to repatriate profits

• freedom to recruit professionals from outside the country.

Because these companies are wealthy and powerful they usually get their demands met

because the governments of third world (developing countries) are always striving to

provide jobs for its people. If demands are not met to their satisfaction they will complain to

their home government'who in turn apply pressure to the country concerned. This may take

the form of

• withholding foreign aid

• withholding loans

• cancellation of contracts

• withdrawal from projects

• sometimes even open de-stabilization\

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Benefits of MNC to the Caribbean region

• provides jobs

• transfer of technology of productions which we don't have

• diverse business practices

• managerial philosophies

• attract other foreign investors

• exploitation of raw materials (in some instances)

• offers variety of goods and services

• provides revenue to government through taxes

• provides social benefit such as scholarship, recreational and health facilities

• earner of foreign exchange

Disadvantages

• poses a threat to local industries

• creates social cost - pollution

• repatriation of profits to home base

• imports raw materials (in some cases)

• creates competition among countries in region who are vying for MNCs.

(RP AT> Tedarc's "Eor,oikiie Development'1 pages 634 -644)

International Monetary Fund ( IMF)

This is an international lending agency/organization based in Washington that provides short term

credit to its 184 members. Plans for IMF were drawn up in at 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference

(New Hampshire) and began operation in 1947. It's a specialized agency of the United Nations but in

practice Japan, UK, USA, Germany France and Saudi Arabia govern the fund. The fund was

established

• to encourage international cooperation in the monetary field and the removal of foreign

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exchange restrictions

• to stabilize exchange rates

• to facilitate a multilateral payments system between member countries .

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In formative years it acted as a meeting place for industrial nations to discuss their trade relationship

and financial dealings with one another. Since 1970s it has shifted to the economic problems of

developing (third world countries)

IMF worked to maintain orderly payment arrangements between countries and to promote growth of

world economy without inflation. It supports free trade in goods and services. To stabilize economies

of its members, the IMF provides policy advice and short term loans when a member encounters

financial difficulty. To receive loans members must usually change national economic policies like

devaluing its currency so that exports can be competitive in world markets, cut social welfare

programmes, reduce budget deficit to reduce inflation. This usually result in short term political unrest,

economic hardship within the country. On the other hand the long term benefit include stabilization of

the economy, less inflation helps to reassure private banks and investors about the safety of investing

in the country.

World Bank

Also known as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, it came 'f

into being following the Bretton Wood Conference in 1944 and began operation in 1946.

World Bank provides long term loans to assist economic development. In its early years. t*c it was engaged in helping to finance the reconstruction of war damaged Europe.

Nowadays its main role is to channel flows of capital from the rich countries of

Western Europe, North America, Japan and the rich oil prodders to the poor and mainly '

agricultural countries of Africa, Asia and South America

It finances projects such as infrastructural development ( road, communication, power "

stations, water supplies, irrigation and rural development, as well as health care, education

etc. Its financial assistance takes the form of long term loans. In addition to financial help

it can offer a variety of financial and technical services to developing countries. Its

engineers, surveyors, accountants, economists and other experts help countries plan and

implement their development projects.94 | P a g e

World trade Organization WTO came into being January 1995 as replacement to GATT (in existence since the

formation of IMF and World Bank). Its main functions are:

• administering WTO trade agreements

• providing a forum for trade negotiations

• handling trade disputes

• monitoring national trade policies

• providing technical assistance and training for developing countries

• cooperation with other international organizations.

BENEFITS OF WTO

• Helps promote peace ! >

• Handles disputes constructively

• Rules make life easier for all

• Freer trade reduces Cost of Living

• Provides more choice of products and qualities

• Trade raises incomes

e Trade stimulates economic growth :

• The basic principles make life more efficient

• .Governments are shielded from lobbying

• System encourages good governance

Impact of Foreign AID • Funds tied to SAP(Structural Adjustment Policies) where the Caribbean countries are

forced to limit spending on 'non-productive' investments such as health, education, social

welfare programmes. This can jeopardize the quality of life of the citizens.

• Caribbean countries lose their sense of autonomy as lending agencies has the main say

in how the aid is spent e.g. which tenders to accept for the project

• Provision of aid creates a cycle of dependency which becomes difficult to break out of.

• Aid is sometimes turned on and off depending on the political and strategic agenda of

the donor. This makes funds unpredictable - interruption in development programmes.

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Many aid agreements are tied to the purchase of goods and services from the donor

country/agency. This might not be the best or the most economical

Can cause countries of the region to postpone improving economic management and

mobilization of domestic resources

Aid might result in the transfer of inappropriate technology or the funding of

environmentally unsound projects

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t9tnfHU h e&tck{9->4. Z/X)5 89

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'•

C%The international movement West Indies Federation

CAKCPTA CARICOM OBCS ACS

Integration: the functional co-operation and interaction towards a common goal,, operating as an effective

community.■ JIJ/VN*

^

West indies Federation ( W.I.F.) came into being January 1958 following * «^ ^ Montego Bay

Conference in 1947 and subsequent meetings in 1953, 1956, 1957. Legislaturesof all British colonies in region, except Bahamas, met and a regional economic committee

\y~ s^-were set up to investigate means of achieving economic unity. A Standing Closer "* *r> -<*J

association Committee was also set up to devise a federal constitution. Final agreement was V^o reached in 1957.

Imperial government retained responsibility for defence, external affairs and financial stability. There would be a

senate of 19 nominated members and a House of Representative of 45 elected members. There would be a

Governor General, Prime Minister and 10 ministers. The federal seat of government would be in Trinidad.

Elections were held in March 1958 with the West Indies Federal Labour Party (WIFLP) supported by

NWManley, ■ Eric Williams and Grantly Adams defeating the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) supported by

Bustamante and Gomes WIFLP 26 to 19 seats. This integration step was mainly a political one but lasted only

four years. The aims of WIF

• strengthen the movement for self government,

• promote economic development

• safe guard the democratic system against dictatorship and communism The

achievements

• facilitation of the movement from colonialism to independence,

• the coming together of smaller states made their effectiveness in dealing with ' •

international bodies such as UN stronger

Federation broke up in 1962 officially due to

• lack of knowledge on the part of the masses re the importance of a federation;

• inefficient communication system among islands i^vj^>JiLur

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CJ C

y

° v.

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^

'<Jk «?."V

\

fJL&,

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Envy and jealousy among member states due to differences in level of economic

development Distrust by smaller states of the larger states proposal to change

constitution of

federation.

2. CARIFTA (Caribbean Free Trade Association) came into being 1968 following the

Dickenson Bay Agreement signed in 1965. Membership included former federation member

as well as Belize.

Aim was to promote economic and social development in the region by encouraging free

trade among members. This meant removal of custom duties, taxes and licensing

arrangements which had prevented greater volume of trade among the territories. ,

Benefits

• region open up to free trade,

• a larger market and enhanced economic growth

As a result of the benefits accrued, cooperation under CARIFTA was deepened and evolved

into CARICOM. (Caribbean Cornmunity/Corrimon Market)

3. CARICOM y came into being with the signing of the Treaty of Chaguaramas signed

July 4, 1973 by Jamaica. Trinidad, Barbados and Guyana It began operation on 1st August.

Presently membership includes CARIFTA members as well as Haiti and Suriname. Main

objectives

• improvement in economic development through trade liberalization (removal of trade

barriers)

• functional cooperation in areas such as health, education, culture, broadcasting, transrx

meteorological services, technical assistance, disaster management

• Common policies in dealing with non member states and transnational companies.

Benefits:

• services offered by various institutions

• economic strength as resources are pooled,

• better negotiations with trading partners,

• larger market for individual states,

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V

• stronger persuasive voice in global matters,

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• stronger Caribbean identity,

• better appreciation of cultures,

• benefits of talents of individual member states,

• establishment of CCJ as well as CSME

Failures:

• competition among member states in air transport,

£ • WISCO plagued by problems

• ideals of common currency and passport still not achieved

4. ORGANISATION OF EASTERN CARIBBEAN SATES (OECS)

The Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) came into being on June 18th 1981, when

seven Eastern Caribbean countries signed a treaty agreeing to cooperate with each other and

promote unity and solidarity among the Members. The Treaty became known as the Treaty of

Basseterre, so named in honour of the capital city of St. Kitts and Nevis where it was signed.

Following the collapse of the "West Indies Federation, and prior to the signing of the Treaty of

Basseterre, two caretaker bodies were created: the "West Indies Associated States Council of

Ministers (WIS A) in 1966 and the Eastern Caribbean Common Market (ECCM) in 1968. As the

islands gained their independence from Britain it became evident that there was need for a more

formal arrangement to assist with their development efforts. So it was that the OECS was

established. The WIS A Secretariat became the central secretariat of the OECS and the ECCM,

the Economic Affairs Secretariat. In mid 1997, as a result of restructuring of the organisation the

Economic Affairs Secretariat was merged into and became a Division of the OECS Secretariat in

St Lucia. The OECS is now a nine member grouping comprising Antigua and Barbuda,

Commonwealth of Dominica, Grenada. Montserrat, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia and St Vincent

and the Grenadines. Anguilla and the British Virgin Islands are associate members of the OECS.

The mission is to be a major regional institution contributing to the sustainable development of

the OECS Member States by assisting them to maximise the benefits from their collective space,

by facilitating their intelligent integration with the global economy; by contributing to policy and

program formulation and execution in respect of regional and international issues, and by

facilitation of bilateral and multilateral co-operation.

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The Organization’s Objectives (As set out in the Treaty of Basseterre^

• To promote co-operation among the Member States and the regional and international

level;

• To promote unity and splidanty_among the Member States and to defend their

sovereignty, territorial integrity an independence;

• To assist the Member States in the realization of their obligations and responsibilities to

the international community with due regard to the role of international law as a standard of

conduct in their relationships;

• To seek to achieve the fullest possible level of harmonization of foreign policy among

the Member States; to seek to adopt, as far as possible, common positions on international

issues and to establish and to maintain wherever possible, arrangements for joint overseas

representation and/or common services;

• To promote economic integration among the Member States

• To pursue these purposes through its respective institutions by discussion of questions

of common concern and by agreement and common action.

The OECS is administered by a Central Secretariat located on the Morne, Castries, St Lucia,

The Secretariat is headed by the Director General who is responsible to the Authority. Over

the years several subsidiary and autonomous institutions have been created. The Islands share

a single currency, the Eastern Caribbean Dollar (S2.70 ECD = 1 USD). The operation of the

currency is overseen by the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank, the monetary authority for the

seven OECS governments and the government of Anguilla (The British Virgin Islands uses the

US Dollar as their de facto currency). They also share a common Supreme Court: The

Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court with its two divisions, the High Court and the Court of

Appeal. The Supreme Court is headed by the Chief Justice. High Court judges are based in

each Member State, but the judges of the Court of Appeal are resident in St Lucia and travel to

each territory to hear appeals from the High Court. Final appeals go to the Privy Council in the

UK.

Their Achievements to date include: common currency, common strategy towards

development, a common central bank, a common high court, joint stock exchange, OECS

cnnrrc

104 | P a g e

'V*

5ASSOCIATION OF CARIBBEAN STATES (ACS) came into being 1995

by the Treaty of Cartegena ( Colombia). This grouping is made of English, Spanish, French

and Dutch speaking territories of the region with the secretariat located in Trinidad. It

constitutes a much larger market of over 210 million people..........-

Aims

• . to strengthen cooperation and integration through increased economic activity through

trade( raw materials and finished products),

• preserve environment thus ensuring sustainable development,

© Develop external economic relations. *

Achievements:

• established sustainable Tourism Zone of the Caribbean,

• regional cooperation in natural disasters,

• uniting by air and sea to facilitate trade and tourism,

• cooperation in science and technology,

• Promoting the teaching of the official languages of ACS.

FACTORS PROMOTING REGIONAL INTEGRATION

• Close proximity to each other through air and sea travel

• Shared common history

• Shared common culture in terms of dress, language, cuisine, music and general

lifestyle

• Similar economic, political and social problems (unemployment, few physical

resources, lack of adequate capital, poor housing, inadequate health facilities etc.

FACTORS HINDERING REGIONAL INTEGRATION

• Different strategies for economic growth

• Territorial interests supercede regional interest

• Some concessions to foreign investors run contrary to CARICOM objectives

• Stifled regional trade due to similarity in products

• Separatism and particularism: until recently distrust, self interest and disunity among

Anglophone, francophone and Hispanic

105 | P a g e

• Poor communication among territories (more developed with imperial homeland)

bonded Anglophone but divided from Hispanic and Francophone

• Geography: islands separated by great distances... many have 'small island

mentality')

BENEFITS OF INTEGRATIONGrowth of intra regional, trade

Flow of financial resources from MDCs to LDCs

Flow of technical assistance from MDCs to LDCs

Joint development of basic natural resources for regional use

Cooperation in non-economic areas such as health, education, disaster management

Establishment of common services

Overall improvement in employment and standard of living in the region

Greater self reliance to increase production and consumption of locally grown food

Greater sense of solidarity and fraternity

Greater bargaining power as a region when dealing with extra regional organizations

such as EU

Greater sense of unity through cultural exchange e.g. CARIFESTA

INSTITUTIONS IN THE INTEGRATION MOVEMENT University of the West Indies

Established 1948 on the recommendation of the Irvine Commission and was affiliated to

London university. The frrst campus was established at Mona in Jamaica, later expanded with

opening of St Augustirie(1960) and Cave Hill(1963) campuses. Became known as UWI in

1962 (prior to this it was UCWI). More recently 11 centres have been established in non

campus territories. Offers full time, part time and distance education. Funding comes mainly

from governments of the region and fees.

UWI takes care of tertiary system of education in the region. It brings regional cooperation

through the various courses offered, from certificate to post graduate level to meet the various

needs of the English speaking Caribbean. Recently the institution embarked upon an

106 | P a g e

expansion programme as well as programme diversification in order to serve the needs of the

107 | P a g e

region better and thus make a bigger contribution toward economic growth and development,

UWI faces challenges from

• Foreign universities which offer degrees by distance teaching

• Off shore universities

■• individual governments which sec need for a local university ■

• expansion to increase percentage of graduates from 10 - 20%

• allowing children of poor to acquire tertiary education while governments insist that

students pay a portion of costs

UWI enhances regional integration and development by

• offering a curriculum which is relevant to the needs of the region

• producing skilled personnel in business, government and industry >

• producing people who are committed to the region ®

by developing science and technology

• by producing research which contributes to development of private sector

• by producing research which helps in solving society's problems

• by raising level of innovation and entrepreneurship in the region -

• breaking down barriers and dispelling ignorance and prejudice of and towards other

nationals

• forges lasting friendships and family relationships

Caribbean Examination COUNCIL CXCCXC was established inl972 to serve as regional examining body for the secondary education

system. Caricom members as well as other English speaking territories have their secondary

school graduates examined by CXC on an annual basis. CXC offers secondary level

certification, advanced proficiency and associate degrees. It ensures that the education of the

Caribbean people is geared towards the needs of the region thus fostering economic

development; examination by the region, of the region and for the region; syllabus reflect

learning from a Caribbean perspective.

CXC creates employment opportunities: administrators, curriculum officers, measurement

expert, content specialist's markers, supervisors, examiners. Through CXC foreign exchange is

kept in the region rather than going to England. UWI creates interaction among peoples of the

region. Regional integration, av/areness of commonality, sense of brotherhood

108 | P a g e

Caribbean tourism organization CTO

This organization was launched in 1989 with the merger of CTO and CTRC. Its main aim is

the development of sustainable tourism in the region (economic and social benefit). This they

have done through

____•.... tourism marketing .,............. -----------..------------—.....—......—-.........

• , research and information management

• human resource development

• product development and technical assistance

• consultancy services.

Achievements of CTO include

• annual conference on tourism held in the Caribbean

• sponsoring trade shows in Europe

• CTO chapters in major markets in Europe and North America

• maintain tourism information for the public and private sector

• maintain up to date websites where information can be accessed

• advertise Caribbean as one destination

Challenges

• getting governments to become more ware of their need to support tourism

• changing the perception of the public so that tourism becomes more acceptable as an

economic entity getting a greater share of tourist market

• getting local operators to refine their product

West Indies Cricket Board

This was established in 1925 (makes it one of the oldest examples of regional cooperation) to

establish and sustain West Indies cricket as the porting symbol of the West Indies as well as to

develop and promote WI cricket for the benefit and enjoyment of the West Indies people,

clients and other stakeholders. The board controls, regulates and arranges cricket in the region

through competitions (under 15, under 19, eniorsO, setting up of an academy (St. Georges

109 | P a g e

University in Grenada). It consists of a president, two members from each of Trinidad, Jamaica,

Barbados and Guyana and one from the other territories. Its functions include

• selecting a cricket team to represent the region in international competitions (tests and

onn

110 | P a g e

arrange inter territorial matches (under 15, under 19, Carib Beer Cup etc)

■-.-• choose suitable umpires for matches ...............................■-■■■-......................................."■■-*

.......-....-The-CSME is a single enlarged economic space created through the removal of-

restrictions and resulting in the free movement of goods, services, persons (artistes, media workers, university

graduates, sportspersons, musicians), capital and technology. It confers the right on CARICOM nationals to

establish business in any CARICOM member state and to be treated in the same manner as a national of that

state.

The main pillars of CSME are the provision for free movement of capital; free movement of goods, services and

people ( use of IDs/other form of identification, CARICOM National line at ports of entry, common passport)

within CSME; the establishment of common trade and economic policy; harmonization of economic, fiscal and

monetary policies (foreign exchange controls abolished no restrictions on Capital market activity, companies

will be able to operate across border); a common currency.

Under CSME benefits will include goods being traded in free market conditions, people of approved categories

are moving freely, capital is moving, increase inflow of new capital, entrepreneurship and technology, larger

market opportunities, greater opportunities for travel, study and work in CARICOM countries, increased

employment opportunities and improved standard of living secure platform for entry into FTAA, greater

economies of scale-pan Caribbean Brands, strengthened competitiveness, lower consumer prices, creation of

regional companies, increased opportunities to invest through direct stock ownership or mutual fund investments

CSME tests our capacity as a region to do what is necessary. Globalization presents harsh reality for small

states. The survival of Caribbean hinges on our preparedness to face open international competition and to

adapt to technological developments

111 | P a g e

Sports in the Caribbean • The region has a very strong heritage in sports at the local, regional and international

level- teams/individuals have distinguished themselves in several sports over the years at

amateur and professional level; Major traditional sports are track and field (Cuba Jamaica,

Bahamas, Trinidad);-football (Trinidad, Jamaica); cricket (Barbados, Jamaica, Trinidad,

Guyana); boxing (Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico); new ones such as swimming (Jamaica,

Trinidad, Curacao), badminton (Jamaica); martial arts (Jamaica, Cuba)

• It has become a major economic activity in region, generating income for many

individuals; avenue for economic linkages as apart from player/team there is need for

managers, trainers, coaches, nutritionist, doctor, administrator, grounds men, hotels, vendors

etc designer/manufacturers, psychologists, physiotherapists, transport,

• Enhance the physical well being of people. Physical, emotionally, psychological

fitness; lead to awareness in healthy lifestyle...renewed interest in exercise, diet etc...

improved health means reduction in health costs to countries/region as well as a healthier

labour force (greater production)

• Enable individuals to improve educational opportunities at tertiary level through

scholarships offered both locally to UWI, UTECH and GCFoster ) as well as North America,

Avenue for upward social mobility: world fame, status, income

• Promote Caribbean identity, pride, morale and esteem, life choices enlarged thus

empowering of people

• Development of good citizens: - develop qualities in individuals such as team spirit,

loyalty, camaraderie, dedication, flexibility, humility, discipline

• Promote regional integration through regional competitions (Carifta games, CNC,

regional football etc; breaks down insularity as different nationals come to learn and

appreciate way of life of others in region, cement lifelong friendship

• Contribute to the marketing of the region as tourist destination. Region is viewed by

people around world when we host international competitions such as test matches, world

netball championship, world junior games and when our teams visit other regions, media

coverage includes culture of the region etc

• Enhance our presence on world scene especially at major sporting events such as

World Netball Championship, Olympic games, Commonwealth games, Pan-American

112 | P a g e

Games, Wrorld Cup football, Special Olympics etc

icomwc coN7&&snoN TO &GWNM pevetvpwurHosting international events such World Netball Championship, World Junior Games, World

Cup Cricket,-Test Matches, -World Cup Football, CONCACAF,".......... " '_Z... 1 ... ■ '

• Income earned by players are spent in the country

• Boosts local support services such as air and ground transport, hotels and catering

establishments, food vendors, grounds men, security etc

• Governments earn taxes from income of individuals, consumption taxes, corporate taxes

of those who earn from supporting activities

• Promote sport tourism - regional and international visitors- earn foreign exchange

• Mandates refurbishing/construction of sport stadia along modem and internationally

accepted standards will encourage long term promotion of sports as facilities are on par with

international standards thus continued economic rewards from holding sporting competitions.

• Increase physical education and sports budget of primary and secondary schools in the

region

• Employ more qualified coaches in the schools; get more coaches certified /properly

trained

• Sponsor more competitions thereby increasing interest of young people

• Offer incentives to teams which achieve good results in various sports

• Enter into agreements with foreign/local institutions to accept outstanding

sportsmen'women

• Offer tax reduction incentives to businesses which sponsor sporting competitions

• Strengthen local sporting institutions thus bringing them up to international standards

• Forge government to government agreements as aid packages to Caribbean countries

with educational training as the focus e.g. Cuba offering scholarship for training in boxing,

field events, Jamaica offering assistance in track and field and netball etc

By so doing

• Life chances of individuals will be enhancedtmpilU U €&cckh>d ZJbOK 100

113 | P a g e

• Skills bank of the region will be available

• Reduction in need for foreign expertise (save foreign exchange as salaries will stay in the

region)

• Return of nationals will increase skills available to private and public sectors

• Nationals with new skills will establish enterprises which impact positively

• Skills of nationals drawn on by governments to act as advisors.

PVDK P€EFVim#WC£ M £?*>£?£ CAN

• Result in loss of sponsorship — businesses don't want to be identified with losing team

• Fans will lose interest and take their support to another sport

• Development of the game will suffer- decline in club membership can lead to* clubs folding up

• Scholarship for budding young stars will be reduced as sport becomes unattractive to sponsors

• Schools may drop sport from sports curriculum

• Indiscipline among young people may increase as sports instills discipline

• Positive presence on national. Regional or international level will be lost

• Create psychological problems which can affect performance

A&eeNC€ Of ?>JZOPSS$WNAL $PQZy$ IN Ttf£ ESGWN W/E JO:

• Lack of resources: businesses involved in supplying equipment fail to specialize and so athlete

not offered highest quality equipment; unavailability of proper facilities, athlete denied access to

effective use because of 'day time commitment'

• Non-availability of information, research and reports to guide athlete on new trends and

technology

• Little government support in facilitating development, provide facilities, budget and scholarship

• Inadequate sponsorship from private sector: need to participate through individual/team

sponsorship, league/competition, incentive and awards, construction of facility';, supply of equipment

and training workshops

• Lack of management and marketing skills: athletes need proper training, advice, and

management so trainers, coaches, administrators and managers have role to play.

ejttx&ittd 1*J C test-ist*i.4 r.firt*: mi

114 | P a g e

These skills need to be provided to those in those capacities

• Lack of people support (spectator)

• Weak economies in the region: private and public sectors have burden to establish and

develop sports, cost is sizable and so poses a challenge so countries with weak economies

will have extreme difficulty committing to the development of professional sports in region

• Inadequate supply of trained coaches

• Not enough media coverage: media will amplify spectator audience, bring sense of

success and being to athlete, will play role to attract needed sponsorship

• Few professional role models

e Little understanding that players have to be nurtured from young age in sporting

discipline

115 | P a g e

\mui&cty$L iiimnmrn

INDO CARIBBEAN THOUGHT

1900 London Conference -*

Pan African Congress Peris 1919

U.N.I.A. 1914 (JA.)

West Afnear, Student Union 1920s (London)

HarlemRenaissance (New York)

Necjrituce Movement (France)

Council on

'iccnAffair

African Student Orqanisction

African independence 1957 - 1963)

H*O. A. U. (1963) --»

Biack Power movement (USA. 1960)

Civil Rights movement (USA 1960)

0&1ni.tiZfs/4 !■*! C &. z?r>*\r t (\n

116 | P a g e

INDIGENOUS

PEOPLE

MARXISM/NE MARXISM

INTELLECTUALTHOUBHTS Or THE REGION

CARIBBEAN FEMINISM

NEGRITUbE

INDUSTRIALIZATIONBY INVITATION

BRITISH CAPITALISM

PAri-AFRICANISM

People movement, which developed outside of Africa during the 19 and early 20 century with the

philosophy that African people (Continental or Diaspora) share common bonds and objectives and in

order to achieve these goals they must be united. Achievement of this unity has been perceived in

varying ways depending on the proponent, time and place. It refers to all black people, people of

African descent, and people on the continent of Africa as well as ail African states.

The formal concept developed as a reaction to European colonialism in Africa ( European trade was

accompanied by seizure of territories in order to gain control of the resources(physical and human) of

the continent. Colonialism degraded Africans through inhumane slavery and scattering of it people

across European colonies. Africans were indoctrinated through everyday contact and education with the

idea that European culture was inherently superior to theirs. The resources of Africa were exploited and

exported to Europe forme benefit of Europeans and not Africans. Slavery and colonialism were hated

by Africans and people of African descent hence the Pan African movement. Continental Pan

Africanism advocated the unity of states and people in Africa. On the other hand Diaspora Pan

Africanism related to solidarity among all black Africans and peoples of African descent (a scattered,

diverse and often disadvantaged population) outside the continent. The informal concept of Pan

Africanism developed in the 19th century among intellectuals of African descent in the Caribbean and

North America in response to Europeans /North American thought that human beings were of different

races with distinct characteristics (Dubois, Delany and Blydeti). The formal concept had its beginning at

the start of the 20th century.

• Pan African Conference in London 1900 organized by Henry Williams

(Trinidadian) to give black people the opportunity to discuss issues facing blacks around the world. It

formed a protest against unequal treatment of blacks by British at home and in colonies; addressed need

to uphold dignity of blacks; celebrated aspects of traditional African culture « Pan African Congress

organized by WE Dubois (NAACP) in 1919 in Paris -

expressed concern for plight of African soldiers who fought in WW1 as well as the status of Africans of

German colonies captured by the Allieds. Subsequent congresses were held in 1921, 1923 and 1927,

each time with increased attendance.

117 | P a g e

• Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) formed by Garvey 1914 for black

pride, political and economic improvement for blacks and repatriation of blacks to Africa

• West African Students Union(WASU) formed in London in 1920s by young

aggressive black students from Africa and Caribbean agitating for African independence

from colonialism

• Harlem Renaissance (black cultural movement) disseminated works of black writers -Mckay,

Langston Hughes, Dubois which espoused black pride and challenged racial injustices

» Negritude Movement(France) IQCL by French speaking African intellectuals and activists

highlighted African civilization defending it against charges of Afncan inferiority (Aime

Cesaire, Leopold Senghor)

• Council on African Affairs (American) raised awareness of plight of Africans living under

colonialism and advocated liberation of African colonies - Paul Robeson, Dubois, Lena Home

• African Student Organization (USA) formed by Kwame Nkrumah left for London linked up

with George Padmore, CLR James, Jomo Kenyatta

• African independence: Ghana 1st sub Saharan state to gain independence led by Nkrumah. In

1960 17 countries gained independence and by 1963 80% of Africa was independent.

» Organization of African Unity (OAU) organization of independent African states committed to

continent wide cooperation (1963)

• Black Power/black nationalism in US in the 1960s (re emergence of Pan Africanism)

led by Malcolm X and stressed racial unity, self reliance, self determination and

separatism like Garvey along with black dignity and consciousness

• Civil Rights Movement led by Stokefy Carmichaell MLKing stressed self reliance and

integration, somewhat like Dubois

118 | P a g e

Term coined by French West Indian Aime Cesaire (Martinican poet, playwright, and political leader)

refers to the distinctive culture shared by Africans and all members of the African Diaspora. He believed

that all of these peoples should be proud of their negritude, develop it, express it, and offer it to the world

as part of the universal human heritage. At the same time, they should borrow the best of European

civilization, being careful to "assimilate, not be assimilated." The movement developed in Paris among

French-speaking African intellectuals and activists whose works affirmed the integrity of African

civilization, defending it against charges of African inferiority. "Noted proponents of negritude included

the authors Leopold Sedar Senghor (who later became the first president of Senegal), Aime Cesaire,

Alioune Diop, and Leon-Gontran Damas.

The concept is rooted in the philosophical ideas of black orators and authors of the early 20th century

(Garvey, Dubois, Langston Hughes, McKay). Henry Williams, chief organizer of the first Pan African

congress in 1900, galvanized the growing voices into organizationally action. Initial efforts came from

educated middle class, which emerged after emancipation (Blyden. Robert Love, J J Thomas). English

speaking West Indians became the precursors to the more institutional developments that characterized

the 20'" century Negritude expresses re-vindication of the richness and value of the Black culture. The

term was perceived as a psychological feat. It transformed the previously defeated black 'self to a self-

affirmation of human universality and dignity. For blacks in new world, their struggles to emerge from

the stigma and strictures of slavery met with overt and covert racism. As a result they sought to analyse

and articulate their condition. Blacks lacked clear and cohesive cultural identity. There was cultural

retention but this was isolated rather than universal. Music, dances, culinary' arts and oral traditions

became the badge of identity as blacks were denied an education

After WW II negritude developed into two divergent ways: one viewed genetic/biological formation

while the other view emphasized cultural/historical formation. For biack consciousness to develop

universally it needed analysis, articulation and galvanization. The fust congress in London signified the

move towards unity. It brought Africans of the Diaspora and the continent together to foster fruitful

relationship (Padmore and Nkrumah). Garvey created the largest mass organization of blacks around the

world (UNIAV He was concerned about the way blacks were perceived and projected in ('white) history

books. He was convinced that historical distortion was a major dehumanizing

119 | P a g e

weapon against the blacks. This idea was later to be echoed by people like Frantz Fanon and

Malcolm X.

Capitalism in its simplest terms means free market enterprise. It is a way of organizing the

economy whereby the exchange of goods and sendees is done according to the forces of the

market i.e. demand and supply. Modern view is that of free trade. Under a free trade system

government has little say in the distribution of goods and services. The two major ideal of

capitalism is privately owned capital and investment and profit making. British capitalism in

the New World had one objective - profit making (get wealthy). The plantation system of

production used African slave labour thereby making huge profits.. .in no time they became

wealthy as evidenced by the plantation houses constructed across the region. The large profits

accrued allowed them to live opulent lives in the Caribbean as well as Britain.

According to Walter Rodney (Guyanese) Capitalism was introduced into the Caribbean with

the first transshipment of African slaves across the Atlantic. This form of capitalism was one-

sided, in short this system was non-negotiable. It was non-negotiable because the Africans had

no say in the system and also the fact that the system was forced upon the Africans (How

Europe Underdeveloped Africa ,) Intellectuals Eric Williams and CLR James( Trinidadians) in

their writings epitomized the thoughts of Caribbean people on British capitalism. Williams

argued that slavery was purely economic and embodied the capitalist ideal of the British.

Hence when slavery became unprofitable the British which once embraced this system deemed

it savage and uneconomical and abandoned the system (Capitalism and Slavery). While

Williams was able to recognize the brutality of the system of slavery he never lost sight of the

fact that the system was economical and slavery was just another means to the economic

success of the British..

CLR James in the Black Jacobins points out that the system of slavery and colonialism had to

be brutal to ensure that the system of capitalism worked and worked well. The brutality was not

only mental but also psychological. The Black West Indian was constantly reminded of

his/her blackness and this blackness was closely linked to backwardness and inferiority. Over

time blacks in the West Indies came to believe this myth. Once the myth was engrained into

their psyche the British was ensured of the success of capitalism. British capitalism only

involved the Caribbean to the extent that the position of

120 | P a g e

the Caribbean performed only to the needs of the British government. This forced arrangement was

that the Caribbean produced and the British consumed. Whatever benefit was returned to the

Caribbean was only done to ensure that capitalism survived to further enrich Britain.

This concept of development is attributed to St. Lucian economist Sir Arthur Lewis (Nobel Prize for

Economics). This was based on a concept adopted in Puerto Rico called Operation Bootstrap. This

concept became the model on which economies of the English speaking territories within the region

were fashioned. Following economic systems such as communal, encomienda, slavery and the

plantation system, many economists felt that for the Caribbean to be economically viable there was a

need for the economy to be reorganized. After all, despite the many economic systems the region was

still experiencing problems of an economic nature.

Industrialization by invitation was Sir Arthur Lewis' way of reorganizing the economies of the

Caribbean. This intellectual thought hinged on "direct foreign investment" as industrialization was

costly and therefore beyond the resources of the islands and that export promoting was too difficult for

the region. He argued that in many developing countries there was a dual economy in the sense of a

traditional and a more advanced sector. The traditional sector could supply abundant labour if the

developed world supplied the capital for development. The model suggested the transformation of the

Caribbean economies from a heavy emphasis on traditional subsistence agriculture to more modem,

urbanized and industrially oriented economies. Lewis argued that for this process to take place there

must be changes in the agrarian structures. These changes were to being the form of a transformation

of the sector from being peasant base to large plantation type production. Industrialization, he argued

depends on improvement in agriculture and an economy in which agriculture is stagnant cannot show

industrial development. Under this system, investors would be invited to set up industries in the

Caribbean in return for favourable economic conditions from the governments of the region. Lewis

theorized that this system would benefit both the investors and the country. In this relationship the

investor provided financing, expertise, raw materials/equipment needed to run the industry. In return

the country would provide personnel to work in the industry* land to locate the industry, tax holidays

(period of non-payment of taxes or in words of Lewis "a period of wooing and fawning upon foreign

121 | P a g e

capitalists"), politically stable climate., proper air and sea ports (for import and export).

Three main weaknesses of Lewis' model have been identified. These are:

Q The assumption that the faster the rate of capital accumulation, the higher the growth

of the rate of the modern sector arid the faster the rate of job creation. Instead of job

creation, capital could be invested m high tech, labour saving equipment resulting in

technical unemployment, a The notion that surplus labour exists in rural areas while there is

full employment in

urban areas. Researches have shown the opposite. □ The model is Eurocentric and

assumes that this model from Europe should be

followed by all

Feminist is an advocate of woman's rights; anyone who recognizes female oppression and fights

for the correction of this oppression. To be feminist is to be calling for equality of the sexes.

Part of the feminist agenda is for women and their issues to be on the front burner; on centre

stage. It concerns the celebration of women's achievement as for too long the contribution

women have made to society has gone unnoticed, unrecorded and unrecognized. The origin of

Caribbean feminism is unique due to its long history. Black women of the . Caribbean have

been fighting oppression ever since their sale and capture on the west coast of Africa. They

were constantly in the quest for freedom.

Women used their bodies to attack the system of slavery- infanticide, and acts of infertility were

common. When this was not the option they tunned on the master and his property burnt fields,

damaged equipment and animals, killed their masters. Under slavery women out of necessity

became brutal and militant. In order to survive she had to become a feminist. Following

emancipation, women's focus changed. They now had to struggle against the same black men,

with whom they were enslaved, for visibility and equality. They had to find new tools with

which to fight oppression. The new tools became academics and literature. If their voices are to

be heard they had to become qualified like the men or more qualified. The views, issues and

concerns became audible through literature. In the literature the women authors dramatized the

different problems and complexities facing women they also attempted to deconstruct and

reconstruct new ideas about women and femininity.

While doing so The achievements of women ace being celebrated eg. Verene Shepherd uses her

knowledge of history to refocus attention away from men in history. She has

122 | P a g e

'V-given women a voice and a face in history to women. One of the major inroads into

Caribbean

feminism has been made by CAFRA (Caribbean Association for Feminist Research and

Action). Through this group women are able to explore and celebrate their achievements. It

provides a voice for women. In addition UWI appointed professor Rhynie regional coordinator

of gender and development Studies. Through the Women and Development Unit (UWI)

information about the status of women is made available to government and NGO, which can

then be used to guide formulation of policy concerning the welfare of women. These many

women's organization have been created to champion the cause; National Organisation of

Women (Barbados) Sistren (Jam), CARIWA. These among others highlight role of women in

many endeavours such as labour movement, provide a forum for discussion of issues and

provide an inspiration for young v/auien, urge governments to implement legislations on

women's issues such as rape, sexual harassment.

Amerindian groups have been targets of European opinions which saw them as a primitive,

inferior, barbaric, uncivilized to be eliminated, overworked, enslaved. Caribbean Intellectual

perspective seeks to dispel the view that these people did not have a history. (Walter Rodney

(History of Guyanese working people); CLRJames (Black Jacobins) Hilary Beckles (Black

Rebellion in Barbados). There is the need to view the indigenous people not only in terms of the

labour they provided (encomienda) but the cultural contribution they have made. (Kalinago

resisted Europeans and halted the advance of European settlement, left us architectural styles,

foods, craft, farming systems)

Emancipation of slaves led to the introduction of indentured workers from Asia

(Indian and China). Indians came in large numbers to Guyana, Trinidad and Cuba and to a

much lesser extent Jamaica between in 19m century. Influenced by contractual arrangements and

colonialism, they have also produced several writings, which expressed their culture and

responses within the Caribbean. In Caribbean they found harsh conditions (refer to

indentureship; low wages, withholding of pay, overcrowded dilapidated unsanitary barracks,

restricted movements, harsh penalties, poor nutrition, overwork disease. In response Indians

protested, went on strikes, riots; others repatriated others cultivated plots practiced thrift and

industry, complained to immigration gents, created organizations such as East Indian123 | P a g e

National Association in Trinidad, staged cultural activities such as Divali, Pbagwa, Hosay. The

coming of the East Indians resulted in increase in East Indian population; even exceeding African

population in Guyana and Trinidad By 20th century they have made significant strides: moved from

cane fields to education, commerce and health sectors, reversal in trend of illiteracy, higher paying

jobs.

Although they have been associated with labour, the East Indians have showed their resilience to

achieve economic independence and so have been able to influence the economies of the countries in

which they have lived. In addition they have moved into areas of politics especially Trinidad and

Guyana ( Jagan, Panday, Jagdeo etc. Intellectual writers who have highlighted Indo- Caribbean

thoughts include VSNaipaul ( Nobel prize winner for Literature) and Samuel Selvon _J

Karl Marx concept based on bis analysis of economic development, which was

appearing in Europe due to industrial revolution (19th C). This concept appeared in Communist

Manifesto 1848. In this he criticized the capitalist mode of production and the consequences for

persons in those societies. (Review of capitalism: capital investment by a few for production of

commodities with profit in mind) For Marx, this was unacceptable as it was based on exploitation of

the masses (proletariat). Ke further analysed the situation to include the political structure within these

capitalist societies. He contends mat government, school church judiciary, values and beliefs systems

will reflect ruling class ideology. Resulting from exploitation of OKploitod he saw a struggle

developing which will eventually change the society into communally owned property, no

stratification, and sizable means of production. If change does not occur then there will be alienation

(inequity and unequal distribution and treatment)

Within the Caribbean Michael Manley, Forbes Burnham, Maurice Bishop were influenced by

Marxist/Neo-Marxist ideology and sought to implement policies that would create a just and equal

society. (They had attended universities in Europe-England- where they were introduced to Marxist

thoughts, had become disillusioned with the capitalist path i economic development, was influenced

by the success of Cuban revolution) Democratic Socialism in Jamaica

MNManley came to power in Jamaica in 1972 against background of popular social unrest,

widespread call for social reform. Thought was that previous leaders did not do enough to

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'Vs*

help population who were trampled on by white middle class domination and exploitation.

Manley developed commitment to social justice and equality. (Inequalities and inequity he

saw through his work as a trade unionist). Manley embarked on nationalization programme

- majority shares m transport sector, electricity and telephone

- bauxite levy on bauxite companies ( increase revenue)

- legislations passed to protect vulnerable in society: family Court Act, Maternity leave Act,

Minimum wage Act

Co-operate socialism in Guyana

After independence in 1966, Burnham adopted a socialist type of economic development in

Guyana. Constitution was amended to retlect cooperative socialism. This type of governance

opposed all social economic and political systems, which permitted exploitation of man by

man. V/anted to extend socialist democracy to provide citizens with oprx>rtunity to participate

in management and decision making process in the country (people participation) Burnham

nationalized sugar, bauxite and communication sectors. Government then could redistribute

wealth through social programmes (health education). Lack of financial resources made it

difficult - had to turn to IMF Socialism in Grenada

In Grenada Maurice Bishop formed the New jewel Movement to rid the country of colonial

political thinking (Eric Gairy). Society was doniinated by capitalist system of production

Bishop nationalized banks, transportation and media, improved working conditions, health

and education. Rejoined with other socialist states such as Cuba (got technical support to build

airport and scholarships to study in Cuba). This proved disastrous

- heavy debt burden, internal conflict (murdered by members of his movement, invaded by

USA

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This concept is based on the idea that members of society regardless of race, creed, class, age, gender

etc should have minimal guarantee to access the things/conditions that make for a decent living. These

conditions include basic human rights such as fair trial, protection and fair treatment by the law, right to

education, health care housing and decent standard of living. If these are not met then a breach of social

justice has occurred. Social justice therefore deals with the recognition of the basic human rights of each

person, a decent standard of living for ali through access to education housing and health care and fair

treatment in the legal system. All people are entitled to same basic rights and freedoms. It is connected

to equality (treating everyone same way) and equity (fair treatment) Social justice in society is

exemplified when there is harmonious relationship among all classes of society and where there is equal

social and economic opportunities made available to ali citizens regardless of race, colour, creed, age,

sex or class.

One of the three aspects of social justice is natural right, which includes the basic rights of the person to

life, protection of property and liberty. For social justice to be in operation then none of these rights

must be infringed that's why governments have Bill of Rights entrenched in their national constitutions.

The second aspect is mutual advantage, which follows up from natural rights. Here it is recognized that

some level of inequality exists in all societies and for social justice to occur then everyone must benefit

from opportunities available in the country. According to John Rawls (Theory of Social Justice") the

distribution of wealth and income must be consistent with both the liberties and equal citizenship and

equal opportunity". The third aspect is welfare. Governments are called upon to respond to the needs of

the disadvantaged (homeless, elderly, poor, physically & mentally challenged, abandoned children) to

ensure that they have access to the necessities of life - hence the creation of a ministry of social welfare.

Social justice is manifested when there is harmonious relationship among all classes of society but based

on history of the Caribbean (exploitation and inequality) there is still inconsistency in social justice-

there is still discrimination. Social stratification manifests itself in unequal access (employment,

education judiciary). Breaches of social justice will cause chain reactions, which affect the levels of

social and economic equality, productivity and quality of life.

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In the education system slow learners, disadvantage child and challenged students meet injustice. Each

year thousands leave school with minimal qualification (refer to education articles CXC results). This

will result in life changes, which contribute to marginalization. At the same time students with wealth

or connections who do not perform well go on to live comfortable lives. The elderly in society are often

times treated as if they are invisible. Very few institutions or organizations cater to their needs and

wants giving the signal that they are not important to society. Society has forced them into early

retirement — injustice because as long as one is alive they can contribute to the development of

society. Physically/mentally challenged in society also face inequalities - education, transportation

employment etc. Society has ignored them for the most part without catering to their natural rights and

welfare yet they are capable of contributing to the development of society (Special Olympics athletes

as a case) Some of the social justice issues may include

© Gender: inequality in education and employment

• Minorities: Rastafarians, Maroons, Indigenous people

• Disabled: public amenities/ service, education, health care

• Elderly: geriatric care, recreation, pension, shelter ©

AIDS victims: employment, health care

© Children: their rights and child labour

© Street people: homelessness, employment, welfare

© Class & Racial discrimination: police brutality, fair trial, employment etc

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Research is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing data for a specific purpose (1 could

be to : validate a theory, add new knowledge, solve a problem) It is systematic because it;

• Conceptualizes the research as a focused problem statement (this limits the probl<

• Employs a literature review (show how much insight and knowledge there is aboi issue)

<* Utilizes some kind of sampling procedure (this ensures that persons with an input not

excluded)

• One or more data collection strategies are used (usually well thought out mstnimc which

focus on issue/problem

• Data analyzed statistically or chunk and code method (to ensure findings are cre< in

relation to the data collected)

• Discussion of findings present justification for relevant factors (shew how compe claims

impact on issue being researched)

• Employs reporting format which utilizes various modes for transparency of proc« (text,

graphs, tables, appendix)

1. Objectivity: this is both a procedure and a characteristic and refers to the quality the

data produced based on collection and analysis procedures.(Objectives shoul clear, determine

relevance, provide a link to the research problem, establish soui information on the research

problem

2. Precision: use of technical and precise language; describes study accurately so '

replication or extension may be done and the results used correctly.

3. Verification: results obtained maybe be confirmed or revised in subsequent res

4. Parsimonious explanation: reduce complex realities to simple explanations (i Ocham's

Razor)

5. Empiricism: guided by evidence obtained from systematic research rather thai

opinions

6. Logical reasoning: thinking process whether from general to specific ( deduct specific

to general (inductive)

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7. Conditional conclusions: (implicit or explicit) bear in mind conclusions in research

are not absolute hence use of terms such as "tend to indicate", "are suggestive"

1. Select a general theme: this defines the area in which research will be conducted

2. Review the literature on the theme (Exhaustive literature, review is done before one collects

data, preliminary literature review is done before data collection and then expanded as data are

collected). Literature review is important as it provides background information on the topic, it

highlights areas of disagreement and agreement from previous research, highlights the developments in

the research area, highlights gaps in the research process in relation to the topic, provide information on

how different aspects of the research may be undertaken, maybe used to establish the context and

background for the study. In essence Literature review informs about prior research methods used, can

be used for critique as well as to identify commonalities.( Reviews need to be credible - should have

author's name and credentials; journals/web sites should be credible (published on a regular basis, peer

reviewed, have references/bibliography) Sources may include internet, existing literature, newspaper

reports, archives, minutes of meetings, oral histories.

3. Decide specific research problem/question/hypothesis: having decided then a

statement of the problem is done ( 60 words)

4. Determine the design and methodology: researcher decides v/hether quantitative or

qualitative approach will be used and from whom data will be collected ( population:

target/representative sample), how the subjects (sample) are selected ( non- probability/probability:

simple random or systematic/quasi-random, stratified, purposive, judgmental, dense, accidental, quota,

snowballing) and how data will be collected (in-depth/structured interview, archival research, oral

histories, observation(naturalistic/participant), minutes of meetings, survey ( structured/unstructured

interview),

5. Collect data: ethical and legal concerns regarding collection and analysis need to be resolved -

privacy, confidentiality, consent (subject & parents) transparency.

6. Analyze and present data: statistical treatment/chunk and code usually summary visual

representations ( tables, graphs/charts, text)

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7. Interpret findings: here you provide suggestions as to why the data presented is that way.

What are the possible reasons for the responses received/trends in the responses? What meaning can be

deduced from the responses/data/

8. Discussion: this involves making connections! sznsz out of the lit review and the data findings.

Are there any commonalities, differences?

9. State generalizations/concbssioiis: what did your data project or show based on the hypothesis?

Can these findings be generalized to the target population? Summarize the findings. What were the

limitations (time, word limit, slow response of sample population) experienced? Were there any new

discovery/findings'? What recommendations (more research; qualitative/quantitative) can you make?

Quantitative and Qualitative Paradigm

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Uses numbers to express important findings findings

Treats numeric data with statistics

Applies pre-established design

Data comes from questionnaires (forced choice responses), experiments, observations

Accepts single or fixed reality

Applies deductive logic

Uses analytical thinking

Applies mechanic approach

Emphasizes rationality

Uses words to express important

Treats narrative data with chunk and code method

Applies emergent design

Data comes from interviews (open-ended questions), artifacts (including documents) and observations

Accepts multiple realities

Applies inductive logic

Uses synthetic thinking

Applies humanistic approach

Emphasizes rationality and intuition

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'W

Quantitative (contd.)

Accepts causal relationships

Usually has a hypothesis Tends to

use large sample Selects sample

randomly

Researcher is detached

Trusts clinical instruments

Tends to have context free generalizations

Tends to ask "How?"

Qualitative (contd)'

Accepts causal or teieologicai relationship

Usually has foreshadowed problems

Tends to use small sample

Selects sample purposefully

Researcher is immersed

Trusts professional judgment

Tends to have context bound generalizations

Tends to ask "Why"?

A sample is a part of a larger population and is usually selected to be representative of that

population. Using a sample saves time and money. Sampling is a procedure in research of

selecting a portion of the population under study to represent the entire population. This is

done because the entire population is often too large for all members to be able to take part in

the research

Random and systematic

These are simplest way to select from a large population. Here every person has an equal

chance of being in the research... assign number to each and then select from a hat. Could also

select a determined # pattern, like every 10 name on the list

Stratified random sampling

This involves the division of the sampling population into groups to ensure that the sample is

representative of the group. This will allow researcher to control the variable -

Quota sampling allows researcher to control variables without having a sample frame.

Predetermined how many respondents with particular characteristics are to be questioned.THis

is ideal when study is based on a simple comparison of two groups. This is not truly random

and so results maybe distorted

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Multistage sampling involves selected a sample from another sample Snowballing

involves using personal contacts to build up a sample of the group

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Archival studies

This is an examination of existing records of human activities. Researchers often examine old

newspapers, medical records, birth certificates crime reports popular books artwork. They

may also examine statistical trends of the past such as crime rates, birth rates, and

employment rates. These are particular valuable for examining cultural or historical trends.

Case Studies

Sometimes researchers interview, test, observe and investigate the backgrounds of specific

individuals in detail whenever there is the belief that an in-depth look at one individual will

reveal something important about people in general. These take a long time to be completed

and the results maybe be limited by the fact that the subject is atypical

Surveys

In contrast with in-depth study of one person, surveys describe a specific population or group

of people, this involves asking people a series of questions about their behaviours, thoughts

or opinions. Surveys can be conducted in person face to face, over the phone or through the

mail. Rather than questioning every person in the population, survey researchers choose a

representative sample of people and generalize the findings to the larger population. They

need to be carefully designed and conducted to ensure their accuracy. The results ca be

influenced and biased by two factors: who the respondents are and howr the questions are

asked. Sample must be representative of the population on key characteristics such as sex,

race, age region and cultural background

Naturalistic observation

The researcher observes people as they behave in the real world. The researcher simply

records what occurs and does not intervene in the situation. This tends to be used in

anthropology and psychology

Co relational studies

These are designed to find statistical connections or correlations between variables so that

some factor can be used to predict others. A correlation is a statistical measure of the extent to

which variables are associated. A positive correlation exists when two variables increase or

132 | P a g e

'V* decrease together. A negative correlation exists when increases in one variable

are accompanied by deceases in the other or vice versa

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By definition, a questionnaire is a list of preset questions for respondents to complete

themselves. These questions may be of the open-ended type or the closed/pre coded type. The

questionnaires can be used in a variety of ways depending on who controls the situation and

the level of interaction between the researcher and the respondent.

• a group setting in the presence of the researcher - useful if there is a captive audience;

high response rate, opportunity to explain questions

» self completion without researcher: - time and cost are of essence in this type, large

number of response in a short time but responses are likely to be lower, can't be sure of who

answered the questions, can't ensure that informant answered all questions

• Face to face unstructured interview: opportunity to use more open-ended questions but

this takes time.

• Telephone: can be done in the evenings, not possible to give show cards but hot every

one has a telephone thus creating bias in favour of the advantaged in society. Questionnaire is

a practical way to collect data; it requires short period of time; little personal involvement; is

easily quantified, analyzed more objectively and scientifically; is more reliable than

qualitative and covers a large sample size

Structured: simply a questionnaire administered by an interviewer who read questions to

respondent

Unstructured: the interviewer has no predetermined questions, allowing the conversation to

develop naturally researcher needs to be nondirective (do not offer opinions) and must avoid

approval/disapproval

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A research proposal is a paper describing what the researcher intends to accomplish and the

best way to do so. It should demonstrate an understanding of the entire research process. It

serves as a guide for how conduct your study.

Background: This section explains the context in which the problem to be researched is

discussed. Your aim is to provide arguments to support the need for the study and establish

the need for further research.

identifying the problem and stating the research question: this is where you indicate what

your hypothesis is or what question/questions you are setting out to seek an answer to. This is

also a good point at which to define terms you will use. Defining your terms is especially

important where they have specialist meanings that differ from general usage.

Purpose of the study: You will need to state clearly what vou intend to achieve in this study.

Remember that research is carried out for reasons that include clarification of the cause of a

phenomenon you have observed, gathering information to inform decision or making a

problem solving process or aid m the development of a theory that explains some

phenomenon you have observed

Significance of the study: Being aware of previously conducted investigations will help you

derive significance from the findings of your research. It is important to know how your

findings will contribute to existing knowledge or practice.

Review of Literature: In this section, you will include any information you have found in

your reading on the subject that supports vour hypothesis. Sources of relevant information

often include journal articles, reports from government and international organizations.

Reading any of these will help you to identify important concepts that may arise from time to

time during your research

Design of the steidv: Looking at other studies that have been done in your area of interest can

help you in designing, your study as well as support your choice of methodology. Your

research question will determine the kind of information you need and the type of

investigation and sources of data you will chose. In describing your study design you will

indicate whether you are doing a case study, action research, a survey etc.

Participants and location: Participants are often referred to as the subjects or the sample

population/group. In this section you will indicate who will be investigated in your study and

the location where the study will take place. Say how participants will be selected and

134 | P a g e

describe the kind of setting in which you will make your observations or conduct your

interviews (if these are relevant)

Data collection sources : In this section you will specify all the sources (primary and

secondary) that from which you obtained data". You should describe the sources i.e. primary

source (people surveyed or interviewed) by giving demographics such as age, sex, education

level, socio-economic status, occupation etc. for secondary source, indicate whether it is book,

newspaper, journals, magazine, internet. For each indicate the title of the article/book, the

author and the credential of the author.

Timetable and costs : Include a time line for completing the project and an itemized estimate

cost. Make your timetable realistic and stick to it. Meeting with your teacher should be

structured around this

Analysis of data : Once you have collected all this data, how do you analyze it? How will you

make sense out of the evidences you collect? How you interpret that data will determine how

you answer your research questions. You should indicate what comparisons you intend to

examine.

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Researchers often do encounter ethical problems or dilemmas in conducting research. Some of

the following are concerns of researchers:

1. What harm if any is the research likely to bring participants? Does knowledge gained

justify risks involved?

2. Is the privacy of subjects being invaded and should privacy be maintained under all

circumstances?

3. Do subjects have a right to be informed that they are being studied? Is their consent

necessary?

4. Does it matter how the research results will or can be applied? Should this affect the

research design or the way the research is reported?

5. When, if at all, is deception in conducting research or in reporting the research results

justified?

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American Sociological Association recommends that the researcher:

• tells prospective subjects what they will experience so they can give informed

consent to participate

• instructs subjects that they may withdraw from the study at anytime

» minimizes all harm and discomfort to the respondents

* keeps the subjects' responses and behaviour confidential

« debriefs subjects who were deceived in some way by fully explaining the research

after they have participated.

Bibliography refers to the list of material read but were not necessarily used in the study.

This is to be presented in alphabetical order. Reference refers to the list of material actually

used in the study. Bibliography/Reference must be given so that:

* Charges of plagiarism (literary and intellectual theft) are not brought against the

researcher.

«» Those assessing your work can distinguish what is yours and what you have taken

from elsewhere.

• Other readers/future research students can follow up your sources.

Caribbean Studies uses the APA System of bibliography as follows

« Double spacing between entries

* Single spacing within an entry if more than one line

Books

Author's name. (date). Title. City: publisher e.g.

Beckford, E. (2005). Caribbean Studies for 6 th Formers . Malvern: JJPublishers

Newspapers:

Author (date). Title. Newspaper. Page.

Journals:

Author, (date), title. Journal. Volume (issue), page

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No authors:

title.(date). City: publisher

Organisation/institution as author:

Organization (date), title. City: publisher

Editor/complier as author:

Name. (Ed.).(date) title. City: publisher

This contains material the researcher considers to be of utmost importance to the research

carried out. May include

» copy of the questionnaire used

• transcripts of interviews conducted

• data which would be cumbersome within the data presentation ©

statistical table/chunk and code method

• additional pictures/ maps etc

Each item in appendix is to be labeled individually - APPENDIX A, B, C, etc

Action research: a small scale intervention /activity carried out in order to examine its

effects. It is usually concerned with solving a problemor understanding more about the

problem.

Appendix. Supplementary material at the end of a text

Case study. An examination of a specific entity- classroom, an event programme. The

researcher usually takes a qualitative approach(participant observation/interviews)

Data. Information collected systematically in research

Dependent variable. Change or difference in behaviour that occurs as a result of the

independent variable- the effect/outcome

Descriptive research. Describes and interprets what is; concerned with conditions or

relationships that exist

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137 | P a g e

rimpirical. Relating to the process of directly observing, recording/monitoring situation .

*>eneralizability. The degree to which the results of a study apply to a larger population

eneralizstion. Proposition asserting something to be true to for all members of an indefinite ..

part of that class

hypothesis. Tentative, reasonable, testable explanation, for the occurrence of certain

i^ehaviour/event

^dependent variable. Activity/characteristic believed to make a difference with respect to

^ome behavior/ the cause and treatmentx imitations. Aspect of study that the researcher knows may negatively affect the

. jsuh/generalizability of the results but over which he/she as no control.prknary data. Information obtained from persons who witnessed an event. Testimony,

riginal document (written by someone who was at the scene), relic Random sampling. Process of

selecting a sample in such a way that all individuals have a

air chance of being selected Research design. Selecting sample, measuring outcomes,

analyzing data for purpose of

•nswering research question

Sample. Number of individuals selected from a population for a study survey. An attempt to I

collect data from members of a population on order to determine the current status of the

population with respect to a variable

/alidity. Degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure Variable. The factor

entity or group that a researcher wants information on, especially how

)ne set of variables interacts with other variables.

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f*

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SELECT AGENERALTHEME

CONDUCT

LITERATURE REVIEW

•■

STATE CONCLUSIONGENERALIZATIONABOUT PROBLEM

"

■ L

SELECT SPECIFICRESEARCHPROBLEM

»

DISCUSSION

V

i k

DECIDE DESIGNAND

COLLECT DATA

ANALYZE AND PRESENT

INTERPRET FINDINGS

METHOD OLOGY DATA

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140 | P a g e