Development of an LCA modelling tool for Canadian fuel
productCARBON FOOTPRINT 101: BASICS FOR MEASURING AND LEVERAGING
GHG EMISSIONS DATA FOR ENERGY SYSTEMS
ENERGY3 CONFERENCE – HALIFAX, NS
Creating and promoting best-in-class, investment ready conditions
for a low carbon bio-resource economy.
© EarthShift Global, LLC
UPM Lappeenranta BioVernoTM Ensyn, Port Cartier, QC CelluForce –
Windsor, QC Sustane Technologies – Chester, NS
‘...a facility that processes biological material (wood chips, ag
crops, and even waste!) to produce products such as fuel,
electricity, and commercially useful chemicals…’
© EarthShift Global, LLC
Creating and promoting best-in-class, investment ready conditions
for a low carbon bio-resource economy.
© EarthShift Global, LLC
INVESTMENT ATTRACTION PIPELINE
D I S C O V E R Y
E N G A G E M E N T
A C T I V E
20 + bio-resource firms in pipeline – several are active with more
advancing to this stage! High focus on ‘Steel
in the Ground’
© EarthShift Global, LLC
HOW WE HELP
Advocacy Key Business Level Data Connection to Resources Milestone
Funding
© EarthShift Global, LLC
Low cost, simple method of automating and advancing the
recycling
process
Results in clean streams of recycled products, including fossil
fuel
replacements - biomass pellets and diesel from plastic
First commercialization in Chester (Kaizer Meadow landfill)
SUSTANE TECHNOLOGIES
MSW supply secured
Sustainable economics
Founded in 2000, we have a simple mission:
PARTNER with our clients and help them effect CHANGE that advances
their organizations’ specific SUSTAINABILITY goals.
© EarthShift Global, LLC
ABOUT EARTHSHIFT GLOBAL
policy
Investment (S-ROI) • Environmental Product
and sales
Website: www.earthshiftglobal.com
Conventional?) • Government? • Academia? • NGO? • Other?
• What are your questions coming in to the session?
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND
© EarthShift Global, LLC
• Despite some recent plateaus in global GHG emissions, atmospheric
CO2 concentrations continue to rise
• This trend suggests that reduction efforts are insufficient, and
also that there are gaps in GHG emissions reporting
© EarthShift Global, LLC
WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS?
• Increasing Need to Measure and Reduce GHG Emissions in order to:
• Reduce impacts of climate change and
other industrial impacts • Comply with regulatory programs
(e.g.
carbon tax) • Leverage opportunities in carbon offset
programs, etc. • Remain competitive and respond to
B2B and consumer demands
• Climate Change Impacts • Rising temperatures, rising sea
levels, more severe and erratic weather, heat waves, disruption and
displacement of infrastructure and population
• Other Impacts of Industrial Activity • Non-renewable energy and
material
consumption • Other air emissions • Land use, biodiversity
loss
AGENDA Time Topic 9:00 – 9:15am Introductions and Session Overview
9:15 – 9:20am Context and GHG Emissions Trends 9:25 – 9:45am What
is a Carbon Footprint?
9:45 – 9:55am Carbon Footprint Standards & Reporting
10:00 – 10:10am Current Knowledge for Carbon Footprint of Energy
Systems
10:10 – 10:25am Energy Industry Responses to Reduce GHG
Emissions
10:30 – 11:00am <BREAK> 11:00 – 11:10am Government Carbon
Policy in Canada
11:10 – 11:40am Energy Case Study: Sustane Technologies Inc.
11:45am – 12:00pm Carbon Markets and Leveraging Opportunities 12:00
– 12:15pm Strengths and Limitations of Carbon Footprint Analysis
12:15 – 12:30pm Discussion and Session Wrap-Up
© EarthShift Global, LLC
• Any questions or comments about the data presented?
• Anything to add on the trends in GHG emissions and resulting
impacts?
• Other thoughts or points of discussion for the workshop?
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
WHAT IS A CARBON FOOTPRINT?
WHY ACCOUNT FOR GREENHOUSE GASES?
Different gases absorb and re-emit heat at different rates. This is
measured as radiative forcing and called its Global Warming
Potential
Source: NASA
CARBON FOOTPRINT OF A PRODUCT (CFP)
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions – most common GHGs include: o Carbon
dioxide – CO2
o Methane – CH4
o Nitrous Oxide – N2O
• Sum of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and removals in a product
system, expressed as CO2 equivalents
• Based on a life cycle assessment (LCA) using the single impact
category of climate change
© EarthShift Global, LLC
GLOBAL CARBON CYCLE
© EarthShift Global, LLC
GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL
• Global warming potential is a quantitative measure that expresses
the heat trapping potential of a GHG
• It is expressed relative to a specified time horizon (currently
100 years most commonly) • GWP factors are provided by the IPCC
with each assessment report
© EarthShift Global, LLC
CHARACTERIZATION & IMPACT SCORE
Each Substance (emissions & resource extractions, e.g., CH4,
SF6) is multiplied by a unique characterization factor (expressed
in terms of a reference substance (e.g., CO2-eq). The characterized
substances, causing impact in a given impact category, are then
added together to create a total impact score for that
category.
CF = Characterization Factor IPCC 100
Global Warming Potential
© EarthShift Global, LLC
ILCD Handbook (2010). Recommendations based on existing impact
assessment models and factors for LCA in European context
© EarthShift Global, LLC
MIDPOINTS TO ENDPOINTS
No knowledge of the degree of damage
High uncertainty in the end point characterization,
Greater confidence in the degree of damage
Temperature increase
© EarthShift Global, LLC
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA)
LCA is a scientific method for analysis and interpretation of the
environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of a
product.
Raw Materials
Material Processing
Emissions and Waste
Energy and Resources
© EarthShift Global, LLC
• An established methodology to evaluate environmental impacts over
the entire life cycle
• Credible, scientific and comprehensive • ISO standards
– 14040 Principles and Framework – 14044 Requirements and
Guidelines
• Life Cycle Initiative – www.lifecycleinitiative.org
• Identifying opportunities to improve the environmental
performance of products at various points in their life
cycle;
• Informing decision-makers in industry, governmental or
non-governmental organizations (e.g. strategic planning, priority
setting, product or process design or redesign);
• Selection of relevant indicators of environmental performance,
including measurement techniques; and
• Supporting product certification and marketing (e.g. an
environmental claim, eco- labeling scheme or environmental product
declaration).
• Supporting product and business model innovation
UNDERSTANDING THE TRADE-OFFS LCA avoids “burden shifting” by
encompassing the entire life cycle and multiple environmental
impact categories.
0
20
40
60
80
100
Product A Product B
100
85
3
Resources
70
100
5
To resize chart data range, drag lower right corner of range.
LCA enables the identification of the product stages or processes
which contribute significantly to the environmental impacts.
IDENTIFICATION OF HOT SPOTS
Chart1
10
12
2
2
70
4
100
To resize chart data range, drag lower right corner of range.
© EarthShift Global, LLC
LIFE CYCLE OF COAL-FIRED ELECTRICITY
• System boundary for coal includes: o Mining; o Transport; o
Combustion; and o Upstream production and
combustion of fuels • Power plant emissions
account for 90% or more of life cycle GHG emissions
© EarthShift Global, LLC
LIFE CYCLE OF WOOD BIOMASS ELECTRICITY
• System boundary for wood biomass includes: o Forest harvesting; o
Processing and residue
collection; o Transport; o Combustion; and o Upstream production
and
combustion of fuels • Power plant emissions are
typically excluded due to biogenic nature
CARBON FOOTPRINT STANDARDS & REPORTING
GHG PROTOCOL
• Provide requirements and guidance for companies to quantify and
publicly report GHG emissions and removals for products
• Organization assessment standardized under the Greenhouse Gas
Protocol
• Product assessment standardized under the Product Life Cycle
Accounting and Reporting Standard
• Other standards can be found at
http://ghgprotocol.org/standards
• The GHG Protocol is a multi- stakeholder partnership of
businesses, NGOs, governments, and others convened by the WRI and
WBCSD in 1998 to develop international GHG accounting and reporting
standards and tools
Source: Greenhouse Gas Protocol
© EarthShift Global, LLC
PUBLICLY AVAILABLE SPECIFICATION - PAS 2050
• Based in large part of the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards for life
cycle assessment
• Includes the use of sector-specific “supplementary requirements”
to ensure consistent application for differing sectors (similar to
“product rules” in the GHG Protocol)
• Publicly Available Specification (PAS) 2050 – Specification for
the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods
and services • Developed by the British Standards
Institution in 2008 • Similar quantification methods to
GHG Protocol but different purpose and development process
o Based on quantification of GHG sources, sinks, and
reservoirs
• 14064-3 – Validation and verification of GHG assertions
ISO 14067:2013 Technical Specification • Carbon footprint of
products –
Requirements and guidelines for quantification and
communication
• Includes both goods and services (e.g. energy systems)
• Based on other standards, including ISO 14020, ISO 14025, ISO
14040, and ISO 14044
© EarthShift Global, LLC
Relation to Carbon Footprint • LCA methods and standards form
the foundation of most carbon footprint standards and
protocols
• Life cycle assessments provide results for a broader range of
indicators, including impacts to: o Human health o Ecosystems o
Resources
ISO 14040 and 14044 • Principles, framework,
requirements, and guidelines for LCA
• Most recent versions established in 2006 (update underway)
• Refer to: o Goal and scope definition o Life cycle inventory o
Life cycle impact assessment o Interpretation and reporting
© EarthShift Global, LLC
THIRD-PARTY VERIFICATION
• The level of third-party verification required will depend on the
intended use: o Internal studies do not require
verification o External single-product studies
may require a single reviewer (internal or external)
o External comparative studies may require a third-party panel
review
• Most carbon footprint standards and guidelines will specify
reporting and verification requirements, with particularly
stringent requirements for public-facing comparative studies
• Verification may include a review of: o Methods and assumptions;
o Models and calculations; o Data quality and completeness; o
Transparency and scientific rigour
© EarthShift Global, LLC
THOUGHTS ON STANDARDS AND REPORTING
• Third-party review provides an extra level of rigour and can
result in an improved study
• Ultimately the various carbon standards on their own are
voluntary and are not “enforced” by a governing body
• Standards provide internationally- accepted guidance on methods
and reporting and can enhance credibility
• Most GHG accounting programs will specify which standard must be
used • E.g. Alberta emission offset system
based on ISO 14064-2
• Any questions or comments about the overview of carbon
footprinting?
• Any questions about the standards or methods that are used?
• Other thoughts or points of discussion for the workshop?
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
© EarthShift Global, LLC
https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/climate-change/greenhouse-gas-emissions/sources-sinks-
executive-summary-2019.html
© EarthShift Global, LLC
NATURAL GAS ELECTRICITY
• Life cycle GHG emissions for natural gas may range considerably
from 300 g CO2
eq./kWh up to nearly 1,000 g CO2 eq./kWh
• Primary contributor is combustion of NG
• Variability is due to: • Natural gas composition • Amount of
venting, flaring, and
fugitive emissions • Combustion technology
COAL ELECTRICITY
• Life cycle GHG emissions for coal are the highest among fossil
fuels, and average just over 1,000 g CO2 eq./kWh, depending on
technology and coal type
• Combustion emissions vary considerably and account for 90% or
more of life cycle emissions
BIOMASS ELECTRICITY
• Life cycle GHG emissions for biomass electricity range from over
300 g CO2 eq./kWh to reductions of over 1,000 g CO2 eq./kWh
• Biogenic carbon emissions are typically excluded
• Some studies assume displacement of fossil fuels
OCEAN ELECTRICITY
• Very limited body of research on the life cycle GHG emissions of
wave and tidal energy
• Preliminary research indicates very low carbon footprint of less
than 10 g CO2 eq./kWh
TRANSPORTATION
• Primary contributor to life cycle GHG emissions for
transportation is combustion of the fuel in a vehicle
• Carbon footprint research on electric vehicles and biofuels has
produced mixed results about potential for reducing emissions o
Issues related to background
energy systems, material intensity, and scalability
• One of the few sectors in Canada for which GHG emissions continue
to rise o Fuel efficiency has improved,
but total amount of driving has increased
• Key source in this sector in 2017: o Road transportation
(72%)
https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy-and-greenhouse-gas-emissions-
ghgs/20063
RESOURCE EXTRACTION AND HEAVY INDUSTRY
• Fewer clean fuel options – resource extraction and heavy
industrial producers have fewer options for low- carbon fuels
relative to other sectors such as electricity generation o
Energy-dense fuels are required to
power these processes o Biofuels have been identified as a
potential option to displace some heavy fossil fuels E.g. Bio oil
from wood residues
• Resource extraction (e.g. mining, energy extraction) and heavy
industry (e.g. cement and steel manufacturing) account for a third
of Canadian GHG emissions annually
• Primary sources of emissions include onsite combustion of heavy
fossil fuels (e.g. petcoke, coal) and process emissions
© EarthShift Global, LLC
BIOENERGY
• The carbon footprint and LCA literature provide very mixed
results for bioenergy systems from a carbon standpoint
• Concerns about environmental trade-offs and issues with large-
scale deployment have been identified o E.g. Ecosystem impacts
from
increased harvesting
• Bioenergy options are being developed for liquid fuels (e.g.
biodiesel), solid fuels (e.g. wood pellets), and gaseous fuels
(e.g. hydrogen from wood residues)
• Biogenic carbon emissions are generally considered as part of a
short-term carbon cycle and are excluded from national inventory
reports
ENERGY SECTOR EFFORTS AND CHALLENGES TO REDUCE GHG EMISSIONS
© EarthShift Global, LLC
• Rebound Effect? • Total energy use still increased
• Efforts to increase process and combustion efficiency have been a
key effort by industry and government
• Energy efficiency in Canada improved by 31% between 1990 and 2016
and reduced the emissions intensity of many activities
https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy-and-greenhouse-gas-
emissions-ghgs/20063
RENEWABLES
• Introduction of more renewable sources of energy had a
significant influence on emissions from Canadian electricity
production o Total electricity emissions decreased
42% from 2000 to 2017 o Renewable electricity generation has
increased 18% between 2010 and 2017
• Fewer renewable options exist for transport and heavy
industry
https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy-and-greenhouse-gas-
emissions-ghgs/20063
BIOENERGY
• Literature suggest carbon footprint is lower when using biomass
residues (e.g. sawmill residuals) than when harvesting standing
biomass
• Increased interest in using biomass for fuels and electricity
generation, including: • Transportation fuels; • Space heating; •
Industrial heating; • Combined heat and power.
• Feedstocks could include: • Agricultural crops and residues; •
Forest biomass and wood residues; • Wastes.
© EarthShift Global, LLC
• Any questions or comments about the GHG emissions data
presented?
• Any questions or concerns about the methods used or the findings
of the research?
• Other thoughts or points of discussion for the workshop?
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
© EarthShift Global, LLC
FEDERAL POLICY OVERALL
• Committed to the Paris Agreement under the UNFCC
• Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change • Price
on carbon • Climate adaptation • Support clean tech
• Phasing out of coal power plants by 2030 • Overall GHG reduction
of 30% from 2005
levels by 2030
© EarthShift Global, LLC
CARBON TAX
• Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act (2018) o Trading system for
large industry o Regulatory charge on fuel
• Provincial systems apply in BC, QC, NS, PEI, and NL • Federal
program will apply in AB in 2020 • CRA administers a fuel charge on
21 types of fuel (e.g. aviation fuel,
natural gas, propane, etc.) • ECCC administers an output-based
pricing system for industrial emitters
© EarthShift Global, LLC
CLEAN FUEL STANDARD
• Fossil fuel producers must reduce life cycle GHG emissions
intensity (g/MJ) to meet targets
• Low carbon fuel producers can earn carbon credits if reductions
can be demonstrated
• A life cycle assessment tool is being developed to facilitate
calculation of life cycle GHG emissions for low carbon fuels
• Federal government setting performance standards (i.e. GHG
emissions reduction targets) for fossil fuels
• Objective to reduce GHG emissions by 30 million tonnes per year
by 2030
• To include liquid, solid, and gaseous fossil fuels
© EarthShift Global, LLC
SELECTED PROVINCIAL POLICIES
Quebec • Cap and trade system since 2013 • Carbon offset
program
o Based on ISO 14064 Nova Scotia
• Cap and trade system o Imposed on 20 large emitters
• Currently excluded from federal 2030 coal electricity phase
out
British Columbia • Carbon tax in place since 2008 • Renewable and
low carbon fuel
requirements policies in place since 2010 o Based on GHGenius
calculation
tool for life cycle GHG emissions Alberta
• Alberta Emission Offset System o Based on ISO 14064
• Renewable Fuels Standard
© EarthShift Global, LLC
THE SUSTANE PROCESS: SEPARATION OF MSW, NEAR COMPLETE DIVERSION
FROM LANDFILL
Metals Recycling
Biomass Pellets
• Sold to Biomass co-generation plants • FUTURE: Agricultural
applications
• #1 used to run process • #2 sold to industrial users of Bunker
‘C’ • FUTURE: Chemical feedstock, Plastic feedstock
• Sent to landfill – clean and inert • FUTURE: Aggregates/
Composites
~ 10%
~ 50%
~ 10%
~ 5%
Sustainable economics
CALCULATING THE CARBON FOOTPRINT OF THE SUSTANE SYSTEM
• A complex system with a large number of co-products and options
for configuration
• The use of fuels that are produced onsite • Production of two
fuels for external sale, including biomass pellets
and a No. 2 diesel • Diversion of metals and plastics to recycling
when they would
have otherwise been landfilled – Reduction in need for virgin
metals and plastics
• Reduction of landfill emissions by diverting organic
materials
© EarthShift Global, LLC
o Construction and site commissioning
o Collection and transport of MSW o Extraction and processing of
fuels o Generation and transmission of
electricity o Extraction and treatment of well
water
Operational sources of GHG emissions include:
o Onsite fuel combustion to power the separation and fuel
production systems
o Onsite fuel combustion to power other equipment and
vehicles
© EarthShift Global, LLC
o Transportation and combustion of biomass pellets
o Transportation and combustion of No. 2 diesel
o Distribution of sorted recyclables
o Landfilling of inert materials o Wastewater removal and
treatment o Plant decommissioning
Potential avoided emissions from Sustane co-products:
• Credit for reduced virgin metal production
• Credit for reduced virgin plastic production
• Credit for avoided landfill emissions of CH4 due to diversion of
organics
Biomass Pellets • Could be used in place of wood
biomass pellets, or in place of coal
No.2 Diesel • Could be used in place of fossil-
based diesel • Due to petroleum-based plastics
being used as feedstock, GHG emissions reductions may be minimal
for this fuel
© EarthShift Global, LLC
MSW diverted 25 new jobs 185,000 metric tons
CO2e saved (1.2% of NS GHG emission)
Multiple Nova Scotia Sustane Plants: 150 jobs, $200+ million
investment 1,100,000 metric tons CO2e
saved (~7% of NS GHG emission)
Creating and promoting best-in-class, investment ready conditions
for a low carbon bio-resource economy.
Nova Scotia MSW Potential: 400,000+ metric
tons MSW
78
tons available sustainably
content + affordable = desirable feedstock
Renewable Fuel & Advanced Materials Biorefinery Scenerio: 1000
+ new direct jobs in NS Almost $1B investment >2,000,000 metric
tons CO2e
saved (~13% of NS GHG emission)
© EarthShift Global, LLC
79
More efficient recycling = lower carbon footprint & addresses a
global plastic contaminatio n problem
Environmental Sustainability and Economic Prosperity for Nova
Scotians!
© EarthShift Global, LLC
• Work is underway to update and further validate preliminary
carbon footprint calculations – Updating data, undertaking more
analysis, exploring other methodological
assumptions • Research is underway on other products that Sustane
system
could produce and the potential carbon benefits – E.g. Conversion
of organics to other useful products
• Research is underway to expand the consideration of environmental
impacts and benefits beyond carbon
© EarthShift Global, LLC
• Any questions or comments about the government
policies/programs?
• Any questions about the Sustane system and its potential carbon
impacts and benefits?
• Other thoughts or points of discussion for the workshop?
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
INFORM POLICY, INNOVATION AND EFFICIENCY
• Tracking carbon footprint over time to measure progress and drive
target-setting
• Data can be used for comparing product designs or selecting
materials and energy sources
• Insights gained from carbon footprints can help identify where to
target resources to improve eco-efficiency by showing environmental
hot-spots • Activities in the supply chain,
operation, or downstream which contribute the most
• E.g. coal combustion emissions
RESPOND TO CUSTOMERS AND INVESTORS
• Investors in clean tech and environmental start-ups are
increasingly asking for environmental data on the technologies they
fund, with an emphasis on GHG emissions
• Customers, including business-to- business customers, are
increasingly asking for GHG emissions data o E.g. big box stores
requiring EPDs
• Government funding agencies may require the periodic submission
of GHG emissions inventories and benefit statements
© EarthShift Global, LLC
• US Renewable Identification Number (RIN), California Low Carbon
Fuel Standards (LCFS)
• Canada Carbon ‘Tax’ and Low Carbon Fuel Standard
• Nova Scotia Cap and Trade • Sustainability is becoming a
business imperative! 0
2016 2021
Bi llio
ns U
© EarthShift Global, LLC
STRENGTHS OF CARBON FOOTPRINTING
• Adopted early, lots of people familiar with terminology, lots of
guidance available, lots of data and emissions factors
available
• Responds to an issue of immediate concern to governments and
stakeholders
• Provides a good launching point for broader life cycle
environmental management
• Climate change is one of the most critical problems and is an
indicator of some other critical issues: o Ocean acidification (CO2
only) o Fossil fuel depletion o Particulates/respiratory inorganics
o Smog
• Limited assessment of environmental impact and sustainability o
Misses lots of other environmental indicators o Does not assess
environmental problem shifting o Does not assess social or economic
dimensions
• Difficult to compare or compile carbon footprint results across
studies due to differences in methods and assumptions
• Issues associated with large-scale deployment not captured in
single- product analysis o E.g. land use change, environmental
problem shifting
• Is current time horizon of 100 years too long given increasingly
short window for action?
WEAKNESSES OF CARBON FOOTPRINTING
© EarthShift Global, LLC
ISSUES OF UNCERTAINTY
• Uncertainty can be limited and accounted for by: o Assessing data
quality o Statistical calculations to measure
variability in results o Transparency about methods and
data o Third-party review o Sensitivity analysis
• All quantitative modelling is an attempt to model the real model
and has limitations
• Sources of uncertainty for carbon footprinting include: o
Parameter uncertainty o Model uncertainty o Choice uncertainty o
Temporal and geographic variability o Representativeness (data
quality)
© EarthShift Global, LLC
• Good environmental management requires multiple layers of
analysis and consideration and the use of different tools to
provide information
• Carbon footprinting alone should not be used to measure
sustainability
DISCUSSION AND WRAP-UP
© EarthShift Global, LLC
Fraser Gray Sustane Technologies Inc. Email:
[email protected]
Rod Badcock Nova Scotia Innovation Hub Email:
[email protected]
Nathan Ayer EarthShift Global Email:
[email protected]
Greg Sweet Sustane Technologies Inc. Email:
[email protected]
Nova Scotia Innovation Hub
VISION OF SUCCESS: BIO-REFINERIES
Global GHG emissions - overall
Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations
What are the implications?
Carbon footprint of a product (CFP)
Global carbon cycle
Global warming potential
Characterization & Impact score
Understanding the Trade-Offs
Life cycle of Wood Biomass electricity
carbon footprint standards & reporting
Product GHG Accounting
Iso standards - carbon
Third-party verification
Questions and group Discussion
Canadian GHG emissions by source
Life Cycle GHG Emissions - Electricity
Natural gas electricity
bioenergy
Efficiency
Renewables
bioenergy
Federal policy overall
Case study: sustane technologies inc.
The SUSTANE Process: separation of MSW, near Complete Diversion
From Landfill
SUSTANE CHESTER Plant
System boundary
Sustane Technologies – A Circular Economy Solution!
Ongoing work
Market Opportunities
Strengths of carbon footprinting
Weaknesses of carbon footprinting
Discussion and wrap-up