Canterbury regional landscape study review 2010

CanterburyRegional Landscape Study Review

FINAL REPORT July 2010

CANTERbuRy LANdsCAPE sTudy REvIEw

Final report (Following peer review)

Prepared for Environment Canterbury by Boffa Miskell Limited

14th May 2010

This Report has been prepared following an external peer review by Di Lucas (Lucas Associates).

As a result of this review, changes have been made to the final report issued to Environment Canterbury on the 27th of July 2009.

ACkNOwLEdgEmENTs

Thank you to the following people who contributed to this report;

Boffa Miskell Limited: Yvonne Pfluger, Sarah Hamilton, Allan Rackham and Nicola Rykers.

Environment Canterbury: Marcus Langman and Andrew Willis.

The study team wish to express their appreciation to Di Lucas, Graham Densem and Andrew Craig who attended a workshop session to discuss the recommendations and provided feedback on the draft report.

Thanks to both Di and Graham for their ongoing feedback and assistance with the preparation of this final report.

The study team are also thankful for the assistance they received from a range of other people, particularly those at Environment Canterbury and the district councils.

Also thanks to Jane Harper for her artwork and to those who provided us with photographs, in particular Tim Church.

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Contentsexecutive summary 5

section A: Introduction 8

Background and Study brief 10

Approach to Review 11

Statutory Considerations 17

Assignment of Values to the Landscape 19

Identification and Mapping of recommended ONL/ Fs 24

section B: Introduction to the Canterbury Landscape 27

Introduction to the Canterbury Region 28

The Geological Formation and Geomorphology of the Landscape 30

Soils 32

River and Coastal Environments 34

Landcover and Land Use Patterns in the Region 36

Human Occupation and Cultural Landscape Elements 38

section C: Landscape Characterisation and evaluation 41

1. Banks Peninsula 42

2. Low Altitude Plains 50

3. Downlands and Foothills 58

4. Coastal Limestone Hills 66

5. High Country Limestone 70

6. Front Range 74

7. Semi Arid Mountain Ranges 80

8. Intermontane Ranges and Basins 84

9. High Rainfall Divide 94

10. Kaikoura 102

section D: outstanding natural Features and Landscapes 109

Identification of Outstanding Natural Features and Landscapes 110

Inland and Seaward Kaikouras 116

Molesworth 118

Lake Sumner Area and Lewis Pass 120

Arthur’s Pass National Park 122

Waimakariri Basin 124

Castle Hill/Kura Tawhiti 126

Torlesse Range 128

Upper Rakaia Valley 130

Upper Rangitata Valley 132

Lake Heron and Ashburton Lakes 134

Mt Somers 136

Mt Peel and Four Peaks Range 138

Two Thumb, Hall and Gammack Ranges 140

Mackenzie Basin 142

Aoraki/Mt Cook National Park 144

Hopkins and Dobson Valleys 146

Lindis and Ahuriri 148

Hawkdun and St Marys Ranges/Oteake 150

Kaikoura Peninsula and Coast 152

Weka Pass 154

Motunau Island 156

Lower Waimakariri River and Gorge 158

Banks Peninsula and Port Hills 160

Lake Ellesmere/Te Waihora and Kaitorete Spit 162

Lower Rakaia River and Gorge 164

Wainono Lagoon 166

References 169

Appendices 170

Appendix 1 : Quick Reference ONF/L Table 170

Appendix 2 : 1993 Regionally Significant Landscapes 171

Appendix 3 : Landscape Models 173

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O t a g o R e g i o nO t a g o R e g i o n

W e s t C o a s t R e g i o nW e s t C o a s t R e g i o n

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Legend

1 Inland and Seaward Kaikouras2 Molesworth3 Lake SumnerArea and Lewis Pass4 Arthurs Pass National Park5 Waimakariri Basin6 Castle Hill/ Kura Tawhiti7 Torlesse Range8 Upper Rakaia Valley9 Upper Rangitata Valley10 Lake Heron and Ashburton Lakes11 Mt Somers12 Mt Peel and Four Peaks Range13 Two Thumb, Hall and Gammack Ranges14 Mackenzie Basin15 Aoraki/ Mt Cook National Park16 Hopkins and Dobson Valleys17 Lindis and Ahuriri18 Hawkdun and St Mary's Ranges / Oteake19 Kaikoura Peninsula and Coast20 Weka Pass21 Motunau Island22 Lower Waimakariri River and Gorge23 Banks Peninsula and Port Hills24 Lake Ellesmere/ Te Waihora and Kaitorete Spit25 Lower Rakaia River and Gorge26 Wainono Lagoon

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ExEcutivE SummaryCanterbury is one of the largest and one of the most diverse regions of New Zealand. Canterbury’s natural features and landscapes range from New Zealand’s highest mountain to the gently shelving Canterbury Plains, encompassing a huge variety of ecosystems and spanning a long history of human habitation.

This report identifies areas of outstanding natural features and landscapes (ONF/Ls) at a regional scale within Canterbury. It is a comprehensive, technical, peer-reviewed update of the Canterbury Regional Landscape Study of 1993, which was one of the first regional landscape analyses completed in response to the 1991 Resource Management Act in New Zealand.

The 2010 report builds upon the methods used in 1993 and reflects current best practice in landscape assessment. It is intended to provide a basis for further detailed landscape studies in the region. The focus of the report is on large-scale landscape patterns that are able to be distinguished at a regional level, rather than site specific analysis. Detailed studies are likely to identify more features that are distinguishable at a local level, as well as refine specific boundaries in response to finer grained analysis.

Overview and methodsSection A of the 2010 report discusses updates to the 1993 methods, including description of the main land types, landscape values, and the updated Geographic Information Systems (GIS) used. Gaps were identified in the information provided on landscape values in the 1993 study, so more extensive character and value descriptions were developed for each landscape type.

The statutory context for assessing landscape quality has changed since 1993. Assessment matters have now been endorsed through the Environment Court, notably by use of a legally accepted set of values known as the “Amended Pigeon Bay Criteria”. These assessment matters, which have been used to structure the evaluation in this study, are summarised as follows:

• Naturalsciencefactors–thegeological,topographical,ecologicalanddynamic components of the landscape.

• Expressivenessor“legibility”–howeasyitisto“read”theprocessesthatformed a landscape.

• Aestheticvalues–includingmemorabilityandnaturalness.

• Transientvalues–includingpresenceofwildlifeorseasonalchanges.

• Whetherthevaluesaresharedandhowwidelytheyarerecognised.

• Valuestotangatawhenua.

• Historicalassociation.

Most districts in the Canterbury Region have also prepared landscape studies since 1993, and these have also informed the 2010 report.

Section B of the 2010 report gives an introduction to the landscapes of the Canterbury Region, including geology, soils, land-use and cultural landscape elements.

Section C gives descriptions of Canterbury’s main landscape types. As in the 1993 landscape study, 44 land types derived from a study by Ian Lynn of Landcare Research were grouped into ten broad landscape types based on a combination of landscape criteria e.g. geomorphological and biological characteristics, common perceptions, and general similarities of appearance. Landscape character and value descriptions were based on this land type information, some site investigation, GIS data, district landscape studies and other literature. As part of the new work, each of the 44 land types was also assessed against the Amended Pigeon Bay Criteria.

Section D focuses on the identification of outstanding natural features and landscapes (ONF/Ls) within Canterbury at the regional scale. Since the 1993 report, the courts have refined a working definition of the word ‘outstanding’ in ‘outstanding natural features and landscapes’ in section 6(b) of the RMA as meaning ‘conspicuous, eminent, especially because of excellence’ and ‘remarkable’. The identified ONF/Ls are grouped into 26 areas of distinctive landscape character, with GIS maps showing the proposed areas at a scale of 1:250.000. Section D also contains a description of the landscape values of each of these areas, which will be critical for future landscape assessments and the development of management mechanisms to protect these areas from inappropriatedevelopment.Wherethestudyteamidentifieddiscrepanciesbetween the ONL areas identified in the 1993 study and the values identified in 2010, recommendations were made on possible changes to these boundaries.

ResultsThe 2010 study has identified 26 ONF/L areas in Canterbury, comprising 18 high country land types and 8 lowland land types.

The review process led to some minor boundary adjustments of the 1993 ONF/Ls and to the inclusion of new ONF/Ls, most of which were previously identified as ‘regionally significant’ areas. The additions include most mountain ranges and river valleys in the western part of the region. The application of the Amended Pigeon Bay Criteria throughout the assessment process led to the inclusion of areas with similar qualities to previously identified ONF/Ls. Since the 1993 study, districts have identified ONF/Ls through more detailed landscape assessments and large areas have been included in the Department of Conservation (DOC) estate. Most of the additions to the regional ONF/Ls in the 2010 study were previously identified as ‘regionally significant’, and many of these areas are already district ONLs, conservation land, or both.

KEy findingS and boundary changES

High country

Inland and Seaward Kaikouras: this ONF/L now includes Sawyers Creek and the hill country near Mangamaunu.

Molesworth and Upper Clarence River: this is a new area of ONF/L.

Lake Sumner area and Lewis Pass: this ONF/L now includes the St James Range and the ranges of Lake Sumner Conservation Park.

Arthur’s Pass: this ONF/L is largely unchanged since 1993 but now includes the lowerPoulterValley.

WaimakaririBasin:thisONF/LhasbeenamendedtofollowtheridgelinecontainingthebasinaroundtheEskValley.

CastleHill/KuraTawhiti:theboundaryofthisONF/Lisunchangedsince1993.

Torlesse Range: the boundary of this ONF/L is unchanged since 1993.

UpperRakaiaValley:thisONF/LhasbeenamendedtoincludetheCraigieburnand Arrowsmith Ranges and the valley floor around Lake Coleridge.

UpperRangitataValley:thisONF/Lhasbeenamendedtoincludethegorge.

LakeHeronandAshburtonLakes:thisONF/Lhasbeenamendedtoincludeadjacent mountainous areas.

Mt Somers: this is a new area of ONF/L, previously a “significant landscape”.

Mt Peel and Four Peaks Range: this ONF/L has been slightly amended. The tops of the Four Peaks Range and the Orari Gorge have also been included.

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Two Thumb, Hall and Gammack Ranges: this is a new area of ONF/L, previously a “significant landscape”.

Mackenzie Basin: the boundary has been amended to follow the ridgelines of the surroundingmountainranges.Twoareashavebeenadded–theUpperGodleyValleyand Lake Benmore. The more modified part of the basin floor around and south of Twizel has been excluded, and the exclusion extends further south, to the Ahuriri River, than in the 1993 study.

Aoraki/Mt Cook National Park: the boundary of this ONF/L is unchanged since 1993.

Hopkins and Dobson Valley: this is a new area of ONF/L, previously a “significant landscape”.

Lindis and Ahuriri: this ONF/L now joins up with other ONF/L areas.

Hawkdun and St Mary’s Ranges/Oteake: this is a new area of ONF/L, not previously identified as significant or outstanding.

Lowland

Kaikoura Peninsula and Coast: amendments to boundaries mean that the ONF/Ls here now include the coastal hills around Rakautara, the Clarence River mouth, and an additional part of the outer peninsula.

Weka Pass: amendments to boundaries mean that some farmland has been excluded and Pyramid Swamp included within the ONF/L.

Motunau Island: this is a new area of ONF/L, previously a “significant landscape”.

Lower Waimakariri River and Gorge: the 1993 ONF/L has been amended to include Brooklands Lagoon.

Banks Peninsula and Port Hills: the 1993 ONF/L has been amended to exclude the built-up area of the Port Hills.

Lake Ellesmere/Te Waihora and Kaitorete Spit: the 1993 ONF/L has been amended to include the lake shoreline and associated wetlands, but to exclude the farmland on the surrounding flats.

Lower Rakaia River and Gorge: amended boundaries now follow the edge of the lower river terraces more accurately.

Wainono Lagoon: this is a new area of ONF/L, previously a “significant landscape”.

NOTEs

There is a complex relationship between the status “outstanding” and the scale at which a landscape evaluation is made. District and regional assessments do not necessarily result in identical outlines, as they are undertaken within different contexts. The threshold for what constitutes an outstanding landscape within a large and diverse region, such as Canterbury as a whole, may differ from that for a smaller district. District landscape studies are undertaken within the district context and are refined in accordance with the statutory processes for District Plan preparation.

At the smallest scale, modern GIS allows the viewer to zoom in and assess the exact location of land type boundaries mapped in the 2010 study. However, land types and characters in this study were mapped within the context of the Canterbury region as a whole and with reference to surrounding broad geographical features, not paddock by paddock. This broader context should be borne in mind. It is also acknowledged that the areas within identified ONF/Ls will vary in landcover and landscape quality.

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seCtion aIntroduction

Environment Canterbury is currently reviewing the Canterbury Regional Policy Statement (CRPS), in accordance with the requirements of the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA). One of the topic areas examined as part of this statutory review is the management of landscapes and natural features. Boffa Miskell Limited (BML) has been engaged by Environment Canterbury to undertake a review of the Canterbury Regional Landscape Study (BML and Lucas Ass., 1993). The study was required to consider the ‘key landscape values’ (identified in the 1993 Canterbury Regional Landscape Study) by undertaking a landscape characterisation and evaluation review.

The review has been undertaken as an independent technical assessment, and has been subject to input from three other landscape architects through an internal review workshop (June 2009). The final report has been formally peer reviewed by Di Lucas, following completion in August 2009. In some areas changes and amendments have been made as a result. The use of the study and its outcomes will be determined by the Regional Council in accordance with its duties and statutory processes under the RMA. No stakeholder input has been sought and it is understood the study will provide a basis for consultation as part of the review of the Canterbury Regional Policy Statement.

In the 1993 study, many landscapes that were not identified as ‘outstanding’ were still considered to be ‘of regional significance’. However, the term ‘significant landscape’ has no statutory basis. The brief did not require identification of special landscapes under other sections of the RMA, eg visual amenity (s 7c) or heritage (s 6f).

The original Canterbury Landscape Study was one of the first comprehensive regional landscape studies undertaken under the RMA in New Zealand. It was a ground breaking document in terms of landscape assessment methodology at the time and has been used extensively over the years. Subsequently case law has endorsed and refined the assessment criteria. The approach used in this investigation is an evolution of the methodology used in previous Canterbury landscape assessments and reflects current ‘best practice’. While the original landscape study focused on the identification of the ‘best examples’ of each landscape type for inclusion in ONF/Ls, all landscapes of similar quality (above an ‘outstanding’ threshold) are considered in a similar manner in this review. This approach resulted in the inclusion of some additional ONF/L areas which were formerly identified as ‘significant’.

Most districts in the Canterbury Region have prepared landscape assessments following the original Canterbury Landscape Study. These investigations provide information about the landscapes that make up the districts. The depth and level of detail of these studies was determined by time and budget and varies significantly between the districts. Most districts have adopted ONL and/ or other landscape protection overlays in their plans following the preparation of district landscape assessments. It is acknowledged that the extent of district ONLs was determined by those technical assessments and were then considered and tested through the statutory processes set in place by the Resource Management Act. The study team took information provided by the districts into account for this landscape evaluation review, while also maintaining a regional perspective.

bACkgROuNd ANd sTudy bRIEF The review did not allow for detailed site investigations. As identified in the original landscape study and confirmed by case law (eg EC C45/2008 Briggs et al vs CCC) ONF/Ls may be smaller or larger at a district level. Other statutory documents affecting landscape management include:

- Natural Resources Regional Plan

- District plans

- National Policy Statements (eg coastal)

- Conservation Act

- Reserves Act

- Crown Pastoral Land Act.

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Approach to ReviewsTRuCTuRE OF ThE REPORT

The focus of this study is a review of the Outstanding Natural Features and Landscapes identified in current District Plans and the 1993 Canterbury Landscape Study. In completing the brief provided by Environment Canterbury, the project team followed a logical process of resource description, interpretation and evaluation. This approach is illustrated in the following diagram.

The review process involved 4 key phases:

1. Project familiarisation and desktop analysis of the existing study, including identification of potential weaknesses and strengths of the 1993 approach.

2. A review of landscape character using existing land typing, site investigations and other available data.

3. Assignment of values to the landscape based on study team findings, GIS data, other district assessments, and literature.

4. Mapping of recommended amendments to the Outstanding Natural Landscapes and Features identified in the 1993 study and description of values for each ONF/L areas.

This report is structured to reflect the phases of the assessment process. Following a general introductory section, landscape characterisations and evaluations are outlined for the different landscape types occurring in the region. Based on the findings from these phases, the ONL areas identified in the original Canterbury Landscape Study are reviewed and suggested amendments made. While landscape values are described in this report, it does not provide any recommendations as to how the outcomes of the study may be used by the Regional Council or other organisations.

Findings from the desktop review were discussed with council officers in January 2009. A draft report outlining the results from the characterisation and evaluation stages of the review process was provided to Environment Canterbury staff and councillors for review prior to finalising the report. The photographic record established during the flight across the region was also provided to the Council for future reference. The review of ONL/F boundaries was based on findings of the landscape evaluation, and a workshop with three other landscape architects experienced in landscape assessment was held to discuss preliminary ONF/L outlines. Some minor amendments were agreed as a result of this workshop. A report including these amended ONF/L outlines was provided to the Council in June 2009 and presented to Territorial Authorities with a request for preliminary feedback, followed by an Environment Canterbury councillors’ workshop in August 2009. A formal peer review of the report was undertaken by Di Lucas (Lucas Associates) which has led to some further amendments and the identification of an additional ONF/L area (Hawkdun and St Marys Ranges / Oteake. Potential landscape issues and pressures for change were discussed with the council officers throughout the preparation of the study. This final report may be used as a resource by the Regional and District Councils and a range of people involved in resource management and landscape issues in Canterbury.

Preliminary draft report

Review of 1993 study, and other relevant reports.

Scoping and Recognisance

Review of district ONF/Ls and district landscape studies

Presentation of findings to Environment Canterbury officers

Site investigation (flight)

Landscape CharacterisationLandscape type descriptions

Photographic record and field notes

Presentation to Environment Canterbury councillors and officers

OutputsTasks

Finalising report (characterisation, evaluation and

recommended ONF/L areas)

Landscape Value Assessment

Preparation of draft report (with landtype maps)

Draft report (including descriptions of landscape values with preliminary GIS

mapping of recommended ONF/L areas

Meeting with Environment Canterbury officers and workshop with other Landscape Architects*

Feedback on findings from Environment Canterbury

Presentation of report to territorial authorities and

Environment Canterbury councillors

Presentation of preliminary findings and methodology to

territoral authorities

Preparation recommended of ONF/L maps for discussion

Peer review of final studyby Di Lucas

Issuing final report

*Landscape Architects at workshop: Di Lucas, Andrew Craig and Graham Densem

Publishing final report by ECANIncorporation of Peer Review comments

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Scoping and FamiliarisationThe study team undertook a detailed desktop analysis of existing information, including the 1993 Canterbury Regional Landscape Study and District Plans. The focus of the GIS desktop review was the identification of similarities and discrepancies between the current Outstanding Landscapes and Natural Features identified at district and regional levels. Any differences in ONL outlines that were identified as part of this desktop review were explored further during the subsequent assessment phases and findings are shown in Section D of the study. A report on the current management provisions for natural features and landscape in district plans was provided by Environment Canterbury, which supplemented the spatial information on landscape protection areas.

Landscape Description and CharacterisationA flight over the Canterbury Region was undertaken by members of the study team to get an overview of the various landscapes. The GIS layers (see following section) available to the study team were used to analyse landscape types identified in the 1993 study (see below for details). The land typing approach of the original study was adopted and the landscape categorised into 10 landscape types. Objective character descriptions were prepared for these broad landscape types, which provided raw material for further evaluation.

Land TypesThis study used geomorphological land characteristics to describe the region’s landscapes, based on a land type analysis provided by Ian Lynn (Landcare Research) outlined at a scale of 1:250.000. This was the same approach used in the original Canterbury Landscape Study (1993). This land typing is based on a range of data sources including published scientific papers, geological and topographical maps, Protected Natural Area survey material, joint earth science inventories, and expert scientific knowledge. This analysis resulted in the identification of 44 land types for the Canterbury Region. These land types distinguish major physiographic landforms and were assigned to either a lowland (24 land types) or high country (20 land types) environment. Further explanations of these are outlined in Section C of this report (for illustrative sketches refer to Appendix 3 and tables refer to Canterbury Regional Landscape Study, 1993, Volume 2).

The 44 land types are as follows:

Lowland Land Types:

L1 Plains - Coastal Fringe Land Type

L2 Lower Plains Land Type

L3 Upper Plains Land Type

L4 Plains - Recent Floodplains and Low Terraces Land Type

L5 Raised Coastal Plains Land Type

L6 Northern Coastal Strip Land Type

L7 Kaikoura Aggradational Fan-Plain Land Type

L8 Banks Peninsula - Port Hills Land Type

L9 Banks Peninsula - Herbert Land Type

L10 Banks Peninsula - Akaroa Land Type

L11 Northern Loess Mantled Soft Rock Hills and Downs Land Type

L12 Northern Soft Rock Hills and Downs Land Type

L13 Northern Structural Soft Rock Hills and Land Type

L14 Southern Loess Mantled Soft Rock Hills and Downs Land Type

L15 Southern Soft Rock Hills and Downs Land Type

L16 Southern Structural Soft Rock Hills Land Type

L17 Loess Mantled Hard Rock Hills and Downs

L18 Moist Coastal Limestone Hills Land Type

L19 Coastal Conglomerate and Limestone Hills Land Type

L20 Moist Coastal Hard Rock Hills Land Type

L21 Northern Hard Rock Hills Land Type

L22 Southern Hard Rock Hills and Mountain Land Type

L23 lgneous Hill Country Land Type

L24 Inland Basins and Major Valleys Land Type

High Country Land Types:

H1 Major River, Valley Fill Land Type

H2 Glacial and Fluvial Valley Flood Land Type

H3 Glacial and Fluvial Basin Flood Land Type

H4 Basin Floor Outwash Plains Land Type

H5 Small lntermontane Basins and Valleys Land Type

H6 Soft Rock Infaulted Basin and Valley Land Type

H7 Isolated Mountain Land Type

H8 Coastal Mountain Range Land Type

H9 Northern Eastern Front Range Land Type

H10 Southern Eastern Front Range Land Type

H11 lnland Kaikoura Range Land Type

H12 lntermontane Hard Rock Hills Land Type

H13 Northern Subhumid to Humid Mountain Range Land Type

H14 Central Subhumid to Humid Mountain Range Land Type

H15 Southern Subhumid to Humid Mountain Range Land Type

H16 Igneous Mountain Range Land Type

H17 Semi Arid to Humid Mountain Range Land Type

H18 Semi Arid to Humid Fault Block Mountain Range Land Type

H19 Northern Main Divide and Associated Ranges Land Type

H20 Southern Main Divide and Associated Ranges Land Type

Map opposite page: Landtypes of the Canterbury Region (Ian Lynn)

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H20

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H1

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L11

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L3

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H3

L18

L16

L14

L5

H7

L11

L5

L4

L23

L14

L20

L22

L1

L11

H4

L12

H7

L16

H5

L12

H6

L17

L6

H7L11 L12

L17

L1

L13

L13

L11

L11

L4

L21

L22



M a r l b o r o u g h R e g i o nM a r l b o r o u g h R e g i o nTa s m a n R e g i o nTa s m a n R e g i o n

T a s m a n S e a

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Land Types (Landcare Research, 1993)

Plains - Coastal Fringe (L1)

Lower Plains (L2)

Upper Plains (L3)

Plains - Recent Floodplains and Low Terraces (L4)

Raised Coastal Plains (L5)

Northern Coastal Strip (L6)

Kaikoura Aggradational Fan-Plain (L7)

Banks Peninsula - Port Hills (L8)

Banks Peninsula - Herbert (L9)

Banks Peninsula - Akaroa (L10)

Northern Loess Mantled Soft Rock Hills and Downs (L12)

Northern Soft Rock Hills and Downs (L12)

Northern Structural Soft Rock Hills (L13)

Southern Loess Mantled Soft Rock Hills and Downs (L14)

Southern Structural Soft Rock Hills (L16)

Loess Mantled Hard Rock Hills and Downs (L17)

Moist Coastal Limestone Hills (L18)

Coastal Conglomerate and Limestone Hills (L19)

Moist Coastal Hard Rock Hills (L20)

Northern Hard Rock Hills (L21)

Southern Hard Rock Hills and Mountain (L22)

Igneous Hills (L23)

Inland Basins and Major Valleys (L24)

Major River (H1)

Glacial and Fluvial Valley Floor (H2)

Glacial and Fluvial Basin Floor (H3)

Basin Floor Outwash Plains (H4)

Small Intermontane Basins and Valleys (H5)

Soft Rock Infaulted Basin and Valley (H6)

Isolated Mountain (H7)

Coastal Mountain Range (H8)

Northern Eastern Front Range (H9)

Southern Eastern Front Range (H10)

Inland Kaikoura Range (H11)

Intermontane Hard Rock Hills (H12)

Northern Subhumid to Humid Mountain Range (H13)

Central Subhumid to Humid Mountain Range (H14)

Southern Subhumid to Humid Mountain Range (H15)

Igneous Mountain Range (H16)

Semi Arid to Humid Mountain Range (H17)

Semi Arid to Humid Fault Block Mountain Range (H18)

Northern Main Divide and Associated Ranges (H19)

Southern Main Divide and Associated Ranges (H20)

Areas of Combined Landtypes

Landscape TypesLandscape can be viewed both as a natural resource and as a perceptual resource. The natural resource is tangible, composed of landform and land cover and is dynamic, comprising elements, patterns and processes. Landform reflects geological, climatic and hydrological processes and generally changes slowly (apart from catastrophic events). Land cover can change rapidly, particularly where human pressures are intense. The landscape types are an amalgamation of land types based on a combination of landscape criteria, such as geomorphological and biological characteristics, reflections of common perceptions and general similarity of appearance.

Landcare Research confirmed that the land typing method used for the original landscape study is still a valid approach and the original grouping of land types into larger scale landscape types is considered to be appropriate for the review. As in the original landscape study, the 44 land types derived by Landcare were grouped into ten broad landscape types. The Landcare land type descriptions are included in this report under the landscape type they occur in.

The ten landscape types are (see map on opposite page):

1 Banks Peninsula and Port Hills Landscapes

2 Low Altitude Plains Landscapes

3 Downland and Foothill Landscapes

4 Coastal Limestone Hill Landscapes

5 High Country Limestone Hill Landscapes

6 Front Range Landscapes

7 Semi-Arid Mountain Range Landscapes

8 Inter-Montane Range and Basin Landscapes

9 High Rainfall Divide Landscapes

10 Kaikoura Mountain Landscapes

The original 1993 study was prepared in two volumes: Volume One is the summary and ‘findings’ document; Volume Two is a ‘support’ document containing detailed land typing information and a number of papers reporting on the various investigations that formed an integral part of the study. Readers may refer to Volume 2 of that report for more detailed land type information, including cross-sections of each land type.

Map opposite page: Landscape types of the Canterbury Region

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P a c i f i c O c e a n

T a s m a n S e a

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Landscape Types

Banks Peninsula

Low Altitude Plains

Foothills and Downlands

Coastal Limestone Hills

High Country Limestone Hills

Front Ranges

Semi-Arid Ranges

Intermontane Ranges and Basins

High Rainfall Divide

Kaikoura Mountains

Geographic information systems (GIS) were used for capturing, storing, analysing and managing data and associated attributes which are spatially referenced to the study area. GIS is a tool that allows interactive queries (user created searches) to analyse the spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations.

The Landcare land typing was used in a digital GIS format (provided by Environment Canterbury) for the landscape characterisation. For the landscape value assignment phase of the landscape study the use of GIS provided significant advantages over graphic or CAD applications. A range of existing data was used for the landscape character and value assessment. A full list of useful data, including its sources, is provided below. The existing base data can be displayed to scale and geo-referenced, which means that data will be accurately overlaid to maps or aerial photographs. Attributes, which are assigned to spatial information and linked to a database, can be queried and used for analysis. ONL areas as identified in the 1993 Canterbury Landscape Study, were reviewed by applying GIS at a scale of 1:250,000 (NZ map series 262). The maps included in the original study were hand drawn and reproduced showing the entire region in A3 format (which approximates a scale of 1: 1.250.000).

The review of ONF/L outlines was primarily based on the land typing information and broad geomorphological and geographical patterns. However, variations in land cover/use were taken into account as a secondary factor. This information was sourced from aerial photos, and other GIS information, such as the LCDB (Land Cover Data Base). The following data were used for the preparation of this review:

National GIS data provided by BML:

- Topo Maps (LINZ)

- Digital contour information 20m interval (LINZ)

- Land Cover Database II (Terralink, based on 2002 aerials)

- DOC conservation Units (May 2009)

- Critical sites identified by DOC (Cant. Conservancy Animal Pest Management Strategy, 2006)

- QE II covenants (March 2007)

- River Environment Classification (NIWA)

- Land Resource Inventory (Landcare Research)

- Geopreservation sites and areas, as indicative points (Kenny & Hayward, 1998)

The following data were provided by Environment Canterbury for the entire region:

- Current georeferenced orthophotos of the region

- Digitised (shp file format) land types of the Canterbury Region (Fig 1, 1993 Canterbury Regional Landscape Study)

- Digitised (shp file format) regionally significant and outstanding natural features and landscapes (Fig 4 , 1993 Canterbury Regional Landscape Study)

- Digitised (shp file format) outstanding natural features and landscapes from district plans

- Landscape series from District Plans, eg prominent ridgelines and significant landscapes

- Ecological series from District Plans (for some districts)

- Sites affected by Ngai Tahu Settlement Claims Act (Environment Canterbury, NRRP, 2002)

- Archaeological Sites for Canterbury (New Zealand Archaeological Association).

Geographic Information System (GIS)

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The Environment Court has commented that “A precise definition of ‘landscape’ cannot be given …” [WESI vs QLDC [2000] NZRMA 59]. From the first use of the word ‘landscape’ in the late 16th century its definition has evolved. It is now accepted that landscape is far more than scenic views. Landscapes have been described as the expressions of environmental processes, human activity and regional identity. Landscape is a large subset of the environment, which involves both natural and physical resources and various factors relating to the people and their perception of the resources. Our attitudes to those resources are affected by social, economic, aesthetic and cultural conditions.

The study team interpreted ‘landscapes’ as the physical and characteristic products of the interaction between human societies and culture with the natural environment. Landscape is the cumulative expression of natural and cultural elements, patterns and processes in a geographical area. Landscape attributes fall into three broad categories: Biophysical features, patterns and processes; sensory qualities, including visual attributes, sound and smell, and associative activities and meanings. Because the underlying human and natural processes are subject to change and evolution, landscapes are dynamic systems. This understanding is consistent with the purpose, principles, definitions and interpretations of the Resource Management Act (RMA), which provides the context for this study.

The Canterbury Regional Council is required under the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) to exercise certain functions and powers (S.30). In exercising these functions and powers the Council shall recognise and provide for the “preservation of the natural character of the coastal environment, wetlands, and lakes and rivers and their margins” (S6a), and the protection of these features and of ”outstanding natural features and landscapes (S.6b) from inappropriate subdivision, use and development”. Also, the Council shall have particular regard to a number of other matters set out in S.7, including (c) the maintenance and enhancement of amenity values. Under S.8 the Council shall take into account the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi.

In the 1993 study, ‘regionally significant’ landscapes were identified. These ‘second tier’ landscapes were not considered to be the best examples of these landscape types within the region. The brief for this review required the study team to limit their review to the identification of landscapes that meet the ‘outstanding’ threshold.

The RMA’s references to landscape are both explicit and implicit. In “Landscape Planning Guide - For Peri-urban and Rural Areas”, Raewyn Peart suggests that the Act ...“enables the identification of four broad categories of landscapes which merit more dedicated focus in regional and district planning, each with slightly different management objectives: outstanding natural landscapes, landscapes which contribute to visual amenity and/or the quality of the environment, areas of the coastal environment with high natural character and areas with cultural or heritage significance. These categories are overlapping and interconnected and may not always have distinct boundaries.”

She goes on to observe that “Although landscape management, like any other environmental management exercise, is necessarily going to focus on some priority areas, there is a need to be concerned for the maintenance and enhancement of landscape quality everywhere. All landscapes arguably merit some management consideration under the ‘sustainable management’ purpose of the RMA and the requirement to avoid, remedy or mitigate adverse effects of activities on the environment.”

From a technical landscape perspective, the purpose of management may be characterised as:

a) avoiding the inappropriate erosion of the intrinsic characteristics and qualities that have built up over time through the interplay of natural and cultural processes; and

b) enabling development and change to occur that avoids the loss of landscape coherence, diversity and cultural identity and meaning.

This landscape perspective is packaged within the RMA under a number of matters of national importance (RMA Section 6) and other matters to which the Council is required to have particular regard (Section 7). The key sections of the RMA that relate to landscape are the ‘natural character of the coastal environment, wetlands, and lakes and rivers and their margins’ (6(a)), ‘outstanding natural features and landscapes’ (6(b)), ‘historic heritage’ (6(f)) and ‘landscapes which contribute to visual amenity and/or environmental quality’ (7(c) and (f)). ‘Protection of areas of significant indigenous vegetation and significant habitats of indigenous fauna’ (Section 6(c)) and ‘the relationship of Maori and their culture and traditions with their ancestral lands, water, sites, wahi tapu, and other taonga (Section 6(e)) are also clearly linked to a broad understanding and valuing of landscape.

Natural features and landscapes that do not meet the criteria for being ranked as “outstanding” can nonetheless qualify for protection under other clauses in S.6 or be required to be “maintained and enhanced” either as “amenity values” or part of the wider “environment” under S.7(c) or S.7(f). Thus, for example, coastal landscapes or rivers or lakes that were not “outstanding landscapes” would still be required to have their “natural character” preserved under S.6(a), or areas of indigenous vegetation or habitats of indigenous fauna that were not considered “outstanding natural features” under S.6(b) will require protection under S.6(c).

sTATuTORy CONsIdERATIONs

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The second approach (Diagram 2) involves a gradual refinement of outstanding areas as the focus narrows from a national towards a local scale. This may result in broad areas assessed at a regional scale being re-analysed in more detail at a district or local scale and variations in quality identified. Under this ‘refinement’ model it may be appropriate to be more selective at a district scale, in particular in instances where regional ONLs include extensive parts of a district. Recent caselaw(C45/2008–BriggsetalvsCCC)confirmedthatanentiredistrictmaybe identified as outstanding at a regional scale, while the ONL delineation within the district may differ from the regional outlines.

Case law has found that the word ‘outstanding’ in ‘outstanding natural features and landscapes’ in section 6(b) of the RMA means ‘conspicuous, eminent, especially because of excellence’ and ‘remarkable’ (WESI vs QLDC [2000] p. 48). A landscape may be magnificent without being outstanding. Usually an outstanding natural landscape should be so obvious (in general terms) that there is no need for expert analysis (WESI vs QLDC [2000] p. 57).

The Environment Court also found that ‘outstanding’ can be considered on a regional basis, if being assessed by a regional council. If being considered by a district council, then outstanding must be considered in terms of the district. In relation to a district plan, what is outstanding can only be assessed on a district-wide basis, because the sum of the district’s landscapes are the only immediate comparison that the council has (WESI vs QLDC [2000] p. 49).

While all of the RMA sections listed above are relevant to landscapes, this review focuses on Section 6(b), outstanding natural features and landscapes. This section of the Act has proved particularly problematic in the past. However, there appears to be a convergence between the ways in which Section 6(b) is being interpreted, ‘practitioner’ views on what the concept of ‘landscape’ embraces, and general public interest, awareness and concern for ‘landscape’.

The focus of this review is natural features and landscapes that are outstanding when assessed at a regional level. There is a complex relationship between the status “outstanding” and the scale at which an evaluation is made. Two contrasting approaches have been adopted by various assessments in the past.

The first is based (Diagram 1) on the identification of additional areas of outstanding natural features and landscapes as the scale moves from national, to regional, to local. While some areas may not meet the threshold to be regionally outstanding, they may well be outstanding within a district (eg a minor mountain range). In this instance district ONLs would be larger than regional ONL areas.

diagram 1 : New areas of ONF/L are added as the focus moves from regional to the district level.

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diagram 2 : Gross areas identified at a regional level may be refined as the focus moves from regional to the district level.

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R= RegionalD = District

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New Zealand’s landscapes are widely recognised as being exceptional. Within a relatively small area we enjoy a great variety of natural features and landscapes. This quality and diversity is increasingly recognised as one of the country’s key attributes. Canterbury is one of the most diverse regions, where natural features and landscapes range from the rock outcrops of Weka Pass to the massive braided river valley of the Rakaia and from the permanent snowfields of the Alps to the gently shelving Canterbury Plains. The difficulty faced during the landscape evaluation phase is to determine whether these landscapes meet the threshold of being an outstanding natural landscape’ in a regional context.

All landscapes have values. Therefore, the level of information on landscape values to be included in this study required a significant component of judgement by the study team, informed by case law and an understanding of what is perceived as natural.

The study team used the character descriptions as a basis for value assessment. The description of land types provides valuable data on the characteristics that contribute to landscape character. However, it gives little assistance to the identification of values attributed to the landscape. If a rational decision on what constitutes an outstanding natural feature or landscape is to be made, then the criteria, or justification, must be explicit. This is a complex phase, which involved the review of a range of existing information, including district landscape studies, literature and other available research documents. Input from BML ecologists assisted the study team with the assessment of natural science values. However, no other specialist assessments, eg covering geomorphology, tangata whenua or historic values, have been commissioned as part of this landscape review.

As part of the review process, the BML study team identified gaps in the landscape character and value assessment undertaken for the 1993 study. These gaps were primarily related to the depth of information provided on landscape values. Therefore, the focus was on developing more extensive character and value descriptions for the 10 broad scale landscape types (see section C of report).

There are various different ways in which landscapes may be appreciated and which may help determine thresholds of quality. As required in the brief the study team has assessed the landscape against a set of values established by case law over the years, the so called ‘Amended Pigeon Bay Criteria’ (eg C180/1999 - Wakatipu Env. Society v QLDC). There is now a level of acceptance in their use as an assessment framework. The Amended Pigeon Bay Criteria have been used as a basis to structure the evaluation in this study and are as follows:

- The natural science factors - the geological, topographical, ecological and dynamic components of the landscape

- Its expressiveness (legibility) - how obviously the landscape demonstrates the formative processes leading to it

- Its aesthetic values including memorability and naturalness

- Transient values - occasional presence of wildlife; or its values at certain times of the day or of the year

- Whether the values are shared and recognised

- Its value to tangata whenua

- Its historical association.

These values can be thought of as layered in the landscape. For example, an area of bush may have natural science values, be highly aesthetic and have particular meaning to tangata whenua. The nature of many landscape features and attributes is that they have multiple values. The values listed above may be grouped as biophysical, sensory and associative qualities.

AssIgNmENT OF vALuEs TO ThE LANdsCAPE

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NATuRAL sCIENCE vALuEs

The Natural Science aspects considered by the Environment Court were described in the Queenstown decision as “the geological, ecological and dynamic components of the landscape”. Natural science values were considered important if a landform (including geology and soils) and/or landcover (in particular native vegetation communities, wildlife and ecosystems) displayed particular representativeness or rarity within the region. Representative natural features and landscapes are clearly and recognisably characteristic of the area, district or region. The key components of the landscape will be present in a way that more generally defines the character of the place. Natural features in a good state of preservation are representative and characteristic of the natural geological processes and diversity of the region. Natural features are unique or rare in the region or nationally, if few comparable examples exist. Natural features may be a landscape feature or an element/component of the landscape.

In the past century, almost all areas protected in New Zealand have been identified for aesthetic or biotic values. While this has resulted in the protection of a large number of earth science sites of significance, it has also resulted in considerable bias in what has been preserved. New Zealand has a unique and extremely diverse natural landform, geological and soil heritage. This is a result of its long and complex geological history, its climate and location on a volcanically and deformationally - active boundary between two of the world’s major crustal plates. The Geopreservation Inventory lists information on all the internationally, nationally and many of the regionally important earth science sites throughout New Zealand.

The overriding objective of earth science conservation in New Zealand should be to ensure the protection of the integrity of the best representative examples of the broad diversity of geologic features, landforms, soils sites and active physical processes, so that we can understand the unique geological history of New Zealand, development of its landforms and evolution of its biota.

DOC is one of the largest landholders in New Zealand, with over 800,000 hectares of conservation land in Canterbury, in particular in the western parts to the region. The Canterbury region has a vast number of small protected areas, as well as two national parks and other large conservation areas of national significance. Information available from various documents published by DOC, including the Conservation Management Strategy and Critical Sites Information, was used to inform the study team about natural science values in the region. Several other publications (see references) provided valuable information about geomorphological features, flora and botanical values, freshwater resources, and wildlife.

In addition to study team knowledge, these features can be identified from the following information sources:

- land typing provided by Ian Lynn (Landcare Research, 1993 study)

- geopreservation sites (Kenny and Hayward, digitised by BML, limited to points)

- geology and soil maps (Land Resource Inventory, Landcare Research)

- DOC: Protected Areas (DOC, 2009)

- Canterbury Conservation Management Strategy (DOC, 2000)

- QEII Covenants (QEII, 2007)

- Critical sites identified by DOC (Cant. Cons. Animal Pest Management Strategy, 2006)

- Land Cover Data Base (LCBD II, Landcare Research/ Terralink)

- River Environment Classification (REC, NIWA)

- discussions with BML ecologists

- previous district landscape assessments

- variety of relevant literature (see references).

LEgIbILITy vALuEs

Legibility is one of the key aspects or criteria for assessing a landscape. The Environment Court described this criterion as “how obviously the landscape demonstrates the formative processes leading to it” (Barton, 2005), in other words the degree to which the processes (geomorphological, hydrological, climate, vegetation, coastal and cultural) are actively displayed in the landscape. Some landscapes (or natural features) clearly express past natural and cultural processes. This criterion is linked to geological values. However, landscapes or features which are significant in terms of their geomorphological values, may not be expressive of these processes, whilst those which are highly expressive may not have a specific geomorphological value. Natural features and landscapes that exemplify the particular processes that formed them may also have strong historical connotations and a distinctive sense of place.

Legibility is an important concept in landscape assessment. If refers to the expressiveness of the landscape, how easy it is to understand all its subtleties in terms of past events - both natural and cultural. Overseas visitors often remark that New Zealand landscapes provide a wonderful lesson on physical geography. Past processes are often clearly understandable, and present geological activity , such as volcanoes, glaciers or rock slides, are clearly evident in many places. Legibility need not necessarily relate to ‘attractiveness’, but clarity of natural and cultural processes is important.

Information sources:

- land typing provided by Ian Lynn (Landcare Research, 1993 study)

- geopreservation sites (Kenny and Hayward, digitised by BML, limited to points)

- geology and soil maps (Land Resource Inventory, Landcare Research)

- previous landscape assessments (region and district)

- study team knowledge


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AEsThETIC vALuEs

The aesthetic value aspects considered by the Environment Court were described in the Queenstown decision as “including memorability and naturalness”. This decision included some discussion of the adequacy of this description. It was of the view that traditional scenic and visual considerations may be underplayed. It noted that considerations such as pleasantness raised in the RMA amenity definition with reference to S 7c will be relevant. Vividness, intactness and visual coherence were aspects considered as contributors to a landscape’s visual quality in the 1993 study. The definitions of these terms shows that they are interrelated:

Memorability: This term describes the way in which a landscape remains in the memory. Highly memorable landscapes comprise a key component of a person’s recall or mental map of a region or district. This is also often related to a landscape’s legibility.

Naturalness: Natural features and landscapes appear largely uncompromised by modification and appear to comprise natural systems that are functional and healthy. Naturalness describes the perception of the predominance of nature in the landscape. A landscape may retain a high degree of aesthetic naturalness even though its natural systems may be modified. Similarly landscapes that have high ecological values may not display high qualities of visual naturalness.

Vividness: Vivid landscapes are widely recognised across the community and beyond the local area and remain clearly in the memory; striking landscapes are symbolic of an area due to their recognisable and memorable qualities, including their landform.

Coherence: Natural systems are intact and aesthetically coherent and do not display significant visual signs of human modification, intervention or manipulation. The patterns of land cover and land use are largely in harmony with the underlying natural pattern of the landform of the area and there are no significant discordant elements of land cover or land use; Coherence describes the way in which the visual elements or components of any landscape come together. Landscapes with high levels of coherence will have their visual elements in harmony and reinforcing each other. They will have unity, whilst they may be either visually diverse or relatively simple in terms of their elements. They work together in terms of their composition.

A number of landscape assessments have been completed for most of the study area (see references and Volume 2 of the 1993 study). These studies provided information about perceptual components .

While an individual feature may have an aesthetic value when viewed from beyond its boundaries, aesthetic quality of landscape is more likely to relate to a place or an area. The Oxford English Dictionary (2002) defines ‘aesthetic’ as ‘concerned with beauty or the appreciation of beauty; of pleasing appearance’. This appreciation of beauty encompasses not only the visual aspects of a landscape, but also other sensory experiences, such as sound, smell and touch. Many scientific studies have been undertaken to examine and quantify scenic beauty of landscapes . A number of researchers found that both a landscape’s intrinsic physical properties (natural beauty) and/or cultural elements (relating to human creation) can result in aesthetic landscape quality. Areas identified as outstanding landscapes generally contain these favoured characteristics. Significant visual signs of human modification, intervention or manipulation often detract from the visual ‘wholeness’ and the aesthetic qualities of a landscape.


- previous landscape assessments (region and districts)


- arts and literature studies carried out for the 1993 study (Volume 2)


TRANsIENT vALuEs

Transient values describe the contribution which wildlife, climate and hydrological processes make to landscape. A landscape may gain significance due to the way in which wildlife seasonally (or at times in the day) gathers or occupies a specific area. Similarly, locations that benefit from the rising or setting sun, time of day and seasons of the year may be elevated in value due to this ‘transient characteristic’. This criterion is linked to those of the ecological values setandprovidefortherecognitionofthecontributiontowildlife–whichmayormaynothaveintrinsicscientificvalue–totheperceptionoflandscape.

The consistent occurrence of transient features (for example the seasonal changes in the mountains or particular weather patterns and cloud formations) contribute to the character, qualities and values of the landscape. Some landscapes are widely recognised for their transient features and the contribution these make to the landscape. The natural features or landscapes of regional significance providing predictable or regular experience of dimensions of nature other than landform or land cover eg. concentrations of wildlife.




- Canterbury Conservation Management Strategy (DOC, 2000)


Natural features and landscapes are generally characterised by their landform and their land cover. However, the experience of some landscapes is significantly influenced by other, sometimes ephemeral, characteristics. Where these characteristics occur regularly they become a recognised and integral part of the landscape. The remarkable rainfall gradient (eg visible in the Mackenzie Basin between the divide in the west and the dry hills in the east) is regularly reflected in extraordinary contrasts of sun and shadow, in classic cloudscapes and in the infinite variety of lake moods.

Another example is the concentrations of wildlife including seals, whales and dolphins (eg at Kaikoura and on Banks Peninsula). An industry has developed around the certainty of this abundance of wildlife. As tourism develops it is probable that areas attracting highly visible wildlife and areas known for the uniqueness of their wildlife will become increasingly important landscapes, eg black stilts in the Mackenzie, keas at Arthur’s Pass and penguins on Banks Peninsula.

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TANgATA whENuA vALuEs

Some natural features and landscapes are clearly special or widely known and influenced by their connection to the Maori values inherent in the place. These landscapes (or parts of them) have been identified as having particular regional importance to tangata whenua.

Volume 2 of the 1993 study lists types of country, features and places drawn from discussions and an analysis of “Te Whakatau Kaupapa”, the Ngai Tahu Resource Management Strategy for Canterbury, and “Land of Memories. Whenua i maharatia, haehae nga takata”. The latter is a contemporary view of places of significance to tangata whenua. Discussions with runanga (representatives) particularly for areas of Canterbury not addressed in Te Whakatau Kaupapa eg north of Conway River, added further to the 1993 study.

In 1998 the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act was passed to achieve full and final settlement of historical Ngai Tahu claims (grievances) against the Crown. The Act records the apology given by the Crown to Ngai Tahu, for injustices suffered by the Crown’s actions in purchasing Ngai Tahu land, and gives effect to the provisions of the Deed of Settlement 1997 entered into between Ngai Tahu and the Crown. The concept of manawhenua secures an ongoing relationship between tangata whenua and local, regional and central government authorities in terms of natural resource management. The provisions of the Settlement are aimed at recognising the mana of Ngai Tahu on the landscape and restoring the ability of Ngai Tahu to give practical effect to kaitiaki responsibilities. Such provisions include the statutory acknowledgements as recorded statements of the association of Ngai Tahu with a particular area. This mechanism is intended to improve the effectiveness of Ngai Tahu participation in RMA processes. Topuni status was applied as public symbols of Ngai Tahu mana and rangatiratanga over specific areas of land managed by DOC, through providing an overlay or ‘cloak’ of Ngai Tahu values, thus ensuring those values are recognised and provided for.


- 1993 Canterbury Regional Landscape Study (Volume 2/ Chapter 6 appended to this report), which based findings on ‘Te Whakatau Kaupapa’ and ‘Land of Memories’

- statutory acknowledgements and topuni status as identified in the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act, 1998


shAREd ANd RECOgNIsEd vALuEs

Certain natural features and landscapes are widely known and valued by the immediate and wider community for their contribution to a sense of place leading to a strong community association with or high public esteem for the place. There should be a substantial measure of agreement between professional and public opinion as to the value of natural features and landscapes, for example as reflected through writings and paintings or through favourite locations for visitors. The presence of existing protected sites is also likely to reflect shared and recognised values.

Research has shown that many professional landscape assessments have reflected fairly accurately the views of the general public. Nonetheless, it is fully accepted that in some circumstances the expert’s perceptions may be different. Public perception exercises are often extremely costly and not always feasible as part of a landscape study.

The 1993 study (and some of the district landscape studies) attempted to reflect community values through a series of studies covering Canterbury landscape literature, Canterbury art, analysis of visitor data, public perception surveys and a review of protected sites and tourism data.

In simple practical terms paintings are made using colour, shape, form and tonality. This combined with ‘observation’ and ‘perception’ of the landscape by artists has the potential to transform the viewer’s own perception of ‘time’ and ‘place’ exposing a meaningful insight about ourselves relevant to the environment. The importance of sense of place (genius loci) is apparent. There have been few artists dwelling on the ‘prettiness’ of landscape. Instead the text resonates to terms such as: patterns, rhythms, space, horizon, sky, weather, diversity, barren, empty, raw, sculptural, vivid, harsh. Canterbury paintings emphasise the specialness of their subject and ‘create contemporary and relevant images which the public can seize upon and with which they can identify themselves and their environment’.

The literature and art analyses stress the significance of both generic and specific landscapes and the extraordinary grandeur and scale found in the Canterbury landscapes. Qualities are extensive and not easily reduced to specific places separate from their broad landscape context.

Tourism in Canterbury is important for the local economy. An analysis of visual material for visitors clearly show that mountains, lakes, plains, braided rivers, limestone outcrops, tussock grasslands and cabbage trees are frequent images. The most frequently ‘referred to’ places include Banks Peninsula, Hagley Park, Hanmer, Kaikoura Coast, Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo, Mount Cook and Tasman and the Southern Alps, which are often considered to be ‘iconic landscapes’ of the region.

Certain types of recreation destinations reflect the landscape resource. Conservation areas and popular recreation opportunities within them have been considered under this set of values. Maps of DOC and QE II trust managed protected areas, including National Parks, Reserves, Stewardship land, etc, were used by the study team as digital GIS information sources. National Parks and scenic reserves reflect a community recognition of an area’s landscape quality affording them the highest level of protection.



- DOC and QE II Trust protected areas (2009)



- DOC information brochures / website


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hIsTORIC vALuEs

Cultural legibility is a vital component of many overseas landscapes where many centuries of human endeavour can be unravelled through study of the present landscape. In New Zealand this aspect of landscape has received only limited and belated attention. This has led to a recognition of how modified our ‘natural’ landscapes really are. The developing awareness of complexity of the ‘cultural landscape’ of the Tangata Whenua is covered under the Tangata Whenua evaluation criterion. The result is an increased understanding of the value of landscape as a living record of social change, which adds to the increasing significance attached to the legibility of our landscapes.

Some of Canterbury’s landscapes are clearly and widely known and influenced by their connection to the historical values inherent in the place. Cultural and historical values are based on traditional land uses such as farming and food gathering practices, traditional settlement patterns or other social patterns of a time, architectural periods, or notable landmarks, events or figures. Some of them are specific sites of significance, and others are wider areas that reflect a high degree of unity or integrity as a setting for historic sites or activities. Individuals and communities leave their different marks on the landscape. From our choices of architecture and land use to our memories of events, landscapes can tell stories of where and from whom we came and why we have responded to the physical environment in the ways we have. All landscapes are inextricably linked to historic processes.



- Archaeological Sites for Canterbury (New Zealand Archaeological Association)

- DOC and QE II Trust protected areas (2009)




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IdENTIFICATION PROCEss

Following the landscape evaluation, the next step in the review process involved an assessment of the appropriateness of the region’s outstanding Natural Landscapes and Features (ONL). The review focused in particular on areas that have previously been identified as ‘outstanding’ or ‘regionally significant’ in the 1993 study. This required consideration of landscape character and values identified in the first phases of the study. The study team undertook a comparative landscape value assessment to define a threshold for identification of ONL areas.

The GIS information on landscape attributes (e.g. native vegetation, geopreservation sites) and qualitative evaluation findings (eg aesthetic values) were assessed and judgements were made by the study team based on this collated material, supported by their knowledge and understanding of the region. In many areas these values overlap suggesting that the landscape is exceptional for a range of reasons. These areas were cross-checked against the landscape type descriptions and evaluations and aerial photographs.

Where the study team identified discrepancies between the ONL areas identified in the 1993 study and the values identified during this review, recommendations were made on possible changes. These were discussed in a workshop with Environment Canterbury officers and an internal review panel comprised of three Canterbury landscape architects, who have previously been involved in landscape studies for districts and the region (Di Lucas, Andrew Craig and Graham Densem). The internal workshop and the subsequent formal peer review (Lucas Associates) have led to some further additions and a few exclusions to the ONL areas that were outlined by BML. There was general consensus between the workshop participants on the validity of the ONL identification approach taken for this study and on proposed areas.

OuTLININg AREAs ANd bOuNdARy IssuEs

A land typing approach was used to identify outstanding natural landscapes and features (as in the 1993 study). It has to be noted that the definition of outlines has been undertaken at a regional scale (1:250.000). While GIS allows the viewer to zoom in and assess the exact location of land type boundaries, they are meant to be viewed in the context of surrounding broad geographical features and not a district or site scale. Accordingly this Regional Landscape Study is not interchangeable for a district study which should be undertaken within the context of the district. In this study a broad-scale geomorphological approach has been and landcover and land use were secondary considerations. In some locations, if there was a significant contrast in naturalness of land cover along an ONL boundary, such as adjacent to urban and rural areas, the land cover was given more weight than the landform (eg Kaikoura Peninsula, Port Hills). This also applied in low land sections of major rivers, where the ONL boundaries were drawn to include the river bed and banks, while historic floodplains were excluded (see Diagram 3).

Typically land type boundaries were followed, where ONL areas included mountain ranges, but excluded the adjacent flats or plains (e.g. Torlesse Range). In these instances, which occurred most frequently, the boundary outline followed the base of the range/mountain (see Diagram 4).

Where basins or upper river valleys were part of an ONL a (visual) catchment approach was taken. This means that the slopes containing a valley or basin were identified as part of such an ONL up to the ridgeline (see Diagram 5).

The ONL areas identified in this study were mapped at a regional scale, where spatial relationships between different landscape types become apparent. This would be comparable to the view of the region from a plane. The accuracy of boundaries reflects this broad assessment scale (based on NZ 262 series maps, scale 1:250.000). The spatial extent of ONLs is primarily based on findings from the GIS desktop analysis and only limited site investigations (flight and targeted on-site assessments). The ONF/L outlines were debated during the workshop held with three other landscape architects, and some amendments were made as a result of this.

vARIAbILITy OF LANdsCAPE quALITy ANd NATuRALNEss

All landscape is valuable and the only way in which bits of landscape can be seen as more valuable than others is to define the criteria or considerations on which the judgement is to be made. It is acknowledged that the areas within identified Outstanding Natural Landscapes vary internally in landcover and landscape quality. Where small townships/ settlements occur in the ONL area (eg Akaroa, Omarama, Tekapo), they do not provide the outstanding natural qualities that may be displayed in the wider ONL. The ONL overlay is only intended to apply to areas with non-urban zoning. The perception of naturalness also takes the landscape context into account and therefore some rural landscapes close to urban development, such as the Port Hills adjacent to Christchurch, may be appreciated more than in a largely unmodified context.

The study brief highlighted that it was important to identify ‘outstanding natural features and landscapes’ in the regional context. The focus was not therefore on a detailed, site-specific analysis, but rather on large-scale landscape patterns.

IdENTIFICATION ANd mAPPINg OF RECOmmENdEd ONF/ Ls

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Boundary follows ridgelines Boundary follows edge of landform/landtype

Boundary follows ridgelines

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Introduction to the Canterbury Landscape

seCtion bIntroduction to the

Canterbury Landscape

The Canterbury Region includes a large central portion of the East Coast of the South Island, with the city of Christchurch forming its geographical and economic centre. The landscapes of the Canterbury region are diverse, stretching from the low-lying coastal area in the east to the highest peak of the country in the west. From the long beaches of Pegasus Bay to the jagged peaks of the Southern Alps, the Canterbury landscape provides spectacular scenery with wide open pasturelands and inland basins. The panoramas of ocean or mountains generally include vast open space and uninterrupted views of the sky. The fertile Canterbury Plains, created by the large braided rivers of the South Island East Coast, connect the alpine areas with the volcanoes of Banks Peninsula. The geology and geomorphological processes, which have led to the landscape as we know it today, are diverse and include volcanic activity, sedimentation, mountain uplift, glaciation and erosional forces. The landscape provides plenty of evidence of the past and ongoing events that shaped it. The influence of human occupation over the past 600 years, with Maori and European presence, has added a layer of cultural heritage and has modified the original land cover of the region.

The Canterbury region is one of extremes, including the highest point of New Zealand, the spectacular Aoraki/Mount Cook (3,754 metres) which has high spiritual value for tangata whenua. At the other end of the scale, the submarine trenches off the coast of Kaikoura are thousands of metres deep, providing an ideal environment for whales, dolphins and seals.

The wildlife and vegetation of the region has developed in response to the extremes of climatic conditions and variations in substrate and elevation. Hence, vegetation ranges from high alpine herb fields to lush coastal podocarp forest. There is a variety of iconic birds in Canterbury, including alpine species (such as the kea), braided river birds (including the endangered black stilt), and numerous sea birds breeding along the coast.

INTROduCTION TO ThE CANTERbuRy REgION

“Boulder Bay” - Artist: Jane Harper“Craigieburns” - Artist: Jane Harper

The main transport routes through the region connect Canterbury with the West Coast through Arthur’s Pass and Lewis Pass, and with Otago to the south via Lindis Pass and the main north-south connections along the East Coast. These access routes have a long history, since they have served as greenstone trading routes and as access for the early explorers. While the large, braided rivers, such as the Waimakariri, Rakaia and Rangitata, served as access routes and food gathering places for Maori, they made travel across the plains difficult for early European settlers. These rivers have large catchments in the mountains and water levels can rise quickly when rain falls along the Divide.

Maori and European settlement occurred first in the east and extended slowly into the more inaccessible mountain regions. The removal of large areas of native forest by fire and logging were the key land cover change, which has allowed for agriculture. The drainage of swamps on the Canterbury Plains provided extensive grasslands on fertile soils for pastoral grazing. When the low-lying land was surveyed and colonised, European explorers moved into the inland basins and valleys to claim the drier high country for farming.

Agriculture and tourism are key economic drivers in Canterbury. The agricultural use of the land has had substantial influence on the region’s landscape, and still continues to induce landscape change. While large areas of high country farm land are being retired into conservation estate, farming on the plains has intensified over the past decade. Tourists travelling through the region are attracted by iconic destinations, such as the mountains in the alpine national parks around Aoraki/ Mt Cook and Arthur’s Pass, the thermal hot springs at Hanmer Springs, the attractive harbours and bays of Banks Peninsula and the scenic Kaikoura coast with its unique wildlife values. In winter a number of ski fields offer some of the best skiing in the country, while mountains attract climbers and hikers and the large lakes of the Mackenzie Basin provide boating opportunities in summer.

Map opposite page: Main settlements and highways in the Canterbury Region

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Settlement areas

Major Highways

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kAIkOuRA

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The Geological Formation and Geomorphology of the LandscapeThe Canterbury Region includes a range of landscapes that have resulted from the interplay of structural and tectonic features, rock type and climate. To the west, the backbone of the Southern Alps reflects the interaction of two of the major tectonic plates that make up the Earth’s surface, while in the east the coastal zone is made up of some of the youngest elements in the region. Between the two lie mountains and basins, lower but still rugged hill country, extensive plains, and volcanic landscapes. A network of major and minor faults controls many of the topographic forms, and movement on some faults is still continuing, as is warping along rising upfolds. Past and present tectonism is expressed by the presence of gorges in some rivers, and it is this uplift that has contributed significantly to the infilling of basins and to the building of the extensive plains.

Geomorphologically the Canterbury district comprises four distinctive types: the high main divide of the Southern Alps forming the western margin, composed of greywackes and mudstones; the range-and-basin terrain of the foothills of similar rocks interspersed with later sediments and some volcanics; the extensive piedmont Canterbury Plains veneered with Quaternary alluvium; and to the east the volcanic complex of Banks Peninsula. These four types are described below in more detail.

mAIN dIvIdE – sOuThERN ALPs

The geology of the Southern Alps is fairly uniform, consisting of greywacke (weakly metamorphosed sandstone and siltstone) and schist (more highly metamorphosed greywacke type material), which have been compressed and uplifted as a result of the Pacific Plate coming into contact with the Indo-Australian plate along the Alpine Fault on the western edge of the mountains. During the uplift of the Southern Alps, the sea retreated and the region was fractured by numerous faults. The rugged mountain ranges of the Southern Alps were uplifted during this time to heights of 2000 metres over much of their length. The Inland Kaikoura Range is of geological interest because of its igneous intrusions.

Earthquakes occur frequently in Canterbury, especially the northern part, indicating that the earth movements responsible for the rise of the Southern Alps and other ranges are still occurring. The Hope Fault, which branches off the Alpine Fault and extends along the southern side of the Hanmer Basin and into the Seaward Kaikouras of Marlborough, is particularly active. It is accommodating much of the regional movement associated with the deformation of the subducting Pacific Plate. The Alpine Fault and many secondary faults have created a distinctive system of structural weaknesses in the rocks. Rivers often follow these weakness in the mountain topography, allowing the development of larger valleys. The mountain ranges and rivers lying to the south-east of the Alpine Fault show a pronounced rectangular pattern in their orientation.

Large advancing glaciers and the effects of climate have subjected the rocks to typical ice and freeze-thaw sculpting. New Zealand’s biggest glaciers, such as the 29-kilometre Tasman Glacier, are clustered around the highest peaks east of the divide.

FOOThILL RANgEs ANd bAsINs

During the uplift of the Alps tilted fault blocks were formed, which comprise the foothills of the Alps. The intermontane “lows”, such as the Mackenzie, Ashburton Lakes and Hanmer Basins, are depressed blocks. As the uplifted blocks rose, the relatively weak cover of sediment deposits was rapidly stripped from the basement rocks so that the younger rocks are preserved in some marginal areas only, such as at Waipara and Weka Pass.

Glaciers were much bigger during the ice ages, and shaped much of the Southern Alps. They flowed from the main divide through valleys to the top of the Canterbury Plains and into the Tasman Sea, gouging basins now filled by lakes, such as Tekapo, Pukaki and Ohau. During the ice ages, major glaciers flowed down from the valleys draining the Main Divide and occupied the intermontane basins. With the waning of the last glaciation, the glaciers retreated and their abandoned troughs filled with meltwaters. In particular in the Mackenzie Basin, the glaciers scoured the slopes of the adjacent mountain ranges and moraines were left behind.

The foothills of the Alps, east of the intermontane basins, also consist of basement sand- and mudstones, which apparently become progressively younger in an easterly direction. The oldest rocks are thought to occur in some of the ranges marginal to the Alps in South Canterbury, for instance, in the Kirkliston Range and Hunters Hills. Schist occurs in some of these southern parts of the region.InNorthCanterburythereareextensiveareasofdownlands–rollingcountry between the foothills and the plains. The underlying rocks are limestones and marine sands, with some coal and older volcanic rocks. These were laid down between 100 and 13 million years ago and eroded when mountain building raised the Southern Alps. There was also a brief outburst of volcanic activity in the Mount Somers and Rangitata River area when andesites and rhyolites were erupted, together with some ash, to form beds several thousands of feet in thickness. The slow return of the sea led to deposition of coal and marine greensands (containing marine reptiles at Waipara) followed by limestones. The best known limestone outcrops are those exposed at Castle Hill and Weka Pass, but limestone hills are widespread elsewhere in North Canterbury.

Map opposite page: Underlying Base Rock (LRI) and Geopreservation sites found in

the Canterbury Region.

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Underlying Base Rock (LRI)

Alluvium, colluvium, glacial drift

Loess, windblown Sand

Sandstone

Mudstone

Limestone

Conglomerate

Argillite

Greywacke

Ancient Volcanoes, minor intrusions

Lavas

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Semi-schist

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River, lake, estuary

Icefield

Town, urban area

! Geo preservation sites


PLAINs ANd COAsT

The Canterbury Plains cover around 750,000 ha, making them the largest alluvial plains in New Zealand. They extend from near Amberley in the north to Timaru in the south, and include two major braided rivers, the Waimakariri and Rakaia. These two rivers both flow 70km across the plains from the point where they leave the frontal ranges of the Alps. The plains are made up of a series of gently sloping fans with a very gentle gradient, The fans are comprised of greywacke gravels, made of rock debris produced during successive glaciations of the mountainous hinterland. Enormous depths of gravels accumulated in the intermontane basins and built up the present surface of the Canterbury Plains. Loess deposited under periglacial conditions mantles the gravels and is sometimes up to 500m thick. They reached the huge basalt island volcanoes of Banks Peninsula only relatively recently in geological terms.

In earlier post-glacial times, the Waimakariri River probably flowed more directly to the coast south of Banks Peninsula (via Waihora or Lake Ellesmere), leaving its present southeast course near the pronounced bend east of Darfield (where the river swings to the east). The devastating floods that plagued the early years of the European settlement of Christchurch were the result of the river reverting to its old courses during high floods, and there is still a risk that the river will seek to flow through Christchurch in some future flood event. The gravel deposits of the Canterbury Plains form an important groundwater system, providing water for domestic and industrial use and for irrigation.

MostofCanterbury’scoastlineisopenbeach–sandynorthofBanksPeninsulaand shingly to the south. All Canterbury’s beaches are composed of material eroded from the Southern Alps and carried down the rivers. Varied habitats include cliffs and coves along the coastline north of Waipara in North Canterbury, lagoons at the river mouths, and the estuary of the Heathcote and Avon rivers. The Kaikoura Peninsula is an isolated fragment of sedimentary rock, separated from the greywacke of the Seaward Kaikoura Range by a narrow plain of outwash fans deposited by the Kowhai and Hapuku Rivers.

bANks PENINsuLA

Banks Peninsula was built up by two basaltic and andestic cones. Volcanic activity also occurred at this time near Timaru and Geraldine in South Canterbury. Both the Banks Peninsula cones have been cliffed by the sea and radial drainage has eroded numerous valleys, now drowned in their lower parts by the post-glacial rise in sea level to form bays as at Port Levy and Pigeon Bay. The sea has breached the cones, gaining access to the craters and forming Lyttelton and Akaroa Harbours.

Banks Peninsula is an old landform which has had a profound influence on the shape and nature of the Canterbury coastline. The peninsula protects Pegasus Bay from the full force of the southerly storms which sweep up the Canterbury Bight. In the bay the predominant north-easterly wind has built up sandy beaches and small barrier spits which impound the mouths of the Avon, Heathcote, Waimakariri and Ashley Rivers in lagoons and estuaries. In the south, the southerly storms erode the seaward edge of the plains, moving the gravel north-eastwards until the currents meet the obstruction of the peninsula. The gravels are then deposited and over time have built up the huge Kaitorete Spit, which cuts Lake Ellesmere and Lake Forsyth off from the sea.

SoilsWhile the distribution of plants or animals is clearly visible, the soils which are concealed from view are less well known. Soils are a product of their environment and tell a story about the area’s climatic, vegetational and erosional history. The soil forming factors are parent material, climate, organisms, topography and time. These factors differ from place to place, which causes variations in the rate and processes (such as weathering, leaching, erosion, organic matter accumulation) that form soils.

Within the Canterbury landscape, the uniformity of parent rock and the relatively recent formation of the land limit the variability of soil patterns in the region. The greywacke mountains that dominate Canterbury’s physical landscape (see geology) also dominate the soil distribution, since they are the source of most of the parent material. The broad soil patterns in Canterbury are largely determined by the climatic patterns that also determine natural vegetation distribution. High rainfall in the wetter western areas has led to rich, deep Brown soils. Extensive areas of Podzols can be found, where these soils have undergone leaching processes and minerals were transported into lower soil layers. Soils in the drier eastern areas, and in the drier parts of the inland basins, are characterised by pale colours and often stony components. Along the eastern ridge of the Southern Alps shallow, stony and very friable (easily crumbled) soils can be found on the slopes and flats of the intermontane basins. These soils can break apart, if cultivated.

The local soil pattern is created by the effects of differences in topography and age of soil pattern. In a few places, particularly where soils are derived from limestone and volcanic rock, parent material has a dominant effect on soil patterns. The weathering of these rocks produces soils with different characteristics to those derived from greywacke material.

During the ice ages, thick deposits of gravel were deposited by the Canterbury rivers to form the extensive plains. Wind-blown dust is a common sight along the wide gravel-bed rivers, and during glacial advances the rivers were carrying even more fine material ground up by the glaciers. Thick layers of this dust, known as loess, have accumulated on the eastern hills during that period. The plains are often described as fertile, but the soils are variable. The older parts of the upper plains have a thicker covering of loess than the younger alluvial plains. Some hold little moisture. The best were formed from mud and peat accumulating in the hollows between the fans of rivers.

Map opposite page: Soils of the Canterbury Region (LRI)

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New Zealand Soil Group (LRI)

Organic soil

Bare rock

Recent soil

Brown granular clay and loam

High country yellow-brown earth

Upland yellow-brown earth

Yellow-brown earth

Yellow- brown stony soil

Brown-grey earth

Yellow-grey earth

Upland yellow-grey earth

Recent yellow-grey

Gley soil

Recent gley soil

Podzolised yellow-brown earth

Rendzina

River, lake, estuary

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River and Coastal Environments Canterbury has more river channels than any other region in New Zealand and the diversity of habitats provided by the waterways is unmatched by any other part of the country. Fast flowing mountain stream give way to rivers draining alpine tussock lands and beech forests, while the plains are traversed by wide, braided rivers with shingle river beds. Beneath the plains massive aquifers transport water underground. This only becomes apparent where springs and groundwater come to the surface. Most of the small lowland streams and creeks have been modified by farming and drainage of swampy areas.

The flow regimes of rivers depends on their source. In Canterbury, glacier and snow-fed rivers, which have their sources in the high Southern Alps, have very different flow patterns to rain-fed streams originating from the lower foothills. Extensive catchments and high rainfall along the Main Divide can lead to large floods in the major rivers. Most major Canterbury rivers have braided shingle beds and flow bank-to-bank only in high flood. Smaller, rain-fed rivers rise in the foothills and flow down between the fans of the major rivers. The stable supply of groundwater leads to more constant flows in the small spring-fed rivers of the lowlands.

During glacial periods the mountainous river valleys have filled with thick layers of gravels. During periods when the rivers carried less sediment, or where the land has been raised by tectonic activity, the rivers have cut down and removed much of the gravels. The remains of the gravels form flat-topped terraces flanking the river valleys well above the level of the present riverbeds. As rivers have emerged from the confines of valleys, they have dumped their sediment load, forming great spreading fans of sand and gravel.

The four large rivers which cross the Canterbury Plains, the Waimakariri, Rakaia, Waitaki and Rangitata, rise in the mountains and have glaciers at their heads. The Ashburton River springs from smaller glaciers in the outlying Arrowsmith Range. The Waiau and Hurunui Rivers rise on the Main Divide but lack glaciers. The largest rivers of Canterbury, such as the Waimakariri, Rakaia and Rangitata Rivers, show a characteristic ‘braided’ river pattern, as they cross the plains. Braiding is a typical riverine feature for the eastern South Island, and refers to multiple water channels around more or less ‘permanent’ gravel islands (which are usually covered, and often modified in size and shape, during severe floods), Whereas the Rakaia and Rangitata Rivers are braided for their entire course to the Canterbury Bight, the Waimakariri suddenly coalesces into one channel for its last five kilometres as a the result of a sharp decrease in energy as the river’s gradient decreases. The Ahuriri, Rakaia and Rangitata Rivers are protected by Water Conservation Orders.

Most swamplands on the Plains were drained after European settlement, to create excellent soil for farmland. The most significant wetland in the region is Te Waihora (Lake Ellesmere), which is about 20,000 hectares in extent, near the coast south of Christchurch. It is protected by a Water Conservation Order, acknowledging its importance. Wainono Lagoon, south of Timaru, is another significant wetland, which has gained international protection status as a RAMSAR site.

Canterbury has an abundance of water, when the rivers carry mountain rainfall to the coast. There are also significant aquifers (underground gravels holding water) beneath the plains. Unlike most urban water supplies, Christchurch’s water comes from these water-filled bands of gravel beneath the city, which gives it its outstanding quality. The aquifers are recharged by rainfall and by river seepage. Both rivers and aquifers on the Canterbury Plains have been tapped to irrigate farmland and for drinking water supplies.

The Waitaki River has been harnessed for hydroelectric power from the three major lakes in its Mackenzie Country headwaters down to the original 1935 Waitaki hydro station above Kurow. The Upper Waitaki power scheme, built in the 1970s and early 1980s, gave South Canterbury a pivotal position in New Zealand’s electricity supply industry.

The Canterbury Rivers are also prime destinations for many recreationists, such as kayakers, jet boaters, rafters and anglers. Commercial enterprises offer services on several rivers, which are amongst Canterbury’s key tourist attractions. With recreational fishing in mind, 19th-century acclimatisation societies introduced rainbow and brown trout and quinnat salmon. The lower Waitaki and Rakaia Rivers are some of the country’s premier salmon fishing rivers.

The Natural Character of rivers, lakes and their margins is covered under section 6a of the RMA. This includes landscape considerations for the coastal environment and wetlands. The New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement also deals with coastal issues.

Map opposite page: Canterbury Rivers and their source of flow (REC, NIWA).

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Canterbury Rivers Source of Flow (REC, NIWA)

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Landcover and Land Use Patterns in the RegionThe vegetation cover in Canterbury is largely determined by elevation, climatic conditions, soils and human modifications. One of the most striking patterns in the mountain areas is the altitudinal zoning of vegetation. The other very influential macroclimatic factor for plant life is the gradient in rainfall across Canterbury between the Alps and the Coast. The western areas do not only receive significantly more precipitation (as much as 15,000 mm per year just west of the divide compared to 600 mm in the eastern foothills) but are also affected by the strong, dry ‘foehn’ winds streaming off the mountains.

The alpine areas below the permanent snowline (around 2200 metres) support herb and fell field communities, tussocks and scrubland. Below the timber line, which lies at around 1300 meters, podocarp forests can be found in the montane and subalpine areas. These forests are not as species-rich as the lowland forest communities and mainly consist of beech species. This forest type once covered much of the slopes of the Southern Alps and hills north-west of the Rangitata River. Large tracts remain near the main divide, but much of the eastern mountains and hills were cleared for grazing. These slopes are now largely treeless, with extensive areas of scree and tussock. High-altitude forests south of the Rakaia River contain mountain totara, mountain cedar and celery pine.

Much of lowland Canterbury was originally covered by tall podocarp forests. Kahikatea and matai trees flourished in fertile, damp areas, while totara dominated stony soils. After the arrival of Maori, fires destroyed most of the forests on the plains. They were replaced by tussock grassland, which spread from alpine areas. Other native plants such as matagouri, kanuka, manuka, kowhai and wild Spaniard thrived after the fires. When Europeans arrived, less than one-tenth of the region was forested. Timber was cut or burnt to create pasture, further reducing forests. In the mountains, fires were lit to provide better feed for sheep. This promoted the spread of short rather than tall tussock, and destroyed scrub and beech forests. On the plains and downs, ploughing and introduced grasses all but eliminated the native grassland. Most wetlands and swamps were drained for agricultural use and only very few remnants of forest stands can be found on the plains today.

The Canterbury Plains are the most intensively used part of the region. The land uses include agriculture, industry and increasing residential development. The settlements on the plains, in particular the City of Christchurch, which is the largest urban area in the South Island, are expanding and lifestyle blocks are replacing large-scale farming on the fringes. The low-lying fertile areas also provide opportunities for fruit-growing and cropping. From the early 20th century irrigation schemes were set up in the downlands to divert water from the large rivers into canals that crossed Canterbury’s upper plains. The water was accessed by farmers, who fed it into border-dyke channels in their paddocks. Today, land is irrigated by large sprinklers, enabling farmers to use the land more intensively. While farming in lowland areas has experienced a shift from extensive sheep grazing to dairy farming over recent years, on high country stations the older extensive farming systems have persisted almost unchanged in an environment which is marginal. In the high country tussock grassland is the principal vegetation and forms the basis for large extensive runs of fine-wool Merino and half-bred sheep flocks. Some of the land is freehold, but most of it is held under Crown lease, the lessees often owning the land in the immediate vicinity of the homesteads or near fords. The ongoing tenure review process is leading to a change the high country land ownership.

Radiata pine was first introduced to New Zealand in the late 1850s. Its excellent growth rate prompted seed imports, initially for shelter belts and woodlots and subsequently for more extensive forestry planting.

DOC administers around 11,500 sq km of land in the Canterbury region. Reserves were first set aside at Hanmer Springs in 1881 and at Arthur’s Pass in 1901. Small forest reserves were created on Banks Peninsula. Arthur’s Pass National Park became the South Island’s first national park in 1929. Cantabrians such as Thomas Potts, Leonard Cockayne and Harry Ell were prominent in the growth of New Zealand’s conservation movement. Nowadays, introduced grazing animal species pose an increasing threat to native vegetation. Rabbits, goats, thar and red deer, among many others, have severely damaged plants in the region. Furthermore, exotic weeds are continuing to change the landscape. These include gorse, broom and willows covering gravel river beds, and wilding pines invading the open high country.






T a s m a n S e a

Conservation Land

QE II covenants

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T a s m a n S e a

Conservation Land

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Map above: QEII covenants and DOC conservation areas in Canterbury.

Map opposite page: Landcover (LCDBII) of the Canterbury Region

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Land Cover (LCDB II)

Permanent snow and ice

Alpine vegetation, gravel and rock

Indigenous forest

Exotic forest

Native shruband fernlands

Exotic shrubs and shelterbelts

Tussock Grassland

Low producing grassland

High producing grassland, crops and vineyards

River, lakes and wetlands

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Human Occupation and Cultural Landscape Elements The Canterbury Region has a rich heritage, which is reflected in the current landscape. This heritage includes Maori associations, Maori land use practices, early European timber milling and burning, establishment of pastoral runs and subsequently their subdivision, through to today’s increasing residential development and agricultural intensification on the plains. People today value a range of landscape attributes associated with the area’s heritage, such as archaeological sites, open tussock country, historic structures and features, Maori spiritual associations, explorer’s stories and place names.

The Waitaha people are thought to have been the first to occupy the land and to initiate human-induced change to landscape and faunal diversity. During the following centuries of Maori occupation the forested areas were made open as a result of burning and the moa became extinct due to extensive hunting. Archaeological evidence helps our understanding of early Maori settlement patterns and activity prior to European records. This evidence includes archaeological sites, moa hunting sites, middens, cooking pits and ovens, which are primarily found along Canterbury’s coast and rivers.

Substantial changes occurred in the landscape between the 14th and 16th centuries prior to European arrival. While reoccurring burning of lowland forests was instigated by people, dry climatic conditions accelerated the process. This transformed the landscape of the plains into extensive grasslands dotted with shrubs, fern and clumps of cabbage trees, and crossed by flax-bordered streams. The food gathering and resource use practices, including fishing, hunting and harvest of plants, influenced Maori settlement patterns. Vegetables, such as kumara, were cultivated (eg at Kaiapoi Pa) and archaeological remains of field boundaries, garden walls and storage pits can still be found, especially on Banks Peninsula. The lines of earlier South Island tribes (Waitaha and Ngati Mamoe) merged into those of Ngai Tahu.

By the early 19th century Ngai Tahu started to divide the land and the eastern coastline was claimed by various hapu. The access to resources for food gathering (mahinga kai) was important to them. In this period Ngai Tahu village settlements clustered into the following areas in Canterbury: the central Kaikoura coast, Kaiapoi to Waihora (Lake Ellesmere, including several settlements on Banks Peninsula) and the Temuka District. Between villages, small settlements were used in transit. These included huts in the upper river valleys located on routes to the West Coast. Trails provided inland access to the West Coast pounamu sources (across Arthur’s, Browning, and Harpers Passes). Other important access routes ran up and down the East Coast, where mokihi (canoes) were used to cross the turbulent Canterbury rivers.

The Canterbury landscape, vegetation and wildlife were a product of 600 years of Maori settlement before Europeans arrived to explore and document it. Charles Torlesse was one of the early surveyors, who drew a map of the Canterbury province in 1849, showing locations of the plains, rivers, front ranges and Banks Peninsula. He named the elements on the map and outlined areas for European settlement. However, these areas were not uninhabited before Europeans arrived, and the land purchase deed (1848) under which the Canterbury Association was able to establish its colonising plans, were long disputed by Ngai Tahu. Some points of contention were not resolved until after settlement of their Waitangi Treaty claim in 1998.

Once European settlers started to claim the land, the rate of landscape change accelerated. Their world view favoured colonised environments with drained swamps and cultivated pastures. Soon after the first arrivals, Christchurch was founded and the port at Lyttelton established. As more and more settlers arrived, a basic network of towns, roads and later railways was laid out. The large braided rivers, often a source of danger during floods, were spanned by bridges and flood control measures became a focus. Swamps were drained, stream courses straightened and fern lands cleared. While Maori valued these places for food gathering, Europeans only saw their economic potential realised when they were cleared of native vegetation. During early European settlement it became clear that little millable timber was available on the plains, which meant that there was insufficient local wood for construction of homesteads, fencing, shelter and fuel. After the sparse forest stands on the Canterbury Plains were reduced to small clusters, the colonists’ dependence on native timber led to extensive milling on Banks Peninsula and the foothills. During this period extensive areas of indigenous habitat were lost and large numbers of exotic trees were imported to establish woodlots and shelterbelts.

Canterbury’s European farming history began with the runholders turning stock onto natural grasslands. The tussock grasslands provided rough grazing for sheep and cattle. The runs were originally leased, but many farmers sought to own them and some very large freehold estates were established. The number of fine-wool sheep increased dramatically in the second half of the 19th century and there was an increased need to define boundaries of pastoral holdings. In the absence of wood for fencing, ditches and gorse, broom and hawthorn hedges were common. Fires were lit to facilitate access to grazing land by stock, and to promote new growth of tussock. Where re-burning occurred too frequently, growth soon declined and soils began to erode. Some areas of tussock grassland were burned and sown to pasture or cultivated. The region’s favourable climate, easily worked soils, and good transport links encouraged cropping. Large-scale wheat growing began in the 1870s and peaked in the early 1900s. Flour milling became an important industry, and wheat and flour were exported through the ports.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a lot of Canterbury’s large estates, in particular those situated in the downlands, were broken up. A marked contrast emerged between the size of farms and density of rural population in the steep hill country, and the flat or rolling lowlands. Some owners sold them off, and others divided them among their families, as it became clear that smaller farms were viable. Irrigation schemes made dairy farming possible in the lowland areas. At the same time the burning of tussock and invasion of rabbits led to widespread erosion in the high country and desertification in the driest areas.

The landscape as we see it today is a product of both natural processes and several centuries of human occupation. Ongoing land uses change and constantly evolving agricultural practices reflect economic efficiency and human needs at the time. Landscapes are dynamic and will continue to evolve, while both natural and cultural features remain as evidence of past processes. Historic features and heritage objects add a cultural layer and form a valuable part of Canterbury landscapes.

Map opposite page: Archeological sites (NZAA) and Ngai Tahu Statutory

Acknowledgement areas (1998).

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T a s m a n S e a

Archeological Sites (NZAA)

Ngai Tahu Statutory Acknowledgement (Settlement Act - 1998)

0 50 10025Km

seCtion CLandscape Characterisation

and Evaluation

1. bANks PENINsuLAThis landscape type is made up of the following Land Types (Ian Lynn):


L9 Banks Peninsula - Herbert Land Type

L10 Banks Peninsula - Akaroa Land Type


Westerly segment of the steep to very steep, dissected (distinct ridge and valleys), Lyttelton volcano bounded by the western shore of Lyttelton harbour and Gebbies Pass; with loess mantled, smooth and tunnelled lower slopes, especially those with a westerly aspect; broken, rocky, moderately steep to very steep westerly aspect mid and upper backslope dip slopes; rocky spur crests and major ridge summits; very steep rocky and bluffy scarp slopes (easterly aspect); very steep coastal cliffs, and small, poorly drained valley floors with beach dunes. Elevation 0 to 580m, rainfall 600 to 850 mm/A.

L9 BanksPeninsula–HerbertLandType

The north and westerly segment of the steep to very steep, dissected (ridge and valleys), Lyttleton (excluding the Port Hills type) and Akaroa volcanoes, with loess mantled, smooth and tunneled lower slopes, especially those with a westerly aspect; broken, rocky, moderately steep to very steep mid and upper backslope dip slopes; rocky spur crests and major ridge summits; very steep to steep rocky and bluffy scarp slopes; highly indented coastline with deep harbours and very steep to precipitous coastal cliffs, and poorly drained valley floors with meandering floodplains, beach dunes and minor lagoons. Elevation 0 to 920m, rainfall 650 to 1400mm/A.

L10 BanksPeninsula–AkaroaLandType

The east and southerly segment of the steep to very steep, dissected (ridge and valleys), Akaroa volcano, with loess mantled, smooth and tunneled lower slopes; broken, rocky, moderately steep to very steep mid and upper backslope dip slopes; rocky spur crests and major ridge summits; very steep to steep rocky and bluffy scarp slopes; highly indented coastline with very steep to precipitous coastal cliffs, and poorly drained valley floors with meandering floodplains, beach dunes and minor lagoons. Elevation 0 to 850m, rainfall 650 to 1200mm/A.

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General Character DescriptionBanks Peninsula consists of the eroded remnants of two overlapping and longextinctvolcanoes–the‘LytteltonVolcano’andthe‘AkaroaVolcano’.TheLyttelton volcano had its original vent near Charteris Bay and later in the vicinity of Mt Herbert. Lyttelton Harbour was formed through erosion of the central caldera, leaving the surrounding crater rim, which is particularly well defined along the Port Hills in the north and west. The Lyttelton crater now appears as one composite volcanic massif together with the younger Akaroa Volcano.

While the volcanos formed an island for most of their history, the build up of the Canterbury Plains connected them to the rest of the South Island at the end of the ice ages. Banks Peninsula has had a profound influence on the shape and nature of the Canterbury coastline by protecting Pegasus Bay from the full force of the southerly currents and winds.

Two major channels cut back into the craters of Lyttelton and Akaroa volcanoes, and now the volcanic massif is a ‘drowned landscape’, after the sea flooded into the harbours. The Lyttelton volcanics type is characterised by the steep rocky slopes of the upper caldera rim with smoother gentler lower colluvial slopes. The Akaroa Harbour landscape shares similarities with the Lyttelton area. The skyline of both craters is impressive and provides a very clear definition to the harbour landscapes. The high points of the central volcanic massive of Banks Peninsula (Mt Herbert, Mt Bradley and Mt Fitzgerald) define the different catchments especially where their elevation exceeds 500 masl north and west of Lyttelton Harbour, and above 600 masl within the Mt Herbert and Akaroa areas.

A semi-radial pattern of drainage, including many of the major valleys, was already established on the active volcanoes, and these were lengthened and deepened by post-volcanic erosion. The ridges descending from the volcanics to sea level enclose well defined valleys with broad floors and smooth colluvial slopes, especially in Kaituna and Little River Valleys. Similarly, in the valleys behind Purau Bay, Port Levy and Pigeon Bay smooth colluvial slopes and valley floors are significant. The bays were formed by post-glacial sea level rise. The splayed fingers of the steep rocky ridges slope from the caldera rim down towards the coast. Around the coastline these fingers flatten above often impressive cliff features which frame a convoluted coast of minor and major embayments.

Historic settlement, and past and present land uses have created a largely cultural landscape with distinctive land cover patterns. The landscape of the Peninsula is fragmented but with a repetition of small scale patterns of bush in gullies, remnant tussock and pasture on the drier slopes, impressive tors and rock outcrops particularly on the summits, and a range of outer bays as well as the two main harbours.

Above: Rocky outcrops near Menzies Bay.

Left: Looking towards Long Lookout point across Raupo Bay, near Little Akaloa Bay.

Below: The long gradual spurs extend in a radial pattern from the crater rim to dramatic rocky cliffs at the coast.

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The landcover and land uses within each of these landscape types reflect their natural characteristics, but are also influenced by ownership, accessibility and many other considerations. Agricultural use and timber extraction led to forest clearance across most of the Peninsula by 1900. Today the dominant land use on the slopes and on exposed headlands is extensive sheep grazing, while the gentle slopes of the broad valleys and harbours are more intensively farmed and subdivided. In areas where pastoral land use ceases, the majority of the peninsula landscape has a natural tendency to revert to bush and scrubland (gorse and native) and back to forest.

Above: The impressive rocky cliffs along the coastline of the Peninsula.

Below: Smooth slopes extending from the rugged crater rim to the valley floors

(Kaituna Valley).

Left: Historic school house at Little Port Cooper.

Middle: St Cuthberts Church (built 1860-61), Governors Bay.

Right: The Okains Bay Maori and Colonial Museum.

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Landscape ValuesNATuRAL sCIENCE vALuEs

Banks Peninsula’s geomorphological characteristics are of high natural science, as well as legibility and aesthetic value. There are a number of prominent domes, dykes and vents, as well as several geopreservation sites spread across the Peninsula. Owing to erosion, there are only a few substantial volcano-flank landforms, such as the dip-slopes above Diamond Harbour, remaining on the Peninsula. The volcanic features of the peninsula, such as its large, erosional craters, are some of the better examples found anywhere in the world.

The native vegetation cover is fragmented but the small pockets that remain are largely representative of the original cover. These patches of native bush are now mostly restricted to the damper gullies and tussock on the drier slopes particularly in the west. However, regeneration of shrub and forest cover after removal of grazing is rapid and occurring widely. A number of reserves, managed by DOC, QEII and the Banks Peninsula Conservation Trust, can be found on the peninsula. It is a ‘habitat island’ isolated from other similar habitats and is the geographical limit of a number of plant species.

All the terrestrial habitats of the Peninsula support valued native invertebrates, lizards and bird communities. The coastal diversity with rocky headlands, caves, bays and beaches is a great natural quality of Banks Peninsula. Along the Peninsula coast a high degree of naturalness occurs where there is a combination of expressive landform, natural coastline and indigenous vegetation cover coupled with minimal evident modification through buildings or structures.

The coast and bays around the Peninsula are also of national significance to marine conservation. To protect marine life, parts of the peninsula waters have been given special protected status. This includes a marine mammal sanctuary and a marine reserve. The Pohatu Marine Reserve is centred on Flea Bay, on the south-east side of Banks Peninsula. The coastal wildlife values include seal and penguin colonies.

LEgIbILITy vALuEs

The Peninsula landscape is highly expressive of its geological formation. The peninsula’s volcanic island origins are still very evident, particularly when viewed from high ground or from the air. At a broad scale the form of two overlapping volcanoes, both of which have been breached by the sea to create the harbours, is clearly legible. At a finer scale, the exceptional skyline formed by the caldera rims and the numerous volcanic features, such as dykes; plugs and smooth lava slopes contribute to the legibility of the landscape’s formative processes. The volcanic layering of the Mt Bradley, Mt Herbert and Mt Evans summits and upper slopes are also exceptional and the geologically recent Diamond Harbour slope below Mt Herbert is the most expressive of these volcanic slopes. Castle Rock trachyte intrusion, Lyttelton and Akaroa volcanos are internationally important geopreservation sites. There are a number of other geopreservation sites considered to be of national importance found on the Peninsula.

The totara stumps found on grazed slopes, in particular along the heads of the outer bays, provide clear evidence of past timber milling which occurred on the peninsula. These indicators of land use change form an important part of the cultural landscape. The grassy vegetation cover, while human induced, enhances the legibility of the underlying geomorphology and visibility of volcanic outcrops.

Above: Looking towards the Takamatua Headland with Akaroa Township in the foreground of the image.

Right: Charteris Bay and Mt Herbert as seen from Governors Bay. Part of Quail Island can be seen in the left of the image.

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AEsThETIC vALuEs

The landscape of Banks Peninsula is unusual within Canterbury for the small scale of its landscape patterns. Its relatively intensive occupation from an early date (both in Maori and Pakeha terms) has given the landscape an unusual complexity. This combination of simple landform, evidence of heritage or historic settlement and fragmented landcover patterns gives the peninsula its distinctive landscape character and high aesthetic value.

The prominent volcanic ridges, which extend from the crater rims to the exposed rugged coastline are a key features that contribute to landscape quality. The contrast of the cultural landscape of the bay and harbours with the rugged, highly natural coastline are valued attributes of the peninsula. The ‘wild’ peninsula landscape around the outer coast is characterised by the absence of development, open ridges with uninterrupted views and in places by natural (organic) vegetation patterns, such as bush in gullies.

The Port Hills provide a significant skyline feature from areas of the plains. Parts of the Port Hills provide an open backdrop to Christchurch and are immensely important as a contrast to the city and its lowland surrounds. The lack of trees (particularly on north facing slopes) is distinctive of the Port Hills.

TRANsIENT vALuEs

The regular winter presence of snow on the higher parts of the Peninsula, along with the tidal changes that are particularly apparent in the inner harbours and the regular presence of wildlife in certain locations are all important transient values found on the Peninsula. Southerly storms approaching along the Canterbury Bight are impressive when viewed from the peninsula.


The Banks Peninsula coastal area (Te Tai o Mahaanui) is acknowledged in the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement act (1998) as having important cultural, spiritual, historic and traditional associations for Ngai Tahu. The mauri of the coastal area represents the essence that binds the physical and spiritual elements of all things together, generating and upholding all life.

Maori established many permanent settlements, including pa (fortified settlements) on the Peninsula. Prominent headlands, in particular, were favoured for their defensive qualities and became the headquarters for a succession of rangatira and their followers. The coast was a major highway and trade route, particularly in areas where travel by land was difficult. Travel by sea between settlements and hapu was common, with a variety of different forms of waka. Urupa are the resting places and, as such the focus for whanau traditions. These are places, which are protected in secret locations across the peninsula, hold the memories, traditions, victories and defeats.

Above: Diamond Harbour and volcanic dip slopes.

Below: The landform extends from the main ridges the Akaroa crater rim to the sea,

forming long, uniform spurs that are mostly bare of any significant vegetation.

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The whole of the coastal area offered a bounty of mahinga kai, including a range of kaimoana (sea food), waterfowl and forest birds. Maori also utilised the variety of plant resources found on the Peninsula including harakeke (flax), fern and ti root. The coast was also a major highway and trade route, particularly in areas where travel by land was difficult. Maori people had a huge knowledge of the coastal environment and weather patterns, passed from generation to generation. This knowledge continues to be held by whanau and hapu and is regarded as taonga.


The entire Peninsula is a highly valued landscape of great importance to both residents and visitors alike. The State Highway and other key tourist routes are of special relevance because of the numbers of people that experience the Peninsula form them. The Summit roads and associated walkways are crucial viewpoints as are the coastal walks. The open space on the Port Hills provides important recreation opportunities for Christchurch residents and visitors.

hIsTORIC vALuEs

The Peninsula is an Aotearoa/ New Zealand landmark of significance to both Maori and Pakeha. It is a landscape steeped in history. On Banks Peninsula landscapes contain elements of both natural and cultural heritage. In some cases there may be little extant in the landscape, eg. a battle site. In others, there may be visual and physical cues from a specific period of activity, eg. pa site or wharf buildings; or a ‘layering’ of features from a number of periods.

There are several other places including Akaroa and Little River townships, that have very strong heritage values with a high number of heritage sites and buildings. Early European history also has meaning beyond individual sites and features. The resources of Banks Peninsula were important to supply the settlers on the Canterbury Plains. The timber mills, historic farming buildings and whaling stations are relicts of this time and add an important layer to the peninsula landscape.

Above: Teddington Flats with Mt Bradley in the background.

Below: Exposed volcanic rock cliffs along the coast.

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Impressive rocky headlands define the entrances to many of the bays within the Peninsula.

2. LOw ALTITudE PLAINsThis landscape type is made up of the following Land Types (Ian Lynn):







L7 Kaikoura Aggradational Fan-Plain Land Type



Canterbury Plains coastal fringe incorporating undulating to rolling coastal beach sand dunes and associated interdune back swamps, sand plains, gravel beach ridges and bars, and saline lake and lagoonal fringe wetlands. Elevation ranges from 0 to 20m and rainfalls from 600 to 800 mm/A. The land type includes the coastal fringe from the Waipara River mouth to Banks Peninsula, the margins of Lake Ellesmere and the coastal fringe north and south of Timaru.


Lower Canterbury Plains; broad very low angle coalescing outwash fans and associated low terraces of the major rivers (Waimakariri, Rakaia, Rangitata, and the Waitaki Rivers), comprising Pleistocene glacial outwash gravels with variable loess cover, and extensive Holocene alluvium, coastal swamp deposits and minor inland dune belts. Elevation ranges from 0 to 150m, and rainfall from 600 to 800 mm/A.


Upper Canterbury Plains; broad low angle coalescing outwash fans and associated high terraces of the major rivers, and onlap fans, fringing the foothills, comprising Pleistocene glacial outwash gravels with variable loess cover. Holocene alluvium and minor CretaceouslTertiary inlier hills (eg. Burnt Hill). Elevation 150 to 600m, rainfall 800 to 1000 mm/A.


Active, recent, major river floodplains incorporating wide, braided, active and recently active riverbeds, recent floodplain terraces and associated backswamp wetlands. Elevation ranges from 0 to 600 m and rainfall from 600 to 1000 mm/A. The land type includes the lowland sections of the Clarence, Conway, Wairau, Hurunui, Waimakariri, Rakaia, Rangitata, and Waitaki Rivers.


Restricted, undulating, weakly dissected, raised coastal plains, including high steep seaward cliffs, steep incised gorges and small meander floodplains. Elevation ranges from 0 to 60 m and rainfall from 800 to 1000 mm/A. The land type includes the Motunau, Medina, and Claverley coastal plains.


Narrow coastal strip of raised gravel beaches, gravel beach ridges and sand dunes, with associated backswamps and colluviall alluvial fans and terraces between the former sea cliffs and the present shoreline north of Kaikoura.

L7 Kaikoura Aggradational Fan- Plain Land Type

Coastal aggradational fan / plain, extending from the foot of Seaward Kaikoura Range to the sea, including strongly rolling upper fan segments and fans to gently undulating lower fan and wetland fringe, braided river floodplains and terraces, raised beach ridges and associated inter ridge backswamps. Includes the gently rolling limestone and mudstone hills, with loess, and associated seaward cliffs and reefs of the Kaikoura peninsula. Elevation range 0 to 250m, rainfall 900 to 1400mm/A.


Inland basins and valleys with extensive, gently sloping alluvial fans, terrace lands, floodplains and associated wetlands. Elevation ranges from 150 to 650 m and rainfalls between 600 and 1000 mm/A. The degree of agronomic development varies from the intensively developed, irrigated Culverden basin, to extensive dryland farming of the upper Fairlie basin. Other example areas include the Hakataramea valley.

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General Character DescriptionThis landscape consists of broad outwash plains and inland basins that are comprised of recent gravels and silts. Within the Canterbury region there are three distinct types of plains landscapes, namely the coastal Canterbury Plains; the Kaikoura Plains; and, low altitude inland basins such as Hakataramea, Fairlie and Culverden.

These landscapes are characterised by broad, open areas with little topographical relief, which are traversed by wide, braided river beds with associated terraces and wetlands.

These plains landscapes have been highly modified by an extensive array of land uses. In these landscapes much of the indigenous vegetation has been stripped and replaced with high producing farmland. Dryland sheep farming is found on the stony shallow soils (which includes most of the plains) and cropping is mainly confined to the free draining deeper soils and along the river banks. On the lower plains, high water tables mean intensive dairy farm operations are becoming increasingly prevalent. On the outskirts of the major settlements such as the city of Christchurch, numerous lifestyle farm properties have developed over the last 20 years.

These lowlands areas are where the majority of Cantabrians live and the plains are dotted with houses and farms, with towns such as Kaikoura, Ashburton, Timaru and the city of Christchurch.

Each of the plains has its own unique characteristics and features.

CANTERbuRy PLAINs

The Canterbury Plains cover approximately 750,000 ha. The vast alluvial plains extend from the foothills of the Alps in the west, to the east coast, and are the biggest of their kind in New Zealand.

The area commonly known as the ‘Canterbury Plains’ extends from Amberley inthenorthtoTimaruinthesouth,andincludesthreemajorrivers–theWaimakariri, Rangitata and Rakaia. These rivers each flow approximately 70km across the plains from the foothills and downlands to the coast.

The plains are made up of a series of gently sloping fans that contain greywacke gravels produced during successive glaciations of the mountainous regions to the west. These gravels are up to 500m deep in some places.

The coastal environment is characterised by narrow steep mixed sand and gravel beaches. The coastline which extends from Banks Peninsula to Timaru is known as the Canterbury Bight. This is an extensive coast which is backed by alluvial cliffs comprised of glacial outwash gravels. These cliffs are the eroded margins of the combined alluvial fans of the Rangitata, Ashburton and Rakaia Rivers. North of Christchurch is the coastline of Pegasus Bay. This coastline is characterised by the fine sand beaches along its southern length. Features include the large dune fields which extend from the Brighton beaches north to Leithfield Beach.

The Rakaia, Waimakariri and Rangitata Rivers, extend across the outwash plains from their headwaters in the Southern Alps to the sea. These rivers are characterised by their distinctive, extensive and constantly-evolving braiding patterns. As these rivers traverse the plains, extensive terracing can be as much as 2 kilometres wide in places. These stony dry terraces are intensively farmed.

Te Waihora/Lake Ellesmere is a large, shallow brackish coastal lake which is located immediately south of Banks Peninsula. It is Canterbury’s largest and NewZealand’sfifthlargestlake–coveringanareaofabout20,000ha–withapproximately 75 kilometres of shoreline.

Kaitorete Spit is a thin strip of land which separates Lake Ellesmere from the Pacific Ocean. Kaitorete Spit is an impressive landform that extends for 28 km along the eastern shore of the lake from Banks Peninsula. It was formed about 6000 years ago by gravels transported by the Rakaia River and pushed into place by the Pacific Ocean.

Above: State Highway 1 follows along the coast near Kaikoura past the smaller coastal settlements and areas of fertile coastal terraces, such as at Oaro.

Below: The braided rivers of Canterbury have created the extensive outwash plains, which connected Banks Peninsula to the South Island.

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kAIkOuRA PLAINs ANd COAsT

This area includes the township of Kaikoura and the Kaikoura Peninsula.

North of Kaikoura, rolling hill country stretches alongside the coast. The landscape is characterised by a patchwork of pattern of fields over green pastoral rolling hills and fertile lowland plains. This is a predominantly working landscape with pastoral farming, forestry lots, shelterbelts along with remnant patches of Manuka/Kanuka scrubland and housing.

The coastal character has been modified by pastoral farming, roading and railway construction. Here, State Highway 1 wraps around the coast linking Canterbury with the Marlborough region. Erosion gullies are clearly visible from places on the State Highway.

The coastal areas are characterised by long sweeping stony beaches and dune lands, and the rocky headlands and cliffs of the Kaikoura Peninsula. The gently rolling picturesque hills of the Peninsula rise 108m above the surrounding plains and protrude prominently into the ocean.

Kaikoura Peninsula is made of limestone and siltstone that was laid down beneath the sea about 60 million years ago. The Peninsula was once an island, now linked to the mainland by the debris that eroded from the Kaikoura mountains.

LOw ALTITudE bAsINs ANd vALLEys

These landscapes are the small inland basins and valleys which contain extensive, gently sloping alluvial fans, river terraces and floodplains.

The basins and plains to the north (Culverden, Amuri, Hawarden, and Waipara) are characterised by intensively developed and irrigated farmlands. The plains associated with the Waitaki River Valley are also intensively farmed and irrigated. This contrasts with the dryland farms found in the basins and river valleys to the south of the region such as the Fairlie basin and the Hakataramea valley.

The Wainono Lagoon (near the coast at Waimate) is a complex interaction of groundwater, lagoon inflows and outflows, river flows, and coastal processes. The natural mouth of the Waihao River is artificially maintained at the coast by the Waihao Box. When the Box is closed, water from the Waihao River travels along the coastal channel (the Dead Arm), and flows into Wainono Lagoon.

Below: Looking along the Canterbury coast towards Christchurch and the Port Hills, the mouth of the Ashley River is in the foreground.

Left: Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora is New Zealands fifth largest lake.

Middle: Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora, has high ecological value and provides

habitat for a large number of water birds.

Below: A burnoff amongst the patchwork of the plains landscape.

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The national importance of Te Waihora (Lake Ellesmere), the Rakaia and Rangitata Rivers are recognised through their respective Water Conservation Orders (NWCO). These orders protect the outstanding values of these water bodies.

Indigenous vegetation, once prevalent on the plains, has been reduced to small, isolated and scattered remnants as a result of the large scale land use changes which have occurred. Today, less than 0.5% of the plains support native vegetation.

The large braided rivers, including the Waitaki, Rangitata, Rakaia, Waimakariri, Waiau and Hurunui, are also ecologically significant. These rivers provide significant habitat for migratory fish species and indigenous birds which include many threatened species such as the wrybill plover/ngutu pare and banded dotterel/pohowera.

The Canterbury coastal fringe retains important natural values. The beaches to the south of Banks Peninsula support important populations of indigenous plants and animals. Motunau Island (north of Pegasus Bay) is of international significance as a habitat for seabird species (such as the fairy prion) and is the main breeding colony of the white-flippered penguin. It is the most important seabird breeding area between the Marlborough Sounds and Foveaux Strait. The rocky and rugged Kaikoura Peninsula and coast also supports a wide array of wildlife, and is home to many notable seal colonies.

The estuarine habitats which occur along the coast are important ecological areas which provide habitat for a multitude of indigenous flora and fauna. Significant areas include Te Waihora/Lake Ellesmere (NWCO) and the Wainono Lagoon (RAMSAR) in South Canterbury.

Te Waihora/Lake Ellesmere is a very large brackish water body which holds a range of outstanding conservation features. Within the Te Waihora/Lake Ellesmere system, 158 bird species, including 133 indigenous species, have been recorded. There are also a number of rare plants in the area.

The Wainono Lagoon, near Waimate is a large shallow coastal lagoon/lake that is a significant habitat for many important wildlife including waterfowl, migratory birds, coastal birds and native fish. It is a nationally important locality for many bird species including the wrybill/ngutupare, royal spoonbill and white heron/kotuku, which are threatened species. The Wainono Lagoon is listed as a wetland area of international importance under the RAMSAR Wetland Convention.

Kaitorete Spit is the largest landform of its type in New Zealand with indigenous vegetation cover remaining along its shoreline.

LEgIbILITy vALuEs

To geormorphologists the Canterbury Plains are classic outwash plains, which are the best examples of their kind in New Zealand. Kaitorete Spit is also considered to be of national importance by geomorphologists.

The major braided rivers are also amongst the best examples of their kind in New Zealand. The Rakaia River braids, the Opihi Lagoon and the Motunau Beach Pliocene fauna and Pleistocene debris flows are recognised as geopreservation sites of international importance.

The river terracing patterns of the Rakaia, Rangitata and Waimakariri Rivers are highly legible and are large scale landscape features within this landscape type.

Above: The sinuous braided patterns of the large Canterbury Rivers contrasts with the geometric configuration of the plains.

Below: The famous ‘Nor’ west arch cloud formation occurs frequently across the plains.

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AEsThETIC vALuEs

The strong geometric patterning of the plains contrasts with the imposing backdrop of the Southern Alps. The vastness of this landscape allows uninterrupted and celebrated views through to the Alps in the west and to Banks Peninsula/Port Hills in the east.

The rugged Kaikoura coast and Peninsula are highly visible and have significant aesthetic values. The series of dramatic partially submerged rocky shelves and points, small stony beaches and rocky limestone cliffs found along this coastline are attractive features.

TRANsIENT vALuEs

The Canterbury Coast supports a wide array of fauna. Seasonal variations are reflected by the changes in the wildlife that are present in these areas, from the seal pups which are found along the rocky Kaikoura coast in the breeding season to the wide transient collection of bird species which exploit the rich resources of the various estuaries, rivers and lakes that are found within this landscape type.

The famous ‘Nor’west arch’ and dry hot winds streaming off the mountains are a common occurrence on the plains and an expression of typical South Island weather patterns.


To tangata whenua, the plains contain the great taonga, the rivers and wetlands. The large braided rivers were used as part of a network of trails which linked the east and west coast of the South Island. These were used for mahinga kai and resource gathering. Lake Ellesmere is of immense importance to Ngai Tahu and is highly valued for mahinga kai.

The Kaikoura Peninsula and the wider coastal area are rich in Maori history. Specifically, the Kaikoura Peninsula provided Maori with an abundance of food and shelter, and is rich in over 800 years of Maori tradition. There are at least fourteen pa sites on the Peninsula, most of which were occupied for short periods only and witnessed some fierce battles. Many signs of these activities are visible in this landscape as terraces, pits, ditches, and middens.

Legend has it that Maui used the Kaikoura Peninsula as a foothold to brace himself when he fished the North Island out of the sea. The Peninsula’s earliest name is derived from this legend: Te Taumanu o te Waka a Maui, which translated means the thwart or seat of Maui’s canoe.

The Hakataramea and Waitaki Rivers are acknowledged in the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement (Schedule 26) for cultural, spiritual, historic and traditional associations. The Waitaki river served as a major highway for travels between the west and east coasts and between both North Otago and Canterbury. The river led to the central lakes district, which was itself a rich source of mahinga kai for Maori and from there across to the Southern Alps and the treasured pounamu resource of Te Tai Poutini (the West Coast).

The coastal area was traditionally used by Maori on their travels north and south, with many archaeological sites remaining along the coast. Evidence of past Maori occupation includes groves of karaka, rock drawings, middens, and pa site remains which are found throughout the coast and within the plains themselves.

Above: According to Maori legend, Maui used the Kaikoura Peninsula as a foothold when he fished the North Island out of the sea.

Below: The patchwork pattern of the plains is a key characteristic of the Canterbury landscape.

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For most New Zealanders the flat typography and patchwork patterning of the Plains landscape is the very essence of Canterbury. The contrast between the unmodified and rugged mountains, the sinuous patterning of the braided rivers and the manicured patchwork quilt of the plains has been recognised as distinctive and has inspired both literature and art. The plains are a prosperous agricultural landscape which is a valued economic resource and a symbol of farming productivity.

Protruding from the rugged east coast of the South Island, with a backdrop of steep mountains, the Kaikoura peninsula and coastal area is a major attraction. Its wildlife, including whales, dolphins, seals, birds and crayfish, provides a unique experience which is a popular destination for both international and domestic tourists.

Recreation in Canterbury is centred on the coastal area and rivers. The beaches and river mouths provide good fishing spots and camping areas. Baches are also common along the coast. The coastal hills provide opportunities for walking and tramping, and the rivers are popular for rafting, kayaking, jet-boating, fishing and game bird hunting.

hIsTORIC vALuEs

The plains landscapes have an extensive history of human settlement which has dramatically shaped the plains that we see today.

ThefirstEuropeanlandedinCanterburyin1815–45yearsafterCaptainJamesCook first sighted what he named ‘Banks Island’, which was later found to be a peninsula. In 1850-1851 the ‘first four ships’ arrived into Lyttelton harbour which brought the first groups of English settlers, the founders of Christchurch.

Christchurch became a city by Royal Charter on July 31 1856. This makes it the oldest established city in New Zealand. Canterbury’s economy was built on primary agricultural products which have shaped the landscape of the plains. The low-lying plains were drained and extensive areas of vegetation were burned to allow for more productive farm land. As farming progressed the landscape became increasingly scattered with fences, shelterbelts, stock water races and roads.

As the city was established roads and rail links were set up connecting the various smaller settlements on the plains with the city.

The whaling industry attracted the earliest European settlers to the Kaikoura Township and Peninsula. The Peninsula itself has many significant archaeological sites, including old whalebone fences, foundations of buildings from the whaling era, and the remains of early Maori middens and pa fortifications.

Above: The ‘Canterbury bight’ extends from Banks Peninsula to Timaru.

Below: The vast plains extend from the foothills in the west to the coast.

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3. dOwNLANd ANd FOOThILLsThis landscape type is made up of the following Land Types (Ian Lynn):










L23 lgneous Hill Country Land Type


Smooth rounded, rolling to strongly rolling downland landscape developed on loess mantled Cretaceous/Tertiary sedimentary and igneous strata, and early Pleistocene gravels, with minor associated terraces, floodplains and fans. Elevation ranges from 50 to 500m and rainfall from 650 to 1000mm/A. Example areas would include the Cheviot and Waikari Valley districts.


Hill and valley landscapes underlain by Cretaceous/Tertiary sedimentary and igneous strata, and minor associated Torlesse Group rocks; incorporating smooth rounded hill slopes developed on weakly indurated strata, and minor structurally controlled hills, e.g. cuestas and hogbacks; minor ‘hard rock’ hill slopes developed on Torlesse rocks, and associated terraces, floodplains and fans. Elevation ranges from 50 to 650m and rainfall from 600 to 1200m/A. Example areas would include the Ashley Forest and the Glenmark districts.


Prominent structurally controlled hill and valley landscapes underlain by Cretaceous/Tertiary calcareous sedimentary rocks, igneous strata, and minor associated Torlesse rocks, and associated terraces, floodplains and fans. Elevation ranges from 0 to 900m and rainfall from 650 to 1250mm/A. Example areas would include the Mount Cass and Montserrat districts.


Smooth, rounded, rolling to strongly rolling downland landscapes developed on loess mantled Cretaceous/Tertiary sedimentary and igneous strata, and early Pleistocene gravels, with minor associated terraces, floodplains and fans. Elevation ranges from 0 to 500m and rainfall from 600 to 1000mm/A. Example areas would include the Timaru Downlands and Green Hills areas.


Hill and valley landscapes underlain by Cretaceous tertiary sedimentary and igneous strata, and minor associated Torlesse Group and low grade schist rocks; incorporating smooth, rounded hill slopes developed on weakly indurated strata, and minor structurally controlled hills, eg. cuestas and hogsbacks, minor ‘hard rock’ hill slopes and associated terraces, floodplains and fans. Elevation ranges from 40 to 600 m and rainfall from 600 to 1000 mm/A. An example area would include the Totara Valley district.


Prominent structurally controlled hill and valley landscapes underlain by Cretaceous tertiary calcareous sedimentary rocks, igneous strata, and minor associated Torlesse Group and low grade schist rocks; structurally controlled hill slopes, eg. cuestas and hogbacks, with pronounced dip and scarp slopes, and minor ‘hard rock’ hill slopes, and associated terraces, floodplains and fans. Elevation ranges from 50 to 500 m and rainfalls from less than 600 to 1000 mm/A. Example areas would include Waihao Downs. Livingstone and Limestone Valley areas.


Steep to very steep, low elevation (0 - 1200 m), Torlesse sedimentary rock, coastal hill and mountain country north of Oaro, and including the Patutu Range. Bluffy rock outcrops and minor scree are evident on ridge and spur crests and uplifted former sea cliffs. Rainfall ranges from 1200 to 1800 mm/A. Vegetation is dominated by heavy manuka - kanuka scrub with second growth coastal forests, fern and induced pasture. Wind shear and salt spray affects vegetation along the coastal margin. Includes the foothills of the Seaward Kaikoura Range and the Sawtooth Range north of the Clarence River.

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L21L21

L21L21L21L21

L13L13

L20L20

L12L12

L21L21

L12L12

L11L11

L21L21

L11L11

L12L12

L12+L11L12+L11

L11L11

L20L20

L12L12

L12L12

L12+L13L12+L13

L12+L11L12+L11

L21L21

L13L13

L13L13

L13+L12L13+L12

L11L11

L11L11

L12L12

L13L13

L11+L13L11+L13

L11L11L12L12

L21L21

L23L23

L13L13

L21L21

L13L13

L11L11L12L12

L13L13

L11L11

L11L11

L11L11

L13+L12L13+L12

L23L23

L13+L23L13+L23

L21L21






Strongly rolling to steep, moderately dissected, stable, low elevation, low land, Torlesse hard rock hill country, with rock outcrop especially on spur and ridge crests, and some soil slipping and minor scree erosion. Lower slopes are predominantly oversown and top dressed but frequently with a high scrub component: matagouri, manuka, some gorse and broom, mixed native scrub in gullies and around rock outcrops, and minor remnant native forest. Upper slopes are predominantly in undeveloped ‘native’ pasture with scrub. Elevation ranges from 200 to 1400 m, the balance below 1100 m, and rainfall from 650 to 1150 m/A. Typical North Canterbury hard rock foothill terrain, example areas include the Lowry Peaks Range, and the Doctors Hills, with Haldon and/or Hurunui Steepland and Hill soils.


Strongly rolling to steep and very steep, moderately dissected, stable, lowland to upper montane, Torlesse sedimentary and low grade schist, hard rock hill and mountain country, with rock outcrop especially on ridge and spur crests and summits, and slight to moderate scree and sheet erosion on upper slopes. Elevation ranges from 250 to 1600 m (Mt Nessing) with the balance below 1300 m, and rainfalls from 800 to 1250 mm/A. Lower slopes are predominantly oversown and top dressed but with a high scrub component: matagouri, manuka, with some gorse and broom, mixed native scrub in gullies and around rock outcrops, and minor remnant native forest. Upper slopes are predominantly undeveloped short tussock grassland with snow tussock at higher elevations. South Canterbury hard rock foothill terrain, example areas would include the Hunters Hills and the Albury Range, typically with Hurunui and Tengawai Steepland soils on eastern aspects at lower elevations, Meyer Hill and Omarama Steepland soils on north westerly aspects, and Kaikoura Steepland soils on the higher ridge crests and summits.

L23 Igneous Hill Country Land Type

Strongly rolling to steep, moderately dissected, stable, low elevation, lowland. igneous hard rock hill country on the plains fringe with rock outcrop and minor sheet and soil slip erosion. Elevation ranges from 400 to 1000 m and rainfall from 900 to 1200 m/A. Vegetation is predominantly oversown short tussock grassland, scrubland, or remnant beech forest cover with increasing exotic afforestation. Example areas include the Rockwood Range and parts of the Malvern Hills.

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L22L22

L14L14

L21L21

L17L17

L16+L14L16+L14

L16+L15L16+L15

L17L17

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L14+L15L14+L15

L14L14

L23L23

L22L22

L14L14

L12L12

L21L21

L17L17

L14L14

L22L22

L14L14

L14+L15L14+L15

L22L22

L14L14

L22L22

L15+L14+L16L15+L14+L16

L16L16

L22L22

L17L17

L11L11

L16+L15L16+L15

L16+L23L16+L23

L12L12

L17L17

L17L17

L22L22

L23L23

L21L21

L11L11

L12+L11L12+L11

L14+L16L14+L16

L11L11

L14L14

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L23L23

L16L16

L22L22

L17L17

L14L14




T a s m a n S e a

General Character DescriptionTo the east of the main divide is the ‘front country’ which comprises the series of foothills that form the western edge of the Canterbury plains. This is an intermediate landscape that marks the transition between the more rugged frontal ranges (see landscape type Front Ranges) to the west and the flat, vast plains landscape (see landscape type Low Altitude Plains) to the east. The rolling hills display a characteristic pattern of land uses, with extensive grazing, forestry and some bush on the rougher land and intensive farming on the gentle slopes.

This is an extensive landscape type which consists largely of low hills that rise gradually to encircle the northern and southern ends of the Plains. Prominent ranges extend to the coast in the north (Hundalees, Hawkswood Range and ranges between Waiau River mouth and Mt Cass) and in the south in the Hunters Hills area. The topography varies from the distinctive high foothills to rolling hill country, and a rugged and dramatic coastal environment. The landscape type includes the coastal limestone hills between Kaikoura and Mt Cass, the low mountains (eg around Mt Oxford) with deeply incised valleys and gorges and the dissected hills north and south of the Waitaki River. The Hunters Hills extend east from Fairlie with higher peaks, such as Mt Nessing (1597 masl), in the west, to the lower hills near Waimate Township. The north branch of the Waihao River marks the western edge of the Hunters Hills, and winds through gorges within a landscape of rocky escarpments and gently rounded hill country.

The geology of the area is dominated by greywacke and argillite rock. Significant limestone outcrops also occur in the northern inland part of the landscape type, notably at Weka Pass and Waipara Gorge. The hills south of the Waitaki, in particular in the Maerewhenua and Duntroon area, contain distinctive limestone outcrops and ridges. The Malvern Hills have a distinctively different underlying geology to the remainder of the foothills in this landscape type. Their volcanic origin is related to the sheets of rhyolite lavas found in the Mt Somers area (see landscape type Front Ranges).

Vegetation within this landscape type generally consists of extensively grazed pasture lands which are found on the more accessible rolling hill country. The steeper areas are characterised by small localised forests and tussock remnants which are dotted with sporadic native trees. In general, a coarser pattern of native and exotic forest and scrub cover occurs in the North Canterbury foothills, whereas extensive tussock lands are more common on the southern hills. The dominant land use remains farming, with a significant and proportion of exotic forestry, which is increasing in the south. The downlands and foothills are a transition between the highly modified Canterbury Plains and the more natural alpine landscapes to the west. The patterns of this predominantly cultural landscape reflect past and present human land use, largely determined by accessibility and suitability for farming.

Above: Looking south along the distinctive limestone ridge of Mt Cass towards the Canterbury Plains.

Left: Limestone outcrops found alongside the Maerewhenua River.

Below: State Highway 1 emerging from the Hundalee Hills before it meets the coast at Oaro.

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At lower altitudes, the vegetation is more modified, predominantly containing farmland with pasture grasses and exotic shrub cover. Indigenous vegetation is often restricted to forest, shrubland and tussock remnants, particularly in areas less accessible to stock, such as gullies and roadsides. Reserves recognized for conservation values are found scattered on the foothill edges, mostly in valleys that have escaped fire, logging and intensive grazing. A variety of indigenous plant communities characterise the area, particularly remnant podocarp, coastal and broadleaf hardwood and black beech forests, mixed shrubland, treelands, and tussock grasslands.

The northern part of the landscape type is notable for containing some biotic elements from Marlborough, and for communities associated with limestone, in particular around the Mt Cass ridge and Waikari area. The Kaikoura Lakes (Lake Rotoiti and Kowhai) attract large numbers of native and exotic waterfowl and provide raupo wetland habitat rare in the region. The Hurunui and Waiau rivers provide important fish and wildlife habitats and the coastal environment from the Waipara to the Conway River is ecologically diverse. The area provides important habitat for the New Zealand fur seal, such as the coastal breeding colony of Shag Rock and the haul-out area at Napenape. The rocky and rugged Kaikoura Peninsula and coast also supports a wide array of wildlife, and is home to many notable seal colonies.

Above: ‘Frog Rock’ is an iconic limestone formation visible from the State Highway at Weka Pass.

Below: The limestone formations in the Waipara gorge have been exposed by the river cutting in.

Left: The lower slopes are mainly comprised of forestry and farming land uses.

Middle: Lowry Peak Range in the background, forming the boundary to the Amuri Plains.

Right: The distinctive limestone outcrops found in many parts of South Canterbury.

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The vegetated slopes with beech and podocarp forest remnants around Mt Oxford and Thomas provide a distinctively different landscape character to the scree and tussock dominated foothills of the adjacent Torlesse Range. There are significant areas of indigenous podocarp and hardwood forest around the eastern flanks of Mts Peel and Studholme, which are mostly within protected land. A DOC managed area in the Hunters Hills contains a large remote area of dissected montane ridges and basins with scattered montane shrubs and tussockland at a variety of altitudes and aspects. Specialised indigenous plant communities are associated with limestone on the downlands, and the seaward alpine area of the Hunters Hills. A relict long-tailed bat population is centered on the small forest remnants, riparian strips and limestone areas around Hanging Rock on the Opihi River system.

A number of internationally and regionally significant geopreservation sites occur in the Weka Pass area, where notable fossils, corrugated folds and limestone outcrops occur. The Waipara River Cretaceous-Palaeocene sequence is one of the most complete and well exposed sequences in New Zealand. A large number of geopreservation sites lie within this landscape type, most of them identified for their (fossil bearing) limestone outcrops

LEgIbILITy vALuEs

The landform is varied, but its hills, limestone outcrops, downs and river gorges are expressive of their formation. In particular the limestone outcrops around Weka Pass display outstanding legibility values. Other limestone ridges and formations, such as Waipara Gorge, Mt Cass and several outcrops south of Duntroon are also highly legible. The incised Waipara Gorge is an example of a river downcutting at the pace of a growing fold. In particular fossil - bearing limestone formations show their formation very clearly. While the Malvern Hills have the same volcanic origins as Mt Somers, they do not display the same impressive, highly legible lava columns. The rolling hills of the downlands are less expressive of their formative processes than the adjacent high foothills, since human land use has created a cultural veneer.

AEsThETIC vALuEs

The aesthetic value of the coastline near Kaikoura is widely recognised as exceptional. The coastal environment within this landscape type between Kekerungu and Kaikoura also has high scenic values. The landscape character and aesthetic value of features, such as the gorge section of the Waipara Rivers and limestone outcrops mentioned in the character description, are important assets of the area. Mounts Grey, Oxford and Thomas form the visual backdrop to views to the north west across the Canterbury Plains and they provide similar visual values to the Front Ranges, which include the Torlesse and Puketeraki Ranges.

TRANsIENT vALuEs

The transient values, in particular the seasonal changes, are not as expressive in the foothills and downlands as in the higher, snow-capped front ranges and alpine areas. Deciduous exotic trees, such as poplars, are commonly found in this landscape type. Their seasonal change in colour and leaf cover provides cultural transient values. The ephemeral wildlife values in this landscape type are limited due to human modifications. However, weather patterns, such as the cloud formations created by north-westerly weather patterns and the gale winds blowing down the gorges, are characteristic of the foothills.


Right: The interesting limestone formations near Danseys Pass.

Below: The Waiau River as it cuts through the foothills near Parnassus. The snow covered Amuri Range is visible in the background.

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The limestone areas of South and North Canterbury hold major concentrations of Maori rock art sites. The Raincliff (Opihi Valley) and Weka Pass reserves were both established to protect rock art sites. The rock drawings at Weka Pass date back to the moa-hunter period of Maori settlement. Rock drawings are largely found in fragile limestone environments, which are vulnerable to damage by, for example, stock rubbing against the limestone surface.

The coastal area was traditionally used by Maori on their travels north and south, with many archaeological sites remaining at the Hurunui River, Waipara River, Conway River, Motunau, and Gore Bay.

The Kaikoura coastline is rich in Maori history. Between Peketa, on the hill above theKahutaraRivermouth,andtheHaumuriBluffswerenumerouspasites–Goose Bay Pa, Parititahi Pa, Conical Hill Pa, Omihi Pa, and Oaro Pa. The Mikonui gardens are a significant feature of this area.


The Waimakariri River Valley has road and rail links right across to the West Coast, in spite of the formidable barrier of Mt Torlesse making access difficult over Porters Pass. Both routes are among the most varied and spectacular in the South Island. The railway line to West Coast where it runs in close proximity to the Waimakariri Gorge provides impressive views, enjoyed by many visitors to New Zealand. Similarly, traveling along the scenic coastal roads of Kaikoura is well recognised as a special and unique experience by many people.

The valleys and ridgelines of Canterbury’s foothills forests offer easy access to fantastic forest and alpine environments. Their location, at the foot of the Southern Alps within an hour’s drive of Christchurch, makes these areas popular with trampers, mountain bikers, picnickers, hunters and campers. Recreation is also centered on the coastal areas and rivers. The Waiau and Hurunui rivers are popular for rafting, kayaking, jet-boating, fishing and gamebird hunting. The beaches and river mouths provide good fishing spots and camping is provided for in a number of locations.

hIsTORIC vALuEs

Within the Oaro coastal corridor, signs of past fishing, road and railway structures give this section of the coastline a sense of history. Along with the strong natural character, the clusters of baches and features such as the rail and road tunnels cutting dramatically through rocky headlands add interest and cultural character to this coastal landscape.

The railway line connecting the east and west coasts crosses the foothills before it enters in the tunnel section along the Waimakariri Gorge. The construction of

these tunnels to establish the Midland railway line in the late 19th century was a major engineering undertaking.

Early European settlement was dominated by the large pastoral estates, such as Cheviot and Glenmark. Historic features associated with transport are the Hurunui Hotel and the Weka Pass Railway.

Coal mining took place in the Malvern Hills. Relics from European settlement include buildings relating to the pastoral history of the area, lime kilns and sawmilling remnants.

The Monavale School, now a reserve, dates from 1911, and reflects the growth in family farms following the subdivision of Levels Station. Pioneer Park marks the site of the original homestead of Michael Burke, the European discoverer of the pass into the Mackenzie in 1855, known to Maori as Te Kopi Opihi (the gorge of the Opihi). The Kakahu lime kilns are a surviving remnant of a historic industry complex.

Above: The mosaic of remnant vegetation, small settlements, pasture and forestry is typical of the downlands and foothills of Canterbury.

Below: The northern slopes of Mt Grey. Patches of remnant vegetation are restricted to the gullies, and the unnatural pattern of the forest plantations can be seen on the slopes.

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4. COAsTAL LImEsTONEThis landscape type is made up of the following Land Types (Ian Lynn):




Steep to very steep, dissected, strongly structurally controlled coastal hill and mountain country underlain by hard Upper Cretaceous to Lower Tertiary limestones and mudstones with minor volcanics and volcanogenic sediments, and associated Lower Cretaceous indurated sandstones and mudstones (Sawtooth Formation); includes steep structurally controlled hill and mountain slopes, and smooth rounded hills developed on weakly indurated strata. Elevation ranges from 60 to 1250 m, and rainfall between 800 and 1200 mm/A. Vegetation cover varies from extensive scrub free silver tussock grassland, induced grassland and beech-lowland podocarp hardwood forest. Example areas include Ben More and Napoleon peaks, and the Puhi Puhi syncline.


Moderately steep to steep, dissected, low altitude coastal hill country underlain by Middle to Upper Tertiary conglomerate, limestone and calcareous mudstones with some loess; incorporating smooth rounded hills developed on weakly indurated strata and structurally controlled hill slopes eg. cuestas and hogbacks on limestones and conglomerates. Elevation ranges from 5 to 300 m, and rainfall from 800 to 1000 mm/A. This land type incorporates the coastal hills from the Clarence River to Kekerengu.

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L19L19

L18L18

L18L18

L19L19



General Character DescriptionThis landscape type is characterised by limestone outcroppings, harder rock hill country inland and more smoothly contoured hills near the coast. These landscapes occur only in the north of the region near the Clarence River between the base of the Seaward Kaikouras and the coast. The hills east and north of the lower Clarence River are included in this landscape area, which extends almost to the sea, with only a narrow beach area. The lower section of the Clarence River is extensively braided within multiple meandering channels.

Within this landscape type there are areas of steep, dissected limestone gullies and cliffs as well as the more rolling hill country near the coast. The rolling landforms of the lowland hills are covered with pasture lands. The green tones of this more intensively farmed lowland hill country contrast markedly with the dark and rugged textures of the Seaward Kaikoura Range which lies behind.

The most distinctive landform in this landscape type is the south-plunging Puhi Puhi Syncline north of Kaikoura. This folded limestone ridge extends from Mt Alexander close to the coast.

Generally this is a working pastoral landscape with remnant patches of native scrubland occurring in the gully areas. Clusters of isolated farm buildings and associated shelter plantings nestle into the rolling landforms. Only sparse, small settlements lie within this landscape type, of limited area, north of Kaikoura.

Left: Looking down the Hapuku River, to the coast. These northern limestone hills

are mostly covered in high producing grassland with some kanuka regeneration in

gullies.

Below: The Puhi Puhi Syncline extends from Mt Alexander to the Puhiphui River

bridge. This unique limestone ridge has been subject to folding and mountain uplift.

Above: Looking down the Puhi Puhi Valley towards the Kaikoura Peninsula.

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Around Saddle Camp and Isolated Hill (in the northern part of the landscape type) a mix of kanuka shrubland and broadleaved indigenous hardwoods form coherent areas of native vegetation. The remainder of the northern limestone hills is mostly covered in high producing grassland with some kanuka regeneration in gullies. The land cover on the lower hills contrasts with the indigenous forest cover on the eastern slopes of the Seaward Kaikoura Ranges.

Puhi Puhi Valley and Mount Alexander are landforms of geological and geomorphological interest. The lower slopes of Mt Alexander are predominantly pasture, over-sown tussock grassland and scrubland. However, mixed native scrub and remnant native forest are found in the gullies. Broadleaved scrub and indigenous forest remnants can be found in the Rakautara Valley (east of Mt Alexander) and along Parapara Stream.

LEgIbILITy vALuEs

The Puhi Puhi Syncline is a spectacular example of folds developed along the eastern coast. This distinctive fold extends south-east from Mt Alexander to Puhi Puhi River bridge. A 2km wide belt of limestone, dissected by Parapara Stream, forms a unique feature, created by folding, together with mountain uplift, which occurred as a result of continental plate movement. This feature is highly legible as a whole when viewed from a distance. The white limestone face along the northern extent of Mt Alexander shows its underlying geology. The erosional features and braided pattern of the Clarence River display some legibility values, but overall the low limestone hills in the north are less expressive of their formation.

AEsThETIC vALuEs

The visual link of the impressive limestone ridge from the top of Mt Alexander to the sea is particularly impressive when viewed from Kaikoura Peninsula. The aesthetic values of the visually diverse Puhi Puhi Valley are high compared with the grazed barren hills in the north.

TRANsIENT vALuEs

The steep rise of the coastal mountains from sea level to around 1200 m (Mt Alexander) create an interesting contrast between snow-capped mountains and green coastal areas in winter and spring. The Kaikoura coast has a number of (transient) wildlife values, which are discussed under the Low Altitude Plains landscape type.


The Clarence area is important to tangata whenua. The Waiau Toa/Clarence River has great significance to Ngati Kuri because of the separation between Waiau (male) and Waiau-Toa (female). These waters represent the tears of separation.

Waipapa (Clarence area coastline) contains numerous old pa sites, pits and gardens. This is a coastal area rich in Maori history. Of particular significance is the land around the Clarence River mouth.


The northern section of the Kaikoura coast is an important scenic route for travellers along State Highway 1 which links Canterbury with the Marlborough District. The narrow road and rail corridor close to the coast is an important part of the experience of travelling along this route. Several reserves with huts or campgrounds, such as the Isolated Hill and Puhi Puhi Scenic Reserves, are located within the area.

hIsTORIC vALuEs

Kekerengu Station with cob structures that are still remaining is an important feature in this landscape. It represents the history of farming in this area which extends back to around the 1850’s when Kekerengu was a thriving farming village community on the Kaikoura coast.

Above: The limestone hill country north of the Clarence River mouth.

Below: The highly legible white limestone face of Mt Alexander.

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5. hIgh COuNTRy LImEsTONEThis landscape type is made up of the following Land Type (Ian Lynn):


H6 Soft Rock lnfaulted Basin and Valley Land Type

lnfaulted tectonic basin and valley, hill and valley landscapes underlain by Cretaceous/Cenozoic sedimentary and igneous strata, and associated Torlesse Group and low grade schist rocks; incorporating structurally controlled hills, eg. cuestas and hogbacks with pronounced dip and scarp slopes, smooth rounded hills developed on weakly indurated strata, ‘hard rock’ hill slopes, and associated outwash and fluvial terrace sequences, floodplains and fans. Elevation ranges from 550 to 1400 m with most below 1000 m, and rainfalls between 900 and 1500 mm/A. Example locations include the Castle Hill Basin, the Esk and middle Clarence River valleys.

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H6H6

H6H6

H6H6

H6H6

H6H6





General Character DescriptionLimestone outcrops are distinctive features of this landscape type, which occur in a number of locations throughout the region. During the Tertiary period (between 65 and 20 million years ago) the accumulation of calcium-rich sediments (from the period when much of low-lying Canterbury was a shallow sea), were pushed up by tectonic activity into the characteristic karst formations of limestone rock outcrops, escarpments, cliffs and bluffs seen today.

The dominant characteristic of these landscapes are the distinctive landforms. The limestone creates fascinating forms and shapes which are individual and extraordinary. The Clarence River area and Castle Hill are the two most extensive areas.

CAsTLE hILL

The term “Castle Hill” refers to the prominent outcrops of limestone that are found throughout the Castle Hill Basin. These spectacular outcrops are very prominent along the Porter River and to the northeast of Cave Stream. Cave Stream is named after the limestone cave which the stream has carved just before it enters Broken River beside SH73.

The geology of the rocks at Castle Hill/Kura Tawhiti comprises tertiary limestone, mudstone, sandstone and tuffs which were eroded by water to form the distinctive sculptured landforms of a karst landscape.

CLARENCE RIvER vALLEy

The Clarence River Valley Limestone extends along the Clarence River from an area near the Fell to Nidd Stream near the Chalk range (Marlborough District).

This exceptional landscape is isolated, barren and serene with large gorges, waterfalls and stark cliffs. The finely textured tussock grasslands that cover the landscape allow the underlying geological processes to be clearly legible.

Left: The distinctive limestone landforms at Castle Hill.

Above: Castle Hill is a world class climbing location.

Below: The lower Clarence River Valley, from Manakau, in the Seaward Kaikoura Range.

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Canterbury limestone country supports unique ecosystems with distinctive flora. These areas are typically characterised by mixed hardwood forest and shrubland that support many rare and specialist limestone plant species. More than 20% of Canterbury’s threatened flora occurs in these limestone ecosystems.

Biologists consider that the Clarence limestone outcrops are nationally significant floristically and are important habitats for many rare limestone plant communities.

Castle Hill / Kura Tawhiti contains some of the rarest and most endangered plants in Canterbury. Once covered in totara and tall shrubs, the area was cleared 600 years ago by fire and has been grazed for almost 150 years, leaving tussock and pasture as the dominant vegetation. However, the karst surface landforms provide a variety of habitats for plant species that are restricted to or favour growing on calcareous soils, such as scattered scrubland remnants among limestone boulders and crevices, sparse limestone scree vegetation, and calciphilic tor vegetation of mosses and lichens.

Kura Tawhiti is also the site of the first reserve in New Zealand. Originally this reserve was established specifically for the protection of the Castle Hill buttercup (Ranunculus crithmifolius).

Many bird species, both native and exotic, have been recorded within the Castle Hill Basin. The most notable bird species recorded are the New Zealand Falcon (Falco novaeseelandiae “eastern”), for which the limestone tors and outcrops provide an important habitat, and Kea (Nestor notabilis), which visit the area during the winter months.

LEgIbILITy vALuEs

The limestone outcrops found in Castle Hill Basin are highly expressive and legible landscape features. Geopreservation sites within the karst limestone landscape of Castle Hill Basin, such as the Broken, Thomas and Porter River transgressive sequence and the Parapet Rock offset fault trace, have been recognised as nationally significant.

In the Clarence River Valley there are a significant number of geopreservation sites relating to fossilisation, Amuri limestone exposures and fault action. Of particular significance is the Mead Stream Amuri Limestone, identified as an internationally significant geopreservation site.

AEsThETIC vALuEs

The limestone rock outcrops are distinctive features of the unique landscape at Kura Tawhiti / Castle Hill. The tors and bluffs of the basin provide high scenic values and are an integral part of the landscape.

TRANsIENT vALuEs

The limestone outcrops create distinctive and unique shadows at various times of the day.

The New Zealand Falcon (Falco novaeseelandiae “eastern”) are found in this area during the breeding season, as with the Kea (Nestor notabilis), which is seen here in the winter months.


Kura Tawhiti has Topuni status, which is a legal recognition of the site’s importance to the Ngai Tahu tribe. The landforms of Castle Hill / Kura Tawhiti have special significance to Ngai Tahu. Kura Tawhiti literally means “the treasure from a distant land”, referring to the kumara that was once cultivated in this area. Stories and legends link the Ngai Tahu people to this landscape. The traditional knowledge of trails, rock shelters and rock drawings, and places for gathering kai (food) in the area form an integral part of past and present tribal identity.


Climbers, families, students, scientists and travellers have always been drawn to the spectacular landforms of Castle Hill, to explore its natural, cultural, and historic and recreation values. The limestone outcrops are used by rock climbers who consider the site to offer some of the best bouldering in New Zealand.

The Clarence River is a popular area for many recreational pursuits including rafting, fishing and hunting.

hIsTORIC vALuEs

The grand limestone rock battlements of Kura Tawhiti led early European travellers to name the area Castle Hill.

Below: Castle Hill / Kura Tawhiti contains some of the rarest and most endangered

plants in Canterbury that thrive in the limestone environment.

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6. FRONT RANgEThis landscape type is made up of the following Land Types (Ian Lynn):

H9 Northern Eastern Front Range Land Type



Steep to very steep, dissected, front mountain ranges fringing the upper plains in the north east and rising to 2000 m; minor cirque glaciation although with a distinctive periglacial imprint; extensive scree and bedrock outcrop especially at higher elevations, and sharp crested peaks and relatively smooth flat-topped ridge crests. Deep colluvium and moraine mantles moderately steep to steep rectilinear lower mountain slopes. Elevation ranges from 450 to 2000 m and rainfall between 1200 and 2500 mm/A. Snow tussock, subalpine scrub and alpine and rockfield vegetation features above 1220 m, with an induced short tussock grassland, scrubland, or remnant beech forest cover at lower elevations. The land type includes the Puketeraki, Torlesse and Big Ben Ranges.


Steep to very steep, dissected, front mountain ranges fringing the upper plains in the south east and rising to 2200 m; minor cirque glaciation, although with a distinctive periglacial imprint, extensive scree and bedrock outcrop especially at higher elevations; sharp crested and smooth flat-topped summits. Deep colluvium and moraine mantle moderately steep to steep rectilinear lower mountain slopes. Elevation ranges from 450 to 2200 m and rainfall between 1200 and 2000 mm/A. Snow tussock, subalpine scrub and alpine and rockfield vegetation features above 1100 to 1200 with an induced short tussock grassland and scrubland at lower elevations. Significant remnant forest cover is present only on the south easterly aspect. Example locations include Mt Hutt, Mt Peel and the Four Peaks Ranges.


Steep to very steep to strongly rolling, dissected, mountain ranges of igneous rock, on the upper plains fringe; non glaciated but with structural and fault controlled topography; extensive bedrock outcrop and scree, especially at higher elevations. Thick colluvium and some moraine mantles moderately steep to steep, bluffy, rectilinear lower mountain slopes. Elevation ranges from 550 to 1700 m, and rainfall between 900 and 2000 mm/A. Snow tussock, subalpine scrub and rockfield vegetation feature above 1200 m with an induced short tussock grassland, scrubland, or beech forest cover at lower elevations. Example locations include Mt Somers, Mt Barrossa, Mt Alford, and the south bank of the Rangitata above Stew Point.

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H9H9

H10H10

H10H10

H16H16

H16H16

H16H16



General Character DescriptionThe front ranges lie northwest of the Canterbury Plains between the Waipara River in the north and the Two Thumb Range in the south. The low Downlands and Foothills form a separate landscape type, while the front ranges rise up to an altitude of 2200 metres and link the plains with the Southern Alps. These mountain ranges are clearly visible from the Canterbury Plains, standing boldly up above the plains and marking the eastern edge of the main ranges of the Alps. The often snow-covered rugged peaks provide contrast to the Plains below and form the major skyline for views from the east.

This rim to the plains is separated into a series of discrete ranges by the major rivers of the Canterbury Plains. The northern part (north of Rakaia River) of this landscape type includes the Puketeraki, Big Ben and Torlesse Ranges; the central part (between Rakaia and Rangitata Rivers) extends across the Mt Hutt, Winterslow/Mt Somers and Black Hill Ranges; while the southern part (south of Rangitata River) consists of the Mt Peel and Four Peaks Ranges. In mid-Canterbury the mountains rise directly from the edge of the Plains, whereas to the north and south they are separated from the Plains by a more gradual transition through hills and downs. The front ranges bordering the Canterbury Plains were never covered by ice sheets, so this country is predominantly shaped by river erosion. The front ranges forced the large braided rivers to cut deep, confined gorges through them.

The dark sedimentary basement rocks of the Torlesse terrain form the spine of the Southern Alps, comprising the ranges from Aoraki/ Mt Cook to Lewis Pass, as well as the high peaks along the foothills, such as Mt Torlesse. Uniform greywacke and argillite rocks were formed from sea-floor deposits and have been

uplifted to their current height. The deeply incised river gorges of the Ashley/Rakahuri, Waimakariri, Rakaia and Rangitata Rivers, which cut their way through these hills and ranges, are a distinctive feature of the area, as are the limestone outcrops of the upper Waipara River.

The igneous intrusions, including rhyolite and tuff, around Mt Somers and Mt Alford were formed by the cooling of hot, sticky lava flows. Thick lava sheets were built from Mt Somers to Rakaia Gorge and the Malvern Hills. The rhyolite ash spewed out from explosive vents, buried local forests and silicified the entombed logs.

The landcover of the front ranges has not been modified to the same extent as the plains below. The remaining native vegetation communities are generally restricted to steep slopes and gullies. They include mountain beech fragments, mixed broad-leaf forests, mixed devarigate shrublands and tussock grasslands. Podocarp forests around the base of the foothills have been heavily logged and only defined fragments remain. The remainder of the area contains plantation forests and extensive pastoral grassland. Coal deposits, as well as quartz sand and kaolinite clays were mined in the Mt Somers area, and represented an important resource for settlers.

Top left: Blackburn Mine at Mt Somers, where coal was first discovered in 1856.

Above: View of a snow capped Mt Torlesse from the Kowhai River.

Below: Looking from Porters Ski Field towards the Rakaia River. Lake Coleridge can be seen in the foreground.

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The front ranges’ strong mountainous landform and land cover patterns contrast strongly with the highly modified patterns of the plains below. Much of the original forest cover has been lost through human-induced fires and only minimal areas of original forest are left. The rural farming environment of the foothills is sparsely populated. Afforestation is the most significant current land use change.

Large parts of the Puketeraki, Torlesse, Big Ben, Mt Hutt and Mt Somers/ Taylor Ranges are managed by DOC. The indigenous vegetation is quite extensive on the hill slopes, being predominantly black beech at low altitudes grading into mountain beech above 600 metres. Extensive areas of manuka and kanuka occur as regenerating successional species where original forest was burnt. At low altitudes, and particularly in wetter gullies, there are also remnant areas of podocarp and broad-leaved hardwood forests. These low-lying areas are covered in the Foothill and Downlands landscape type. The remnant lowland podocarp forest around Mt Peel is of particular value, due to its diversity and size.

The dry upper parts of the mountain ranges support flora such as sub-alpine tussock grasslands, species-rich shrublands, unusual scree plants such as vegetable sheep. The fauna of the mountain ranges includes native grasshoppers, weta, cockroaches, lizards and butterflies, as well as bird life, such as tomtits, riflemen and brown creeper in the beech forests and falcon and pipit in grassland areas.

LEgIbILITy vALuEs

The rugged mountains are steeply and irregularly dissected, generally forming valleys v-shaped in profile. The underlying geology of the front ranges is visible on the greywacke scree slopes and rocky outcrops along the ridges and summits. Erosion is particularly visible on the constantly moving, exposed scree slopes, and where water has carved valleys into the shingle. These large shingle slopes occur along the entire length of the front ranges, but are particularly distinctive in the Torlesse and Big Ben Ranges.

The formative processes of the front ranges are highly legible around the volcanic outcrops in the Mt Somers area, where the underlying rock is exposed and highly visible. Mt Somers displays particularly interesting geological features, including impressive lava columns, silica sands and coal deposits.

AEsThETIC vALuEs

Many people approach the Canterbury high country from the east on the main state highway, leading to the West Coast (SH73). The dissected, steep Torlesse Range forms the impressive backdrop to the views from the east. In particular in spring and winter the snow-covered mountain ranges provide a spectacular contrast to the green plains. On clear days the front ranges can be seen from the East Coast and provide a visual relationship between mountains and sea, which is valued by many.

Above: The volcanic outcrops near Mt Somers are highly legible landscape features.

Below: The Townshend River in the Puketeraki Range lies within the Oxford Forest Conservation Area.

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TRANsIENT vALuEs

The front ranges are an iconic landscape showing the seasonal changes with snow in the mountains when viewed from anywhere across the plains. The steeply rising ranges act as a divide to distinctively different weather patterns. The ‘nor’ west arch’, which is a large wave cloud formation, is a well-known feature of the skies over Canterbury.


Maori from the Kaiapoi Pa and Tuahiwi area frequently travelled through the northern part of the front ranges (Puketeraki) in search of food, especially the kiore, or indigenous rat. From the swamps that extended into the lowlands, Maori also harvested flax/harakeke and raupo. Cooking places paved with small stones have been uncovered near the edge of forests and beside streams. Several roughly defined tracks developed that were regularly used routes into the hills, including the Blowhard Track. The frequently used greenstone trading routes to the West Coast are described in the High Rainfall Divide landscape type.

From very early times, the Korowai (Torlesse) area has held special significance for the first occupants the Waitaha, and through many generations to present day Ngai Tahu. The dual name indicates the importance of the area to our local and national culture. Korowai (cloak) is symbolic of concepts such as embracement, collectiveness, togetherness and prestige. It recognises the historic connections the Ngai Tahu tupuna (ancestor) Tanetiki had with the area. The basins and ranges were an integral part of a network of trails, which were used to ensure the safest seasonal journeys and best access to mahinga kai (food-gathering places).

The dominant peak names of the Mt Peel/ Four Peaks area come from Tarahoa and his wife Hua Te kerekere. Following their shipwreck at Shag Point they moved north and spent their lives on the east coast. On their death they were transformed into what is known today as Mt Peel (Tarahoa) and Little Mt Peel/Hua te kerekere. Their son and daughter became two majestic forest trees and their four grandchildren became what is known as “four peaks”. Only two of the fourMaorinamesareknowntoday–WhakaTamiroandHineKua.


The distinctive, simple landforms with steep shingle slopes, rocky outcrops on ridges and beech forest around their bases form the background for many paintings of the Canterbury landscape. One of the highest recreational uses of the area is by day visitors who use the area for walking/tramping, hunting, mountain biking and skiing. State Highway 73 and the Midland railway passing through this area are the key routes from which people experience the landscape. At Porters Pass the landscape experience changes significantly, as travellers cross the front ranges and drop into the basins of the Canterbury high country.

Above: Porters Pass (SH73) marks the transition between the front ranges and the intermontane basins in the high country.

Below: A snow capped Mt Big Ben (part of the Big Ben Range) from the foothills near Windwhistle.

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hIsTORIC vALuEs

Charles Torlesse, a surveyor for the Canterbury provincial government, led by local Maori guides in January 1849, was the first European to climb the slopes of the range. A few men with picks, shovels and a government grant of 500 pounds, made the first track over Porters Pass in 1859, where the original (Cobb and Co Coaches) road is still visible.

Other historic European sites within the Torlesse area include the old pack track used by the Porter brothers, Avoca Homestead (1907) and the Mt Torlesse Colleries Coal Mines, which operated from 1918 to 1927.

Runholders established extensive farms and preceded the commercial sawmilling industry in the Puketeraki on which the district was founded. The last mills ceased operation in about 1912 leaving behind such relics as Rydes Tramway.

The Mt Somers area has a rich history in mining, including its silica sands for glass production, coal and lime quarrying. The mine at Mt Somers, where coal was first discovered in 1856, was later used to fire a burnt lime plant at Staveley.

Left: The contrasting colours and textures of the front ranges.

Middle: View of Castle Hill Peak, in the Torlesse Range, from SH73.

Right: Kowhai River with the rocky outcrops along the ridges of the Torlesse Range in the background.

Above: View from the Mt Hutt Range, the snow covered peaks of the Big Ben Range rise steeply from the plains and river terraces of the Rakaia River.

Below: View over the Canterbury Plains and the Waimakariri River from Mt Oxford.

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7. sEmI-ARId mOuNTAIN RANgEsThis landscape type is made up of the following Land Types (Ian Lynn):




Steep to very steep, dissected, semi arid (lower slopes), to subhumid (summits) mountain ranges and associated foothills, from 350 to 2000 m; largely non-glaciated although with a heavy periglacial imprint, extensive scree and rock outcrops especially at higher elevations and strongly rolling to rounded summits (>1500 m); moderately steep to steep broken, lower mountain and hill slopes with some broad rolling spurs, and minor river beds, and associated terraces. Elevation ranges from 350 to 2000 m and rainfall between 480 and 1200 mm/A. Low elevation vegetation is highly modified, depleted, short tussock grassland with extensive hieracium, sweet briar, and matagouri scrub. Snow tussock, alpine, and rockfield vegetation occurs above 1000 m. The semi arid to humid mountain range land type includes the Benmore, St Cuthbert, Kirkliston and Dalgety Ranges.


Extensive fault block mountains with humid undulating plateau crests with deep blockfield mantles; steep, dissected, summits with limited cirque glaciation and extensive scree and bedrock outcrop; extensive mid elevation, undulating to rolling plateau surfaces, broad spurs and basins with thick regolith mantles, deeply entrenched rivers and streams; and steep, dissected, rocky, semi arid lower montane slopes and foothills; and associated soft rock hills, alluvial fans and minor floodplains. Elevation ranges from 250 to 2100m and rainfall from 430 to 1600mm/A. Low elevation vegetation is a highly modified, depleted, short tussock grassland with extensive hieracium, sweet briar, and matagouri scrub. Snow tussock, alpine, and rockfield vegetation occurs above 1000m. The semi arid to humid fault block mountain land type includes the Hawkdun, St Marys and St Bathans Ranges south of the Waitaki River.

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H17H17

H18H18


General Character DescriptionThis landscape type occurs solely around the middle reaches of the Waitaki River in the south part of the Canterbury region near the boundary with Otago. This area includes the mountains that border the Mackenzie Basin such as the Grampians, Dalgety, Kirkliston, St Cuthberts and the Benmore Ranges. South of the Waitaki River, the Ewe Range and St Marys Ranges, and the surrounding hill country are included.

The Waitaki River marks the approximate boundary between the Otago schist and the Canterbury greywacke landscapes. This boundary is also a marker of the ‘topographical grain’ change which is evident when viewed from the air. North of the Waitaki River the midland mountains (including the Kirkliston, Dalgety, and Rollesby and Grampians mountains) are generally aligned north-south, whereas to the south, the ranges generally trend northwest-southeast.

The ranges in this landscape type were uplifted in a sequence with a network of faults, and are comprised of ancient surfaces which are approximately 34 million years old (a time when New Zealand comprised relatively flat and undulating islands). These surfaces survived the subsequent mountain building periods which created the mountainous landscapes which are seen today. The summits of the Dalgety Range and Grampian Mountains are some of the best preserved examples of these ancient surfaces.

Ranges to the north of the Waitaki are some of the driest greywacke mountain ranges in New Zealand with semi-arid lower slopes, and sub-humid summits. The upper slopes are comprised of more exposed and rocky terrain that contains extensive scree slopes, rocky tors and fellfields. These dry, steep, rocky and rugged ranges stand in stark contrast to the smooth surfaces of the lower hill country and the Mackenzie Basin below.

To the south of the Waitaki River, the lower hill country is characterised by rugged gorges with deeply entrenched and swift streams. Comprised of schist these ranges have a more gentle topography and more rounded summit ridges than the ranges to the north. There are small and isolated limestone outcrops along the Waitaki River.

Generally, the upper slopes of these ranges are comprised of low growing snow tussock, alpine, and rockfield vegetation. The lower slopes are mostly under extensive grazing, with tussock and exotic scrub the dominant vegetation types. Here, broad valleys and diverse shrublands contrast with the dry, depleted hillsides. There are also several large areas of pastoral farmland which have been retired from grazing following tenure review.

The lakes of Benmore (Te ao marama), Aviemore (Mahi Tikumu), and Waitaki were built on the Waitaki River in the mid 1900s as part of the Upper Waitaki Power Scheme. Together they extend along 56km of the Waitaki River.

The small settlements of Aviemore, Waitangi and Black Forest are located within this landscape type.

Top left: The bold blue hydro lakes of the Waitaki contrast with the dry and barren slopes of the surrounding ranges.

Above: The lower hill country, south of the Waitaki River, is characterised by rugged gorges and deeply incised streams.

Below: The dry, rolling hills south of the Waitaki River have a more gentle topography and more rounded summit ridges than the ranges to the north.

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Alongside the Waitaki River various pockets of limestone outcrops are found. These outcrops, notably Awahokomo, provide important habitat for a range of significant flora.

Several conservation areas are located within this landscape type. These include the Sunny Peaks, Benmore, Kirkliston, Glenbrook, Killermont and Mt Ida Conservation Areas. These areas encompass important habitat for numerous plant species. Species include the slim snow tussock (Chionochloa macra) and narrow-leaved snow tussock (Chionochloa rigida) as well as an array of alpine herbs which are found amongst the extensive fellfields along the summit ridges.

Numerous geo-preservation sites have been identified in this area. The most notable site is the Benmore Permian fusulinids found in the hillside outcrops above Benmore Dam. This site has been identified as internationally significant.

LEgIbILITy vALuEs

Although this area marks the boundary of the Canterbury greywacke and Otago Schist landscapes this is not clearly expressed in this landscape.

The arid nature of this landscape is legible through the barren appearance of these ranges and the lack of diverse vegetation.

AEsThETIC vALuEs

This semi-arid dissected country provides the backdrop to the Mackenzie and Waitaki Basins. This backdrop is an important element of the aesthetic values of these basin landscapes. This visual linkage between the rugged ranges and the basin floors is particularly impressive.

The texture of the exposed rock outcrops and shrub lands contrasts with the surrounding fine textured grasslands.

TRANsIENT vALuEs

In the winter months these dry hills are often snow covered. This creates an interesting contrast with the smooth basins and lakes below.


Although the water bodies that are within this landscape type, Aviemore (Mahi Tikumu), Benmore (Te Ao Marama) and the Waitaki river, are man-made or have been significantly modified, they are of significance to tangata whenua and are recognised by Statutory acknowledgements (Ngai Tahu Settlement Act 1998).

Above: The Mackenzie and Waitaki Basins are framed in the east by the semi arid

slopes of the Rollesby, Dalgety, Benmore, Ewe and St Cuthbert Ranges.

Below: Ranges to the north of the Waitaki are some of the driest greywacke

mountain ranges in New Zealand.

The Waitaki River is significant to Ngai Tahu as it is seen as the pathway of the waters from Aoraki/Mt Cook to the sea. Association with the Waitaki extends back to the first human habitation of the South Island (Te Wai Pounamu) and as a result the river is an essential element of the identity of Ngai Tahu as an iwi.

When the sections of the Waitaki River were drowned during the constructions of these lakes, many wahi tapu and wahi taonga sites were lost, including a number of rock art sites, urupa, important trail networks used for mahinga kai and resource gathering.


Fishing and boating activities are popular on the lakes within this landscape type. Several walking tracks are associated with the conservation areas in this landscape type.

hIsTORIC vALuEs

As with the Mackenzie and Waitaki basin landscapes, this area has a long association with high country pastoral farming. As a result traces of this activity still remain in the landscape with the remains of mustering huts and homesteads.

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8. INTERmONTANE bAsINs ANd RANgEsThis landscape type is made up of the following Land Types (Ian Lynn):


H2 Glacial and Fluvial Valley Flood Land Type

H3 Glacial and Fluvial Basin Flood Land Type





H13 Northern Sub-humid to Humid Mountain Range Land Type

H14 Central Sub-humid to Humid Mountain Range Land Type

H15 Southern Sub-humid to Humid Mountain Range Land Type


Recent, major river valley fill, incorporating wide, braided active and recently active riverbeds, recent floodplain terraces, and low angle valley fill fans. Elevation ranges from 300 to 1000 m with rainfalls from 1000 to 6000 mm/A. The Land Type includes the high country segments of the Clarence, Conway, Wairau, Hurunui, Waimakariri, Rakaia, and Rangitata. Waitaki and Ahuriri River floodplains.

H2 Glacial and Fluvial Valley Floor Land Type

Glacial and fluvial valley flood landforms. outwash terraces, ablation and terminal moraine, lakes, fans, meandering floodplains, back swamps, plateaus and high remnant terraces, and glacial moulded hills and mountains under 1300 m. Elevation ranges from 380 to 1300 m with the balance below 1000 m, and rainfall ranges between 800 and 4800 mm/A. The land type includes the high country sections of the Clarence, Wairau, Hurunui, Waimakariri, Rakaia, Ashburton, Rangitata, Waitaki and Ahuriri River valley floors.

H3 Glacial and Fluvial Basin Floor Land Type

Glacial and fluvial basin floor landforms, extensive ablation and terminal moraine, and associated meltwater channels, outwash terraces, minor lakes, fans, meandering floodplains, back swamps etc, and glacial moulded hills and mountains under 1300 m. Elevation ranges from 400 to 1300 m, with the balance below 1000 m, and rainfall between 850 and 4800 mm/A. The land type includes parts of the upper Clarence - Lake Tennyson, Lakes Clearwater and Heron basin, the south bank Rangitata around Forest Creek, the Waitaki basin and the mid Ahuriri valleys.


Basin floor fluvioglacial outwash plains, terraces, piedmont fans, braided and meandering floodplains, and back swamps etc, and associated low hard rock ranges, and minor soft rock hills. Elevation ranges from 350 to 1400 m, with the balance below 600 m, and rainfalls between 430 and 850 mm/A. The land type includes parts of the Waitaki and Lakes Clearwater and Heron basins.


Intermediate sized intermontane basin and valleys with extensive gently sloping, alluvial fans, terrace lands, floodplains and wetlands, and associated soft rock Tertiary and hard rock. Elevation ranges from 280 to 620 m and rainfall from 1000 to 1250 mm/A. The degree of agronomic development varies significantly from intensively developed mixed farming to extensive grazing. Example areas include the Hanmer basin and Lees valley.

H6 Soft Rock lnfaulted Basin and Valley Land Type

lnfaulted tectonic basin and valley, hill and valley landscapes underlain by Cretaceous/Cenozoic sedimentary and igneous strata, and associated Torlesse Group and low grade schist rocks; incorporating structurally controlled hills, eg. cuestas and hogbacks with pronounced dip and scarp slopes, smooth rounded hills developed on weakly indurated strata, ‘hard rock’ hill slopes, and associated outwash and fluvial terrace sequences, floodplains and fans. Elevation ranges from 550 to 1400 m with most below 1000 m, and rainfalls between 900 and 1500 mm/A. Example locations include the Castle Hill Basin, the Esk and middle Clarence River valleys.


Steep to very steep, dissected, isolated mountain blocks, up to 1830 m, nested within the glacial and fluvial valley floor or basin land types; extensive scree and rock outcrop are common at higher elevations; lower steep to very steep often rectilinear slopes have been scoured by past glacial activity; rolling to strongly rolling, rounded summits currently undergo intensive periglacial processes. Elevation ranges from 450 to 1830 m and rainfall between 1200 and 1800 mm/A. Example locations include Sugarloaf in the Waimakariri basin, Cottons Sheep Range in the Rakaia, and the Harper Range in the Rangitata.

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H13 Northern Sub-humid to Humid Mountain Range Land Type

Steep to very steep, dissected, sub-humid to humid mountain ranges north of the Waimakariri, up to 2150 m; formerly valley and cirque glaciated, with narrow rounded ridges, moderately common cirque basins, extensive scree and bedrock outcrop especially at higher elevations. The impact of glaciation is less evident than to the south although thick colluvium and some moraine mantles the moderately steep to steep rectilinear lower mountain slopes. Elevation ranges from 350 to 2150 m and rainfalls between 1400 and 2500+ mm/A. Snow tussock, sub-alpine, alpine and rock field vegetation features above 1360 m with an induced short tussock grassland, matagouri and manuka scrubland with remnant beech forest on the lower slopes. Example areas include the Crimea, St James, Glynn Wye and part Dampier Ranges.

H14 Central Sub-humid to Humid Mountain Range Land Type

Steep to very steep, dissected, central sub-humid to humid mountain ranges, up to 2200 m; formerly valley and cirque glaciated with narrow rounded ridges, common cirques, extensive scree, and bedrock outcrop especially at higher elevations. The imprint of glaciation is very evident with moraine, kame terraces and thick colluvium mantling moderately steep to steep rectilinear lower mountain slopes. Elevation ranges from 520 to 2200 m and rainfalls between 1300 and 3000 mm/A, locally to 4000 mm in the west. Snow tussock, sub-alpine scrub and alpine and rock field vegetation features above 1220 with an induced short tussock grassland, scrubland or remnant beech forest on the lower slopes. Example locations include the Craigiebum Range, and parts of the Rolleston and Ragged Ranges.

H15 Southern Sub-humid to Humid Mountain Range Land Type

Steep to very steep, dissected, sub-humid to humid mountain ranges south of the Rakaia up to 2500 m; formerly valley and strongly cirque glaciated, with narrow sharp ridges and minor permanent snow and ice accumulations, extensive scree and bedrock outcrop especially at higher elevations. Significant moraine and kame terrace and deep colluvium mantle moderately steep to steep rectilinear lower mountain slopes and upland plateaus. Elevations range from 500 to 2500 m, and rainfalls between 1300 and 4500+ mm/A. Snow tussock, sub-alpine scrub and alpine and rock field vegetation features above 1100 m, with an induced short tussock grassland, matagouri and manuka scrubland, with remnant beech forest on the lower slopes y in the south west. Example locations include the Big Hill, Two Thumb, Hall, Ben Ohau and Diadem Ranges.

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T a s m a n S e a

General Character Description:This landscape type consists of the series of inland mountain ranges, expansive intermontane basins, sub-alpine lakes and the large braided river valleys which lie between the alpine divide (see High Divide landscape type) and the frontal ranges (see Front Range landscape type) that border the plains. The majority of this landscape type is affectionately known to many New Zealander’s as the South Islands ‘High Country Landscape’.

Landscapes within this type include the Ahuriri Valley, the Mackenzie and Waitaki Basins, the Rangitata Valley, Ashburton Lakes, the Rakaia / Wilberforce headwaters, the ranges from the Craigieburn to the St James, the Upper Waimakariri Basin, Hanmer basin and the Lake Sumner area.

The imprint of glaciation is clearly expressed in the landscapes of the basins and their landforms. Features of these basin landscapes include extensive glacial terraces, moraines, lakes and kettleholes, as well as broad fluvio-glacial outwash surfaces.

The ranges which surround these basins are generally steep, dissected, isolated mountain blocks, with extensive scree and rock outcrops. The evidence of glaciation is very evident in the ranges to the south of the region with moraine, kame terraces and moderately steep to steep rectilinear lower mountain slopes. Glaciation is less evident in the northern regions of this landscape type although colluvium and some moraine mantles are present.

The large spectacular inland valleys of three braided rivers, the Waimakariri, the Rakaia and Rangitata are significant features of this landscape type. These regions were widened and straightened by huge glaciers which left wide and expansive valleys that extend from the Southern Alps to the plains in the east.

Farmers on the various large high country stations have cultivated this land for generations. As a result the indigenous plant communities have been modified by pastoralism and vegetation is now dominated by pasture and tussock grasslands. The low-growing nature of this vegetation found in the basins, along the river terraces and on the slopes of the ranges allows the landforms to dominate the landscape and define the horizons. This accentuates the vastness of these landscapes.

There are a number of significant historic sites but few are formally recognised or protected. European history is closely associated with high country pastoralism, and evidence of this can be seen in the landscape with the presence of spade-line boundaries, boundary huts and homesteads.

Recently, through the tenure review process (Crown Pastoral Land Act 1998) large areas of high country land have been retired from grazing and their management transferred to DOC. The remainder have been reverted to freehold land.

There is limited settlement in this landscape type, aside from the small towns located alongside the hydro lakes of the south, the small high country villages, and the isolated homesteads of the high country stations.

mACkENzIE ANd wAITAkI bAsINs

The Waitaki and Mackenzie basins are vast, open landscapes surrounded by mountain ranges which include Aoraki/Mount Cook, Mt Sefton, Mt Tasman and the Southern Alps/Kä Tiritiri o te Moana. The braided Tekapo, Pukaki, Ohau and Ahuriri Rivers and their associated river terraces pass through these basins.

The lakes are dominant features of the open grassland landscape of these basins. The lakes were formed as the large glaciers, which flowed down the Godley, Tasman, Dobson and Hopkins Valleys to fill the entire basin, retreated and their abandoned troughs filled with meltwaters.

Hydroelectric power developments have had a major modifying influence on the lakes in the Mackenzie and Waitaki Basins. Lake levels have been increased, canals and lakes created and river flows reduced or controlled.

Above: The braided Ahuriri River traverses the Waitaki Basin.

Below: Mesopotamia Station, in the Upper Rangitata Valley, is surrounded by the

Two Thumbs mountain range and the braided Rangitata River.

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The Ahuriri River Valley is a single, contained, tussock grassland valley, in the Waitaki Basin. State Highway 8 is a well used and recognised transit route which traverses from the Ahuriri River to the summit of the Lindis Pass.

AshbuRTON LAkEs/ hAkATERE bAsIN

Between the Rakaia and Rangitata valleys are the large intermontane basins centred on Lakes Clearwater and Heron. This Ashburton Lakes basin is an ancient convergence zone of the Rangitata and Rakaia glaciers, traces of which are etched in the landscape. Features include sizeable lakes with associated wetlands and hundreds of small kettle holes, wetland turfs, and seepages on old moraine terraces.

CAss bAsIN

Landforms in the Cass Basin, to the west of Castle Hill Basin (see High Country Limestone landscape type), were strongly modified by the Waimakariri Glacier. The basin floor is quite extensively covered with moraines left behind after the ice retreated. More recently, the surface has been shaped by large fans. Cass Basin also contains several glacial lakes.

uPPER RAkAIA ANd RANgITATA vALLEys

The Rangitata and Rakaia Rivers each flow for more than 100 km from their head waters in the Southern Alps/Ka Tiritiri o te Moana, past the inland basin of the Ashburton Lakes and upper Ashburton River, through gorges and across the outwash gravels of the , before entering the sea in the Canterbury Bight. The headwaters of these two rivers originate in the ice fields of the central Alps (see main divide landscape type), including the Garden of Eden, Lyell and Ramsay Glaciers (all within the Adams Wilderness Area). Major tributaries include the Wilberforce, Mathias, Clyde and Havelock Rivers.

The upper valleys of these rivers are massive landscapes, full of drama with clear impressive views through to the Alps and their headwaters. Within these valleys lie a diverse range of spectacular glacial and fluvio-glacial landforms, which include lateral moraines, hummock fields, truncated benches and spurs, incised side-streams, outwash plains, and roches moutonnées.

uPPER wAImAkARIRI vALLEy

The Upper Waimakariri River valley is contained by a series of majestic mountains including the Craigieburn Range to the south-west, the Puketeraki and Torlesse Ranges to the east. Landforms in the valley were formed and strongly modified by the Waimakariri Glacier. A feature of the valley is the presence of smaller basins such as Castle Hill and Cass. There are numerous small lakes such as Lake Pearson, and Grasmere, which were formed as the glacier retreated. These landscapes have a predominantly open grassland character. Features of this landscape include the spectacular limestone outcrops at Castle Hill (see High Country Limestone landscape type), and the isolated peaks such as Mt Sugarloaf and Purple Hill.

LAkE sumNER ANd LEwIs PAss

The Lake Sumner and Lewis Pass area is a relatively isolated landscape of mountains with bush clad slopes and clear mountain lakes and rivers. The Lewis Pass (State Highway 7) is a popular alpine pass which links the West Coast Region with Canterbury.

Above: Mustering in the High Country

Below: Mathias River between the Rugged and Rolleston Ranges in the Upper

Rakaia Valley.

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The Rangitata, Ahuriri and Rakaia Rivers are protected by Water Conservation Orders. The mountainous headwaters of these rivers have special wilderness character, expansive and vast valley settings and landscape features with a high degree of naturalness. These areas, along with the upper river valleys of the Mackenzie Basin (such as the Godley, Tasman and Ahuriri) above the hydro dams, are largely weed free. In this natural state these rivers have a high productivity of invertebrate life that supports an array of unique and threatened native birds.

The rivers and lakes in this landscape type provide some of the largest areas of habitat for water birds in New Zealand, and support approximately 30% of indigenous New Zealand species. Some 40,000 birds can be present at any one time and include species such as the endemic wrybill, black-fronted tern and black-billed gull.

Numerous DOC reserves and parks are found within this landscape type and include larger areas such as the Ahuriri, Ruataniwha, Hakatere and the Lake Sumner Conservation Park. These areas provide protection for an extensive complex of exceptional natural features such as glaciated valleys, glacial moraine deposits, streams, wetlands, lakes, and high altitude tarns. These areas support a wide array of threatened flora and fauna.

LEgIbILITy vALuEs

In the basin landscape evidence of the formative processes is highly legible. Features such as moraines, rôches moutonnées, hanging valleys, terraces and fans are highly expressive of their glacial origins.

On the lower flanks of the Ben Ohau Range above the western shores of Lake Pukaki, lines of lateral moraine and ‘kame terraces’ (formed by meltwaters running parallel to the side of a glacier) can be seen extending for 30 km. These parallel lines of glacial debris mark former surface levels of the Tasman glacier as the thickness of ice diminished in stages. Other well developed and prominent lines of lateral moraine can also be seen running along the eastern sides of Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo.

The extensive river terracing in the river valleys is a highly legible feature, representative of the powerful erosive processes of the rivers. The extensive braided patterning of these rivers is highly expressive and is a dynamic legible landscape feature.

Numerous geopreservation sites are found within this landscape type. Many of these sites are excellent examples of relict glacial lake features such as the terminal moraines found in the Mackenzie Basin and the kame terraces at Mt White. Further north the fault traces of Porters Pass, the Hope fault near the

Above: The bush-clad mountain slopes surrounding Lake Sumner.

Below: Looking over Lake Emily in the Ashburton Lakes Basin to the peaks of the

Southern Alps.

Above: Kame terraces formed by the Tasman Glacier run along the eastern shore of

Lake Pukaki.

Lewis Pass area and the Awatere fault near Lake Tennyson are notable features. Other sites include the Balmacaan middle Triassic faunas found on the Harper Range, the Ashburton River rock avalanche splash, Ryton Valley debris flow and Goldney Hill rock avalanche deposit near Lake Coleridge.

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AEsThETIC vALuEs

The high country with its vast basins, large river valleys and enclosing mountain ranges is a dramatic and spectacular landscape.

The vastness of the basins, the low growing nature of the tussock vegetation and the expansive river valleys enable spectacular views through to the Alps which lie behind.

Under sunlight, Pukaki and Tekapo reflect a striking milky-blue colour that is caused by the suspension of fine glacial sediment in relatively shallow waters. This spectacular and bold blue colouring contrasts with the backdrop of brown tussock-covered hillsides which encompass these lakes.

The upper Rangitata, Rakaia and Waimakariri Rivers represent exceptional international examples of braided river systems. They are iconic landscape features of this landscape type and their sinuous patterning is both highly expressive and attractive.

TRANsIENT vALuEs

The braided patterning of the rivers within this landscape type is a highly expressive and constantly evolving landscape feature. The transient nature of these river systems is an important feature in this landscape type.

The seasonal changes are highly expressed in the landscapes of the basins and ranges. In the Mackenzie Basin, snow coats the ranges and basin floors during much of the winter months which contrast with the rich brown and dry tussock laden hillsides that are dominant during the summer months.

The highly attractive and distinctive turquoise colour of the Mackenzie Basin lakes in sunny conditions is spectacular.


Lake Sumner, the Ashburton Lakes Area (O Tu Whareakai), Lakes Tekapo, Pukaki and Ohau are all acknowledged in the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act (1998) for their cultural, spiritual, historic and traditional associations. Although these water bodies are man-made or have been significantly modified, they are of significance to Ngai Tahu.

The Lake Heron/Ashburton Lakes area was part of a seasonal trail of mahinga kai and resource gathering. Knowledge of these trails continues to be held by whanau and hapu and is regarded as taonga.

The Mackenzie Basin lakes (Tekapo, Pukaki and Ohau) are all referred to in the legend of “Nga Puna Wai Karikari o Rakaihautu” which describes how the principal lakes of Te Wai Pounamu were dug by the rangatira (chief) Rakaihautu.

Maori used the lakes in this area for mahinga kai, and these were a part of a wider mahinga kai trail that ran from Lake Pukaki to the coast. The main foods taken in this area were weka, forest and water fowl and freshwater fish such as tuna (eel) and kokopu. As a result of this history of occupation, there are a number of urupa and wahi tapu associated with these lakes. Pukaki is referred to in Ngai Tahu tradition as the basin that captures the tears of Aoraki: a reference to the meltwaters that flow from Aoraki into the lake in the springtime.

The Lake Sumner area has numerous sites associated with Ngai Tahu who used the passes to travel to and from the West Coast (Te Tai Poutini). The passes were used by Maori for travel and trade, particularly in the precious pounamu (greenstone).

Above: Canals extending from Lake Ruataniwha to Lake Benmore in the Mackenzie

Basin.

Below: The braided patterning of the Godley River at the head of Lake Tekapo.

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The intermontane ranges, vast river valleys and basins are one of the quintessential landscapes of Canterbury. These high country landscapes have inspired numerous artists and writers for generations to express their impressions in paint, poetry and prose.

The lakes and their basin settings within this landscape type are tourist icons, which are represented in many postcards and tourist brochures. The Mackenzie Basin in particular, is of national importance for tourism and recreation. This landscape is etched on the psyche of many New Zealanders and appears to reflect a sense of freedom occurring time and again in literature, art and popular culture.

Exceptional panoramic views of both the surrounding mountains and river outwash plains are experienced within the Upper Rakaia and Rangitata valleys. These views are an integral and widely celebrated image of the Canterbury High Country Landscape.

These basin, ranges and valley landscapes are widely recognised and used extensively for a variety of recreation activities, particularly within the numerous DOC reserves and parks within this landscape type. Recreation opportunities include fishing, boating, canoeing, waterfowl shooting, four-wheel driving, camping and walking; as well as less common pursuits such as bird-watching, photography, gliding, wind-surfing, and mountain-biking. Camping, boating and water-skiing are popular on the lakes and rivers in the south and Lake Ruataniwha near Twizel has been developed as a national rowing venue.

The Lindis Pass area (SH8) is amongst the best examples of tussock landscapes in the region. The Lindis Pass area is an ‘iconic’ New Zealand landscape which is the inspiration for many artists, and is represented in paint, poetry and prose.

hIsTORIC vALuEs

The high country landscape has a long association with agriculture and pastoral settlement. Traces of this Early European settlement in the mid-1800s still remain in the landscape with the development of homesteads, farm buildings, sheep yards, pack bullock & dray tracks, mustering huts, shelterbelts and fences. The majority of iconic large high country stations are located within this landscape. Following Charles Torlesse’s surveying of the Castle Hill Basin in 1858 a number of claims for leasehold properties were filed and the land up to the headwaters of the three main river catchments was taken up in about 30 large pastoral lease holdings within a year. Other famous explorers such as John Acland, Charles Tripp and Thomas Potts ventured to the south, where early runs, such as Mesopotamia Station, were established between Lake Heron and the Rangitata.

In the early 1900s many ice skating rinks were established on the various lakes throughout the high country. The most notable is the Mt Harper Ice Rink (1931-32) which was possibly the first ever purpose-built public skating rink in the southern hemisphere.

The Mackenzie basin is named after the first European to discover the area, James Mackenzie. Mackenzie was a colourful character, convicted of sheep stealing in the mid 1800s. A monument was erected in 1917, in the Mackenzie Pass, which commemorates James Mackenzie’s capture.

Above: Lindis Pass summit.

Below: The tussock-lined slopes of the Lindis Pass.

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Looking across the outwash fan of Turkey Flats in the Upper Waimakariri River Valley.

9. hIgh RAINFALL dIvIdEThis landscape type is made up of the following Land Types (Ian Lynn):




Steep to precipitous, high, glaciated mountains of the Main Divide and associated ranges, north of Arthur’s Pass and including the Spenser Mountains. Glacial eroded bedrock forms, cirque basins and U-shaped troughs dominate with extensive bare rock, scree, and minor permanent ice and snow, and morainic debris above 1400 m. Steep to very steep, dissected lower mountain slopes with Holocene moraine, fluvioglacial benches and colluvial footslopes feature in valley heads and veneer valley walls. Elevation ranges from 500 to 2250 m, and rainfall from between 2000 and 5000+ mm/A. Alpine vegetation, snow tussock and subalpine scrub feature above 1360 m, below which beech forest with limited induced scrub and grassland is present. The land type incorporates the headwaters of part of the Waimakariri, the Hurunui, Waiau, and Clarence Rivers.


Steep to precipitous, high, heavily glaciated mountains of the Main Divide and central ranges, south of Arthur’s Pass; glacially eroded bedrock forms, arêtes, cirque basins, U-shaped glacial troughs with extensive bare rock, scree, and permanent ice and snow dominate above 1400 m. Extensive thin scree and talus mantles rectilinear slopes below 1500 m. Steep to very steep, dissected lower mountain slopes with extensive Holocene moraines, fluvioglacial benches and colluvial footslopes fill valley head and veneer valley walls. Elevation ranges from 550 to 3764 m and precipitation ranges from 5000 to 8000+ mm/A, through montane to alpine-nival bioclimatic zones. Alpine vegetation, snow tussock and subalpine scrub, modified fescue/snow tussock grassland, manuka and matagouri scrub, remnant, and extensive beech forest clothe slopes below 1500 m. The land type incorporates the headwaters of Ahuriri, Hopkins, Dobson, Tasman, Godley, Rangitata, Rakaia, and part Waimakariri Rivers.

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T a s m a n S e a

General Character DescriptionThis landscape type includes the Canterbury section of the Southern Alps/Ka Tiritiri o te Moana, including their highest peaks. The mountains form the Main Divide and western boundary to Canterbury. Extensive areas of permanent snow and ice along the main divide contrast with the scree slopes of the lower mountain ranges further east in the dry rain shadow of the Alps. The mountain ranges are composed primarily of sedimentary rocks (greywacke and argillite) and constant landscape change is caused by the erosive forces of ice and water. The Alpine Fault, which runs roughly parallel to the West Coast forms a distinctive boundary to the flats along the West Coast, while the eastern extent along the hills to the east of the Alps is less clearly defined. The Alpine Fault system created a number of splinters and branches, which have led to a rectangular pattern of mountain ranges and rivers.

South of Arthur’s Pass permanent ice and snow are the predominant elements of the landscape, and major glaciers at the headwaters are the origin of large braided rivers and glacial lakes. Along this southern part of the Main Divide, substantial areas have little vegetation. However, differences in substrate, climate, and altitude have led to a wide range of indigenous plant communities, such as alpine herb/ fellfields, tussocklands, and shrublands. In valley headwaters there are some forests at lower altitudes, with beech and areas of podocarp. Small lakes and tarns, with associated wetlands, can be found below the permanent ice and snow.

The character of the northern mountain ranges of the Alps is distinctively different to the dramatic glaciated landscape around the highest peaks. The Main Divide north of Arthur’s Pass has only been moderately glaciated in the past and there is little permanent ice and snow remaining. Major beech forest elements survived the glaciations to dominate the slopes to the timberline in the west, grading eastward to rolling hill country with remnant forest, tussock and shrubland cover.

Human modification in this landscape type is limited to a few nodes of development along the road and rail corridors crossing the Alps, namely Arthur’s and Lewis Passes. The remainder consists of small-scale recreation infrastructure, such as trails and huts, which have very localised effects.

Top Left: The beech-clad slopes of the Nina Valley, in the Lewis Pass area.

Above: Glacial meltwaters on the Tasman Glacier.

Below: The dramatic scree slopes in the Upper Ashburton River Valley. The Arrowsmith Range is in the background.

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The entire Southern Alps/Ka Tiritiri o te Moana are considered to be of national importance. The majority of this landscape type has some form of protection status and is managed by DOC to conserve its natural character and intrinsic values. Aoraki/Mt Cook and Arthur’s Pass National Parks and Lewis Pass National Reserve are of exceptional conservation and recreation value.

Along the mountain ranges of the Alps there is an almost complete absence of modification, with pure water and a largely intact alpine flora. The value of the sensitive alpine ecosystems occurring in this landscape has been recognised and managed accordingly through their conservation status. Large areas are included in Mount Cook and Arthur’s Pass National Parks and Sumner Forest Park. There is virtually no forest in the southern part of the landscape type. However, a vast number of white alpine flowers, including the world largest buttercup and mountain daisies, are scattered across the mountain slopes in early summer. The alpine snow-meadows of Aoraki/Mt Cook and the beech forests of the Hawdon, Poulter, Hurunui and Ohau catchments have been included in the list of DOC’s critical sites. The beech forests are a significant vegetation community in this landscape type. The beech gap in the upper Rakaia/ Rangitata area are a notable characteristic of central Canterbury. Significant stands of native Cedar trees (Libocedrus bidwillii) are found at the head of the Wilberforce River (Rakaia River tributary) filling this gap.

Left: Barron Saddle Hut, at the head of the Mueller Glacier is one of the bases for climbers in the Aoraki/Mt Cook National Park.

Middle: Kea (Nestor notabilis) is an endemic parrot, thriving in the harsh environment of the South Island’s mountain areas.

Right: The “Mount Cook Lily” (Ranunculus lyallii), is the largest buttercup in the world and is found throughout the Southern Alps.

Above: Floating glacial ice found in the terminal glacial lakes of the Tasman Glacier.

Below: The impressive peak of Aoraki/Mt Cook (left) and Mt Tasman (right).

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Not only are the plant communities of high value, but the wildlife values are also outstanding. The kea (Nestor notabilis), one of New Zealand’s most notable mountain birds, is a common sight in the ranges of the Main Divide. The wildlife is diverse with a wide range of less conspicuous invertebrate and reptile species. Browsing, introduced animals such as thar and chamois have significant impact on alpine and sub-alpine plant communities.

The extensive forest cover around Lake Sumner and Lewis Pass provides habitat for a remarkably diverse forest bird life. The Hurunui Mainland Island, situated in the Hurunui River catchment of Lake Sumner Forest Park, is one of six nationwide and with a total area of 12,000 ha it is the largest; and the only one in Canterbury. The braided riverbeds of the glacial rivers, which are home to some of New Zealand’s rarest birds, are covered in the Intermontane Basins and Ranges landscape type.

LEgIbILITy vALuEs

The Alps show clear signs of their formative processes. While their geology is fairly uniform, their creation through compression and uplift of plates along the Alpine Fault is of interest to experts and lay-people alike. Earthquakes generated by movement along this contact front are a recurring natural hazard of the Southern Alps. Avalanches and landslips are characteristic of this alpine landscape, which is in constant transformation. The permanent snow and ice have shaped the steep actively eroding mountain lands. The glaciers are the source of Canterbury’s large braided rivers, where water can be traced from its source to the sea.

AEsThETIC vALuEs

The Southern Alps form the backbone of the South Island and are arguably amongst the most spectacluar landscapes in the country. The impressive mountains are visible throughout the basins landscape to the east of the Main Divide and form the distant backdrop to a vast number of views in Canterbury.

TRANsIENT vALuEs

The seasonal change of the mountainous landscape, as well as dramatic weather changes and cloud formations are key ephemeral values. The Maori saying “He kapua kei runga i Aoraki, whakarewa whakarewa” (“The cloud that floats aloft Aoraki, for ever fly, stay aloft”) refers to the cloud that often surrounds Aoraki. Aoraki does not always “come out” for visitors to see, just as a great chief does not always give audience. It is for Aoraki to choose when to emerge from his cloak of mist, a power and influence that is beyond mortals, symbolising the mana of Aoraki (Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act, 1998).


The mountains are seen as ancestors by the tangata whenua. Aoraki/Mount Cook is of special significance to Ngai Tahu, which is reflected in their statement of cultural, spiritual, historic and traditional association provided in the Topuni under the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998 associated with the mountain. To Ngai Tahu, Aoraki represents the most sacred of ancestors, from whom Ngai Tahu descend and who provides the iwi with its sense of communal identity, solidarity, and purpose. It follows that the ancestor embodied in the mountain remains the physical manifestation of Aoraki, the link between the supernatural and the natural world. The tapu associated with Aoraki is a significant dimension of its tribal value, and is the source of the power over life and death which the mountain possesses.

Above: New Zealand is renowned for its extensive glaciers, such as the Tasman Glacier. Many glaciers east of the divide are the source of Canterbury’s large braided rivers.

Below: The Lewis Pass and Arthur’s Pass areas are valued for their range of easily accessible recreational opportunities.

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For Ngai Tahu, traditions such as the ones associated with Aoraki represent the links between the cosmological world of the gods and current generations. These histories reinforce tribal identity and solidarity, and continuity between generations, and document the events which shaped the environment of Te Wai Pounamu and Ngai Tahu as an iwi. (Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act, 1998).

There are several passes across the Alps, including Browning, Arthur’s and Lewis Pass, which were early trading routes for greenstone/pounamu. There is an account of the discovery of Brownings Pass/Noti Raurekain about 1700 by Raureka, a woman of the Ngati Wairangi tribe who led a group of Ngai Tahu to begin the trade in pounamu. Maori told explorers of the location of Arthur’s Pass.


Aoraki/Mount Cook is the best known of New Zealand’s high mountains. Aoraki/Mount Cook Village is the focus of tourism activity in the area, attracting large numbers of international visitors. Climbing Aoraki is not considered appropriate by Maori due to the spiritual values associated with this mountain. Recreational use by New Zealanders and tourists in the Alps is extensive and varied, including mountaineering, skiing, tramping, and hunting. Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park is regarded as the premier alpine climbing area in Australasia. While the Arrowsmith Range and upper Rangitata/ Rakaia rivers provide wilderness and remote-experience opportunities, the Arthur’s Pass and Lewis Pass areas are easily accessible recreation areas. The large alpine national and forest parks are recognised for both their recreation and natural science values.

Numerous photographs, paintings and books reflect the high importance of the alpine landscape to people in the present and past.

hIsTORIC vALuEs

Following the early Maori settlers, the first explorers were drawn to the Alps and started naming valleys and peaks in the nineteenth century. European immigrants and visitors alike have come to the Aoraki/Mt Cook area from the earliest times of settlement with the intention of climbing the unclimbed peaks. and their stories are the stuff of legends - given the primitive equipment available to these early climbers.

Sir Arthur Dudley Dobson made a survey of the Hurunui and Taramakau valleys, linked by the Harper Pass, and in 1865 a railway reserve was made in the Lake Sumner area. The Royal Commission of 1883, however, decided in favour of Arthur’s Pass as a railway route from the East Coast to the West. The Midland railway line, which connects the provinces of Canterbury and Westland, provided cheap and convenient transport to the ranges and has given a tremendous impetus to the growth of the sport of mountain climbing in the South Island.

Right: Glacial lakes shaped by the Mueller glacier at the base of Mt Sefton.

Below: Aoraki/Mt Cook, and the snow/ice capped peaks of the Alps. The valleys and lakes that were created by glacial activity can be seen.

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Diverse beech forests and clean rivers in the north western corner of the region are protected by several large

conservation areas, including Lake Sumner Conservation Park and Lewis Pass Scenic Reserve.

10. KaiKouraThis landscape type is made up of the following Land Types (Ian Lynn):





Steep to very steep to precipitous, dissected, high, non glaciated coastal mountain ranges extending from near sea level to 2650 m, with a periglacial imprint at higher elevations, and a marked NW/SE aspect contrast. Extensive bare rock and scree, rock glaciers, and sharp bluffy summits above 1400 m; steep to very steep, dissected lower mountain slopes and colluvial footslopes largely in beech forest on the southerly aspect, with scrub land and induced grassland on the northerly aspect. Rainfall varies from 1200 to 3000 mm/A, and 700 to 2400 mm/A on southerly and northerly aspects respectively. Land type incorporates the Seaward Kaikoura Range from the Clarence to Conway Rivers.


Steep to very steep to precipitous, high mountains of the Inland Kaikoura range; with extensive bare rock, scree, rock glaciers and minor cirque basins above 1400 m, and steep to very steep. dissected lower mountain and colluvial footslopes. Elevation ranges from 1000 to 2885 m, with rainfall of between 800 and 2500+ mm/A, ie. montane to alpine-nival, subhumid to humid environments. Alpine vegetation, subalpine scrub and snow tussock occur above 1300 m; highly modified and depleted fescue tussock grassland with extensive hieracium, manuka and matagouri scrub, and small remnants of beech forest and open totara woodland at lower elevations. The land type includes the Inland Kaikoura range on the true left of the Clarence River downstream from Red Hill Stream.


Strongly rolling to moderately steep to steep, dissected, low elevation, hard rock hill country with spur and ridge crest rock outcrop, extensive summit and mid slope scree and swale gullies; and associated minor terraces, fans, and floodplains. Elevation ranges from 300 to 1200 m, and rainfalls from 700 to 1000 mm/A. Vegetation comprises highly modified and severely depleted short tussock grassland with extensive hieracium and sweet briar and matagouri scrub, and extensive bare ground. This land type forms the foothills on the northerly aspects of the Seaward and southerly aspects of the Inland Kaikoura Ranges, straddling the Clarence River from Red Hills Stream to the Ouse River.

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General Character DescriptionThis landscape type encompasses the Inland and Seaward Kaikoura Mountain Ranges in the north western corner of the Canterbury Region. The Seaward and Inland Kaikoura ranges have been thrust up from the Clarence and Awatere faults in recent geological history. The line of the Clarence Fault can be easily traced between the true left side of the Clarence River and the slopes of the Inland Kaikoura Range. The dramatic and continual folding and faulting processes have exposed young rocks that are easily eroded by water and wind and shattered by frosts. The land is very broken, with steep, narrow valleys and gorges. The mountainous landscapes are characterised by extensive areas of open, loose rock and scree slopes, rock bluffs and deeply incised waterways.

The Seaward Kaikoura Range has the only substantial mountains to reach the sea on the east coast of the South Island. These are the most tectonically active mountains in the country, with their south-eastern faces rising sharply from sea level to alpine peaks of about 2600 metres.

The Inland Kaikoura Range is bounded to the southeast by the major Clarence Fault and the distinctive peak of Tapuae-o-Uenuku is formed from more erosion-resistant igneous rock intrusions.The range forms the western boundary of the Canterbury Region, and only the northwest-facing slopes of the range are within the Marlborough Region.

At lower altitudes there are extensive areas of limestone forming sharp ridges along the fault lines. These limestone deposits are important habitats for many endemic plants of the region.

A highly complex mix of sedimentary rocks forms a narrow coastal strip to their east (see landscape type Coastal Limestone Hills).

The Inland and Seaward Mountain Ranges are separated by the Lower Clarence River (see landscape type High Country Limestone Hills). The Clarence River flows from its source near the Main Divide (Lake Tennyson) and flows along traces of several fault lines, with its course changing direction. It flows through a gorge at the northern end of the Seaward Kaikoura Range to the coast. After traveling 225 kms it emerges on a small coastal delta between the Kaikoura Peninsula and Cape Campbell.

The Kaikouras are distinctive mountain ranges with affinities to both the mountains of the semi-arid ranges at the south of the region and those in Marlborough. The climate of the Inland and Seaward Kaikoura ranges is characterised by hot dry summers and cool dry winters. Poor soils and low rainfall are the main factors limiting plant growth in the mountain ranges. However, the coastal side of the ranges are wetter due to frequent southerly storms in the winter months and hence diverse forest communities occur on this side of the ranges. Both mountain ranges are frequently covered by snow, often for long periods.

Native forest cover, with alpine vegetation above the bushline is intermixed with extensive rock faces and scree slopes. The indigenous vegetation is influenced by the coastal conditions and the limestone, and includes some of the most diverse lowland forest in the country. Native vegetation, in particular beech and coastal broadleaf forest can be found on steep slopes. Podocarp forest generally occupies valley terraces and gentler slopes of the Kaikoura Mountains. Lower slopes at the base of the range have been cleared for pasture, but large parts of these less natural areas are reverting to native vegetation;

Above: South Bay on Kaikoura Peninsula with the imposing Seaward Kaikoura Range in the background.

Below: The Clarence River divides the Seaward and Inland Kaikoura Ranges, and forms the southern boundary of the Marlborough Region.

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Landscape ValuesNatural scieNce values

Natural elements, patterns (both landform and landcover) and processes dominate this landscape. The Inland and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges contain a remarkable diversity of plant communities and species. This is due to the range of altitudinal zones from coastal through to alpine, the variety of soils/geological substrates and also to the variation in climate from east to west. On the wetter, eastern slopes of the Seaward Kaikoura Range forest types are dominated by mountain beech, mountain totara, mixed podocarps (matai/ totara) and mahoe, titoki and ngaio. On the western slopes of the Seaward Kaikoura and the Inland Kaikoura ranges, forests are scarce and dominated by mountain totara and to a lesser extent, mountain beech. The Inland and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges support a large number (over 30) of nationally threatened plant species. Shrubland communities modified by fires and grazing, such as matagouri and manuka scrub, are more common on drier valley floors and colluvial side slopes. Extensive grazing is limited to on the lower slopes and valley floors, while introduced wild animals, such as deer, goats and pigs, occur throughout the ranges.

The Inland and Seaward Kaikoura ranges support a diverse range of indigenous animals, especially insects and lizards. Two Hutton’s Shearwater/ titi bird breeding colonies, which are the only mainland sites in New Zealand, can be found in the sub-alpine environment of the Seaward Kaikouras. The Ka Whata Tu o Rakihouia Conservation Park (88,065 ha) encompassing snow-capped peaks in the Kaikoura Ranges and rugged high country, was opened in June 2008 to protect native wildlife and plants, as well as the stunning setting for recreational

Above: The bush-clad slopes alongside the Lower Hapuku River.

Below: View of Mt Fyffe with the Kaikoura Peninsula in the background.

Left: Looking out towards the Kaikoura Peninsula and coast with Mt Stace in the foreground.

Middle: A large totara stand can be found around the historic Barretts Hut, in the Hapuku Valley (Seaward Kaikoura Range).

Right: The headwaters of the Kowhai River, in the Seaward Kaikoura Range.

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activities. Internationally or nationally significant conservation areas can be found in the area, including the Cribb Creek, Shearwater and Miller Stream Catchments.

Tapuae-o-Uenuku (2885m) is the highest point in the Inland Kaikoura Range and the top half of the South Island. The peak is of great geological interest because it is an igneous intrusion, the erosion-resistant throat of an ancient volcano which formed in the Cretaceous. The magma solidified to mafic rocks and, from this volcanic core, numerous dikes intruded into the surrounding greywacke. Tapuae-o-Uenuku has been identified as an important geopreservation site, as it is New Zealand’s only recorded occurrence of zirconium-bearing pyroxene. A number of locally significant geopreservation sites are associated with the Kererengu, Hope and Fidget faults along the base of the Seaward Kaikoura mountain range.

legibility values

The Kaikoura Ranges are of recent geological formation and exposed to extreme climatic conditions, and as such are of geomorphological interest. Rock glaciers, impressive bluffs, as well as river terraces and gorges reflect the shaping forces of the landscape. The eroding scree slopes and steeply incised river valleys are clear signs of more recent formative processes. The limestone outcrops in the Clarence Valley are highly legible when viewed from elevated viewpoints. The winding Clarence River has created a distinctive valley, with steeply incised channel sections in the upper part and braided sections with wide gravel banks in the lower part.

aesthetic values

The quality of experiencing mountains adjacent to sea is of national significance. The Inland and Seaward Kaikoura ranges are the highest mountains in New Zealand, outside the Southern Alps and dominate the northeastern portion of the South Island. The visual relationship of the mountains with the sea are unique in the country. Peaks towering between 2400 m and over 2800 m can be clearly seen from many parts of the upper South Island and lower North Island. They are a landmark feature of the District and Region. The summits along the seaward Kaikouras can be seen from the main State Highways, while the Inland Kaikoura Range is visible from very few public roads in the District. Only glimpses of Tapuae-o-Uenuku are possible from the northern coastal section of State Highway 1, but it is an impressive feature on southbound flights along the coast. Apart from the views within the Clarence Valley, most views to the Inland Kaikoura Range are distant.

Above: Tapuae-O-Uenuku in the Inland Kaikoura Range is the highest peak in the country north of the Aoraki/Mt Cook region. It is of high significance to tangata whenua.

Right: Extensive scree slopes as seen on Manakau, are typical of the upper slopes of the Kaikoura Ranges.

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traNsieNt values

The impressive snowy peaks of the Seaward Kaikoura Ranges, which can be seen from much of Pegasus Bay, are landmarks of the northern part of the Canterbury Region. Despite its close proximity to the sea, the alpine landscape shows extreme changes between seasons. Impressive southerly weather changes can be experienced from the exposed mountain slopes, which allow for expansive views across the plains and sea.

The wildlife values of the area are highly important, including the Hutton’s shearwater colony. The birds, which migrate to Australian waters, return to their Kaikoura mountain breeding colonies in August every year. When the snow melts they relocate their burrows amongst the tussock, and lay a single egg from which the chicks hatch in December.

taNgata WheNua values

The Kaikoura Ranges are imbued with spiritual and traditional values. Uerau (Mount Uwerau) and Tapuae-o-Uenuku are acknowledged in the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement (Schedule 67 and 90) for cultural, spiritual, historic and traditional associations. Within the Uerau area lies the upper catchment of the Kowhai River.

shared aNd recogNised values

The Seaward Kaikoura Range is presented as a landscape icon of the Kaikoura District in many tourist brochures and postcards. The state highway and railway line are amongst the main tourist routes which allow for impressive views to the mountains. Coastal tourist attractions in Kaikoura enable visitors to experience the spectacular backdrop of the Kaikoura Range from boats and planes. The Kaikoura District Landscape Study (Boffa Miskell, 2000) found from survey results that the mountain range contributes significantly to the sense of place experienced by the local community. For many walkers, climbers and trampers the Range is of great recreational value. Tapuae-o-Uenuku is an icon for many climbers, rafters, and trampers. The biological, scenic and recreational values have been widely acknowledged and protected through the recent creation of a conservation park. The Clarence River is a very popular rafting river, providing excellent multi-day trip opportunities for less experienced people.

historic values

Apart from European recognition of the extremely high scenic quality of this landscape area, there appears to be no significant heritage features within this area. Mt Fyffe, named after Robert or George Fyffe, symbolically represents a link to this very important early whaling and farming family of the District.

Above: The view from township to the snow-capped peaks of the Seaward Kaikoura Range is an iconic Kaikoura image.

Below: The proximity of the coast to the mountains is an important characteristic of the Kaikoura mountains.

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seCtion doutstanding Natural

Features and landscapes

All landscape have values and there are many natural features and landscapes that are of significance, but do not meet the threshold required for ‘outstanding’ status. In the 1993 study some of these features were identified as ‘regionally significant’ (refer to Appendix 2). For this review, we were required to solely focus on ‘outstanding’ features and landscapes (under section 6b of the RMA). Some of the previously ‘regionally significant’ areas are now included in the ONF/Ls. The 1993 study focused on the identification of the best examples of each landscape type and on areas that are highly visible from public viewpoints. Subsequent case law has confirmed that the identification of landscape values through a rigorous assessment process determines whether a landscape meets a certain ‘quality threshold’. The visual amenity values of landscapes (under section 7c of the RMA) and their extent of visibility would be appropriately addressed through identification of ‘visual amenity landscapes’ or ‘scenic resource areas’.

The review process led to some minor boundary adjustments of 1993 ONF/Ls and to the inclusion of several new ONF/Ls, which were previously identified as ‘regionally significant’ areas (see Map One). The additions include most mountain ranges and river valleys in the western part of the region, which display high levels of naturalness and landscape quality. The application of the ‘Pigeon Bay Criteria’ throughout the assessment process led to the inclusion of areas that display similar qualities to previously identified ONF/Ls.

It is possible that the Natural Features and Landscapes of Regional Significance outlined in the 1993 study (reproduced as Appendix 2), which have not been included as ONF/Ls in this review, have values that would be addressed through district landscape assessments. As described in Section A of this report, a land typing approach was used to identify ONF/Ls. Small and sporadic features, such as limestone outcrops, wetlands and vegetation remnants, while locally important, have not met the standard required for regional ONF/Ls. It should also be noted that Geopreservation Sites are often of high natural science and legibility value, which may elevate their importance as landscape features.

The regional scale of this assessment is not directly interchangeable with consideration of landscape values and quality at a district or site specific scale. This means that nodes of human development have not been excluded from ONL areas within the regional context, if they were subservient in scale. The ONL status is not, however, intended to apply to areas zoned urban and residential. Where appropriate, land cover was taken into account for outlining boundaries (see Section A for methodology).

The internal peer review workshop held with three Canterbury landscape architects (see Section A) and the subsequent formal peer review led to refinements of the ONF/L areas. One goal of the workshop was the calibration of the ‘threshold’ to meet ‘outstanding’ status amongst experienced practitioners, since this threshold determines the extent of regional ONF/Ls. General agreement on the methodology and ONF/L areas was reached. Knowledge of specific areas, districts or features held by individuals helped to ensure that the landscape evaluation was accurate.

Since the preparation of the 1993 study, districts have identified ONF/Ls through more detailed landscape assessments and large areas have been included in the DOC estate. While the additions to the regional ONF/Ls in this review amount to substantial areas, which were previously identified as ‘regionally significant’, a high proportion of these areas are already either district ONLs and/or conservation land. Map Three shows the extent of regional ONF/Ls that are also outstanding on a district level and/or are also DOC estate (as at June 2009). The extent of conservation land is also shown as a hatched area on all detailed ONF/L maps in this section of the report.

ideNtiFicatioN oF outstaNdiNg Natural Features aNd laNdscapes.

The revised individual ONF/L areas and their values are discussed by area on the subsequent pages in this section. The ONF/L areas and their values have been separated into high country and low land types. For ease of use these are described from north to south, with ONF/Ls within high country land types first, followed by ONF/Ls within lowland land types (see Appendix 1 for a quick reference table).

ONLs within high country land types:

1. Inland and Seaward Kaikouras

2. Molesworth

3. Lake Sumner Area and Lewis Pass

4. Arthur’s Pass National Park

5. Waimakariri Basin

6. Castle Hill/Kura Tawhiti

7. Torlesse Range

8. Upper Rakaia Valley

9. Upper Rangitata Valley

10. Lake Heron and Ashburton Lakes

11. Mt Somers

12. Mt Peel and Four Peaks Range

13. Two Thumb, Hall and Gammack Ranges

14. Mackenzie Basin

15. Aoraki/Mt Cook National Park

16. Hopkins and Dobson Valleys

17. Lindis and Ahuriri

18. Hawdun and St Marys Ranges/Oteake

ONLs within lowland land types:

19. Kaikoura Peninsula and Coast

20. Weka Pass

21. Motunau Island

22. Lower Waimakariri River and Gorge

23. Peninsula and Port Hills

24. Lake Ellesmere/Te Waihora and Kaitorete Spit

25. Lower Rakaia River and Gorge

26. Wainono Lagoon

No differentiation has been made between outstanding features and landscapes and they are referred to as ONF/Ls throughout the document.

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District BoundariesRegionally Significant 1993Regionally Oustanding 1993

laNdscape areas ideNtiFied iN the 1993 study





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District BoundariesRegional ONL onlyRegional and District ONLDOC and Regional ONLDOC, Regional and District ONLRegionally Significant 1993Regionally Outstanding 1993Regional ONF/L 2009

Map One shows the extent of proposed ONF/Ls that have been identified as part of this review process (shown in red). The areas identified as ‘significant’ or ONF/Ls in 1993 are shown as hatched overlays.





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District BoundariesRegional ONL onlyDistrict ONL onlyBoth regional and district ONL

Map Two has been prepared overlaying the 2009 regional ONF/Ls (red) with areas currently identified as ONLs by both the region (2009) and the districts (yellow). ONLs identified by the districts only are shown in blue.





0 20 4010Km

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District BoundariesRegional ONL onlyRegional and District ONLDOC and Regional ONLDOC, Regional and District ONL

Map Three shows the extent of land currently held in DOC estate together with district and regional ONF/Ls.


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DOC Conservation Units (2009)

Inland and Seaward Kaikouras ONF/L

Adjacent ONF/L

1. Inland and Seaward KaikourasThis ONF/L is located within the Kaikoura and Downlands and Foothills landscape types (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions)

locatioN

The Inland and Seaward Kaikoura mountain ranges, including the Lower Clarence River, Puhi Puhi Valley and Mt Alexander have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

The original 1993 boundary has been amended to include Saywers Creek to the south.

The adjacent hill country near Mangamaunu has been included within the Kaikoura Coast ONF/L. This links the coastal ONF/L area with the Seaward Kaikoura Mountain Range ONF/L.

Key laNdscape values

Natural Science Values

- The eastern slopes of the Seaward Kaikouras, which rise steeply from sea level, contain dense broadleaf bush. The mountains provide a very diverse range of habitats, ranging from coastal bush to high alpine scree.

- The Kaikoura mountain ranges support a large number (over 30) of nationally threatened plant species.

- The area supports a diverse range of indigenous fauna, especially insects and lizards.

- The only known mainland Hutton Shearwater breeding sites are located in the Seaward Kaikoura Range.

- Includes the Ka Whata Tu o Rakihouia Conservation Park (88,065 ha)

- Mt Tapuae-o-Uenuku (2885 m) is of great geological interest and is a geopreservation site.

Legibility Values

- The recent geological formation of the Kaikoura Ranges and exposure to extreme climatic conditions are of geomorphological interest.

- The limestone outcrops in the Clarence Valley and on the Mt Alexander ridge and faces are highly legible.

- Prominent limestone ridge along the northern side of the Clarence Valley

- Clarence River has created a distinctive winding valley, with steeply incised channel sections in the upper part and wide braided sections in the lower part.

- The Puhi Puhi syncline and Mt Alexander limestone upfold is a highly legible sign of faulting that occurred in the area.

Above: The Seaward Kaikoura Mountain Range forms the dramatic backdrop to the Kaikoura coast.

Aesthetic Values

- The visual relationship of the mountains with the coast is unique. The close proximity of high peaks to the sea makes this a highly memorable landscape, which cannot be found anywhere else in the country.

- The bush-clad slopes contrast with the bare rocks above and the agricultural plains below.

- Landmark feature of the District and Region.

Transient Values

- The impressive snowy peaks are landmarks of the northern part of the Canterbury Region.

Tangata Whenua Values

- The Kaikoura Ranges are imbued with spiritual and traditional values.

- Uerau (Mount Uwerau) and Tapuae-o-Uenuku are acknowledged in the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act (1998).

Shared and Recognised Values

- Landscape icon of the Kaikoura District, which is represented in many tourist brochures, postcards and paintings.

- The state highway and railway line are main tourist routes which allow for impressive views to the mountains.

- The Seaward Kaikouras visually frame the setting, when viewed from the highly popular whale watching boats.

- The Clarence River is a very popular rafting river.

- Tapuae-o-Uenuku, which is the highest peak north of Aoraki/Mt Cook National Park, is an icon for many climbers, rafters, and trampers.

evaluatioN

The Inland and Seaward Kaikoura mountain ranges including the Clarence River, Puhi Puhi Valley and Mt Alexander have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. These landscapes are considered outstanding as they contain areas which have exceptional aesthetic, very high natural science, legibility and, tangata whenua values and high shared and recognised landscape values.

The Inland Kaikouras include the peaks of Tapuae-0-Uenuku, Mt Alarm and Mitre Peak, which are exceptional mountain peaks. Tapuae-0-Uenuku is of great significance to tangata whenua.

The Seaward Kaikoura Range, particularly Manakau, is highly visible from State Highway 1, Kaikoura township, much of the Kaikoura Coast and Kaikoura Peninsula. Extensive areas of coastal broadleaf forest on the slopes make the range ecologically important.

The Clarence River system is a spectacular landscape feature and considered outstanding for the experience it affords recreationalists. The Clarence River Valley has huge gorges, dramatic waterfalls and stark cliffs. The limestone ridge running through the valley is an interesting geological feature. It is an exceptional landscape.

Puhi Puhi Valley and Mount Alexander have interesting landforms and important vegetation remnants. This area provides an important link in the outstanding compressed sequence from high mountain peaks to ocean trench.

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Adjacent ONF/L

Clarence Rive

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Kaikoura Coast/Peninsula ONF/L

Kaikoura Coast/Peninsula ONF/L

2. MolesworthThis ONF/L is located within the Intermontane Range and Basin landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions)

locatioN

The Molesworth area and Upper Clarence River have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

This is a new area of ONF/L which was identified as significant in the 1993 study. The northern part of the Molesworth is also identified as outstanding within the Marlborough District.

This area includes the area north of the Clarence River to the boundary with the Marlborough region.



- Molesworth is an area of national ecological significance. Over 70 threatened plant species grow here, a quarter of which are acutely threatened. The vegetation reflects the sharp E-W rainfall gradient (670mm-3000 mm).

- Molesworth supports one of New Zealand’s most diverse lizard faunas.

- New Zealand falcon, banded dotterel and black-fronted tern are among threatened bird species found here.

- Rivers and streams provide important habitat for native fish species.

- Several species of large giant wetas and speargrass weevils are found here.

- Lake Tennyson provides important lake, wetland and kettle hole-bog habitats.

- The large high country station is now managed by DOC to maintain its conservation values. Farming operations are carried out under a lease agreement.

Legibility Values

- Legible landscape features include terminal and lateral moraines, glacial outwash plains, hanging valleys and waterfalls, cirque basins, tarns and arêtes.

Aesthetic Values

- The Molesworth Station is one of Canterbury’s/ Marlborough’s iconic high country landscapes.



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Adjacent ONF/L

Molesworth ONF/L

Above: The Molesworth Station has a rich farming heritage. The station itself lies within the Marlborough and Canterbury Regions.

- The area contains memorable landscape elements, such as bare scree slopes, rugged mountain tops, valleys with unmodified rivers and cultural features.

- Despite the landcover modifications induced by historic farming practices, the area maintains a high level of visual coherence.

Transient Values

- The Molesworth endures continental climates of extremes with hot summers and harsh winters. Snow may fall at any time of the year and cover the bare mountain tops.


- An early inland route via the Upper Wairau was used by Maori travelling south.

- Maori established many trails through the area for food gathering and access between the west coast - an important source of jade (pounamu) - and the east coast.

- Travers recorded finds of Maori artefacts on his run at remote Lake Guyon.


- Molesworth Station is a New Zealand icon.

- DOC manages the outstanding recreation values of the area, which include hiking, four wheel driving, hunting, fishing, rafting, camping and biking. The area is celebrated for the remote experiences it provides.

- Inspiration for many artists and writers.

Historic Values

- Strong heritage associated with pastoral farming.

- Acheron cob accommodation house was among a string of dwellings placed to service travellers through the area.

- Both the Molesworth roads were built to enable the construction and maintenance of power lines, the Hanmer-Rainbow Road in the 1950s and the Acheron Road in the late 1960s.

evaluatioN

The Molesworth and Upper Clarence River have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. The Molesworth area lies within both the Hurunui and Marlborough Districts. Its southern part is located within the Canterbury Region. It is considered outstanding due to its exceptional shared and recognised, very high natural science, aesthetic, historic and high legibility landscape values.

The Molesworth Station is a remote area, surrounded by snow-capped peaks, beautiful river valleys, extensive tussock lands, and pasture. It is a working farm as well as a reserve managed by DOC. The area provides exceptional recreation opportunities.

A history of glaciation can be read in the landscape of terminal and lateral moraines, glacial outwash plains, hanging valleys and waterfalls, cirque basins, tarns and arêtes.

This is a spectacular landscape of extremes, with searing summer heat and drought alongside bitter snowy winters. As New Zealand’s largest farmpark, Molesworth Station holds a special place in history.

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Adjacent ONF/L

Molesworth ONF/L

Clarence River

Lake Sumner Area and Lewis Pass ONF/L

3. Lake Sumner Area and Lewis Pass



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Adjacent ONF/L

Lake Sumner and Lewis Pass ONF/L

Above: The Lewis Pass is a major alpine highway which allows for magnificant

views to the forested slopes and major river valleys in the area.


- Lake Sumner is acknowledged in the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act (1998).

- Lake Sumner is an important mahinga kai area.

- The Lake Sumner area has numerous sites associated with Ngai Tahu who used the passes to travel to and from the West Coast (te tai poutini). The passes were utilised by Maori for travel and trade, particularly in the precious pounamu (greenstone).


- Recreation opportunities include fishing, boating, canoeing, waterfowl shooting, four-wheel driving, camping and walking.

- The Lewis Pass Highway (SH7) runs through this landscape connecting the Canterbury and Buller Regions, which allows high numbers of visitors to experience the beech forest on short walks.

- Large areas of DOC managed land, including St James and Lake Sumner Conservation Parks, provide easily accessible recreation opportunities.

Historic Values

- Early explorers investigated this area and the passes for their suitability to establish a railway line to the West Coast.

evaluatioN

The Lewis Pass and Lake Sumner area have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. This landscape is considered outstanding because it contains extensive areas with very high natural science, aesthetic and tangata whenua values. The area also has high shared and recognised and legibility values.

The Lake Sumner and Lewis Pass area is a landscape of mountains with bush clad slopes and clear mountain lakes and rivers. This is a spectacular landscape with very high aesthetic values. Tangata whenua highly value this landscape. This area was part of a network of trails and access routes used by Maori to travel within the South Island. The Lewis Pass, St James and Lake Sumner area offers a great range of recreational opportunities.

This ONL contains the headwaters of three major North Canterbury Rivers, the Hurunui, Waiau and the Clarence. This area is highly accessible due to State Highway (SH7) which passes through this landscape. The landscape is dominated by legible landscape features such as glaciated valleys, glacial moraine deposits, streams, wetlands, lakes, and high altitude tarns.

The Lake Sumner Conservation Park has the richest forest bird diversity in Canterbury. Lake Sumner (Hoka Kura), Loch Katrine, Lake Taylor and Lake Sheppard are among a group of remote high country lakes located in this landscape. These remote high country lakes are set amongst beech-clad mountains, wide rivers and hot springs.

This ONF/L is located within the Intermontane Basins and Ranges and High Divide landscape types (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions)

locatioN

Lake Sumner and Lewis Pass area has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

The original 1993 boundary has been amended to include the St James Range to the north west and the ranges of Lake Sumner Conservation Park to the east.



- Lake Sumner Conservation Park

- The Hurunui Mainland Island.

- Significant cover of relatively unmodified red beech forest which supports rich bird life.

- Braided riverbeds with several important endemic bird species.

Legibility Values

- Landscape has numerous geopreservation sites, such as the Hope fault near the Lewis Pass area and the Awatere fault near Lake Tennyson, which are notable features.

Aesthetic Values

- The lakes, large river valleys and enclosing forested mountain ranges are spectacular.

- This landscape is highly intact with few signs of human modification.

Transient Values

- In the winter months, snow-covered mountain peaks contrast with the green forested slopes below.

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Adjacent ONF/L

Lake Sumner and Lewis Pass ONF/L

Lake Sumner

Lewis Pass Highway (SH7)

Waimakariri Basin ONF/L

Weka Pass ONF/L

4. Arthur’s Pass National Park This ONF/L is located within the High Rainfall Divide landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

The entire Arthur’s Pass National Park has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

The original 1993 boundary remains largely unchanged from the 1993 study. The lower Poulter Valley in Arthur’s Pass National Park is now included in this ONF/L.



- Arthur’s Pass National Park has significant conservation values. It contains largely unmodified river valleys, including the headwaters and upper braided sections of the Waimakariri River. The variety of alpine habitats, such as shrub lands, tussock, herb/fell fields and tarns form a diverse mosaic, protected by the conservation status of the area.

- The beech forest, in particular in the Hawdon Valley, is of ecological significance.

- The endangered great spotted kiwi can be found in the park.

Legibility Values

- Arthur’s Pass is the northern extent of permanent glaciation in the Alps. This alpine environment clearly shows the glacial, fluvial and erosional processes that formed it.

- The major erosive impact of an earthquake in 1929 has caused a large landslide, which took away half a peak in the Edwards Valley. It is now called Falling Mountain.

Aesthetic Values

- Spectacular alpine landscape with high diversity.

- Impressive peaks, bush clad mountains, pristine mountainous streams and braided rivers form a vivid landscape of high visual quality.

Transient Values

- The seasonal change of the mountainous landscape, as well as dramatic weather changes and cloud formations, are key ephemeral values.

- The rivers rise quickly after rainfall and are important values of the park.

- The presence of keas adds to the experience of the area.


- Arthur’s and Browning Passes were both early trading routes between the east and west coasts for greenstone/pounamu.


- Arthur’s Pass area is an easily accessible recreation area close to the State Highway. Many tourists stop to visit the mountains, rivers and waterfalls of the National Park.

- The large alpine national park is recognised for both its recreation and ecological values.

- Many paintings and photographs have been produced showing the mountains and rivers of the area.

Historic Values

- Maori told early European explorers of the location of Arthur’s Pass as a potential crossing of the Alps.

- Historic railway and road connections.

evaluatioN

Arthur’s Pass National Park has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. It has been considered outstanding due to its exceptional natural science, aesthetic, and shared and recognised values and its high tangata whenua, legibility and historic landscape values.

The Arthur’s Pass National Park is in the heart of the Southern Alps and is managed by DOC. This was the first national park in New Zealand. It is a dramatic landscape of geological, biological, recreation and cultural significance. It is home to spectacular mountains with large scree slopes, steep gorges and wide braided rivers. Although the entire landscape has been intensely glaciated, today only small glacier remnants remain around Mt Rolleston and the head of the Waimakariri Valley (these are the northernmost glaciers in the South Island). The floors of the main valleys are covered with post-glacial gravels, especially many large fans. Earthquakes have caused impressive rock avalanches that scar the valley slopes.

The passes through the Southern Alps were used by Maori to trade pounamu/greenstone from Westland to Canterbury. Arthur Dudley Dobson surveyed the pass in 1864. When gold was discovered on the West Coast, the rush to link Christchurch with the gold fields in the west saw the road built in less than a year. This route remains today, as State Highway 73, and the adjacent railway runs through the middle of the national park.

W e s t C o a s t R e g i o nW e s t C o a s t R e g i o n0 5 102.5Km


Arthurs Pass National Park ONF/L

Adjacent ONF/L

Above: Arthur’s Pass National Park is a spectacular landscape with impressive

valleys and pristine mountain rivers. The beech forested slopes of the Hawdon

Valley are of ecological significance.

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W e s t C o a s t R e g i o nW e s t C o a s t R e g i o n0 5 102.5Km


Arthurs Pass National Park ONF/L

Adjacent ONF/L

Arthur’s Pass

Upper Rakaia Valley ONF/L

Torlesse Range ONF/L


SH 73

Lake Sumner and Lewis Pass Area ONF/L

Poulter River

5. Waimakariri BasinThis ONF/L is located within the Intermontane Basins and Ranges landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

The Waimakariri Basin has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

This area of ONF/L includes the upper Waimakariri River and its tributaries. The Waimakariri River is considered to be outstanding from its source to the sea. The lower sections of the Waimakariri River are discussed as part of the Lower Waimakariri River ONF/L.

The basin also features numerous limestone rock outcrops which are important. These are considered outstanding and are discussed in the Castle Hill ONF/L.

The original 1993 boundary was slightly amended to follow the ridgeline containing the basin around the Esk Valley.



- Many of the lakes within the basin are important habitats for numerous birds and fish species.

- The Upper Waimakariri River provides exceptional habitat qualities and a number of ‘significant’ wetlands can be found within the basin.

- Extensive areas of red tussock grassland and intact shrub lands are notable from an ecological perspective.

Legibility Values

- Legible features include moraines, rôches moutonnées, hanging valleys, lakes, terraces and fans.

- Numerous geopreservation sites are located within the basin.

Aesthetic Values

- Dramatic and spectacular landscape of pristine lakes, rivers and majestic mountains.

- Waimakariri River is an exceptional example of a braided river system. Sinuous patterning is both highly expressive and attractive. The upper Waimakariri River Valley is largely intact and displays a high level of coherence.

Transient Values

- Braided rivers are an evolving landscape feature.

- Snow-capped peaks enclose the basin in the winter months.


- Part of a network of trails used by tangata whenua to access resources and trade between the coasts.


- This is a striking landscape, which has a combination of memorable elements, such as the braided river, lakes and mountain ranges.

- Landscape offers significant recreational opportunities including many tracks, skifields, lakes and caves (Cave Stream, which lies within the Castle Hill ONF/L).

- Highly accessible landscape with important road and rail links.

Historic Values

- The basin was home to early high country runs and has historic farming associations.

evaluatioN

The Waimakariri Basin has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. The basin contains areas that have very high natural science, legibility, aesthetic, tangata whenua, shared and recognised and high historic landscape values.

The basin contains significant ecological values, and large parts are managed by DOC including the Korowai/Tussocklands Conservation Park and the Craigieburn Forest Park. The numerous lakes within the basin are important habitats for bird and fish species.

The Waimakariri Basin is visually contained by majestic mountains including the high ranges in Arthur’s Pass National Park (refer to Arthur’s Pass National Park ONF/L). The basin is littered with legible landscape features that are highly expressive of their glacial and fluvial formation. These features include moraines, rôches moutonnées, hanging valleys, terraces and fans.

The area is highly accessible due to State Highway 73 which traverses the basin. This is a major transit route connecting the west and east coasts of the South Island. The Tranz Alpine railway also passes through the basin. The area is home to a range of tracks, ski areas and lakes which have significant recreational values.

For tangata whenua this landscape is important. The basin was an important part of a network of trails which facilitated trade and resource gathering between the west and east coasts of the South Island.


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Adjacent ONF/L


Below: The snow-capped Craigieburn Range overlooks the basin.

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Lake Pearson

Lake Sumner Area and Lewis Pass ONF/L



Lower Waimakariri and Brooklands Lagoon ONF/L

Arthur’s Pass National Park ONF/L

6. Castle Hill / Kura TawhitiThis ONF/L is located within the High Country Limestone landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions)

locatioN

The area identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L) encompasses the distinctive limestone outcrops adjacent to State Highway 73 in the Castle Hill Basin (including Prebble Hill, Flock Hill and Cave Stream).

Castle Hill lies within the Waimakariri Basin ONF/L. The original 1993 boundary of this wider area, including Castle Hill, remain unchanged from the 1993 study.



- Important habitat for rare and specialist limestone plant species.

- Contains some of the rarest and most endangered plants in Canterbury.

- Scientific reserve established to protect the Castle Hill Buttercup (Ranunculus crithmifolius).

- Important area for some bird species, such as the New Zealand Falcon.

Legibility Values

- Limestone outcrops at Castle Hill are legible landscape features.

- Area contains many nationally significant geopreservation sites.

Aesthetic Values

- Outcrops form a unique limestone landscape with distinctive formations of high scenic value.

- Area provides aesthetic values that can be experienced at a variety of distances and scales.

Transient Values

- The outcrops create distinctive shadow patterns at various times of the day.


- Kura Tawhiti/Castle Hill has Topuni status.

- Stories and legends link tangata whenua with this landscape.


- Climbers, families, scientists and travellers have always been drawn to this easily accessible, attractive landscape.

- Limestone outcrops are considered by climbers to offer some of the best ‘bouldering’ in New Zealand.

- Cave Stream Reserve contains an accessible cave which is an important attraction.

Historic Values

- Early European travellers named the area Castle Hill after the grand limestone rock battlements found in this area.

evaluatioN

Castle Hill and its spectacular limestone outcrops have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. It is considered outstanding due to its very high legibility, aesthetic, shared and recognised, tangata whenua and high natural science landscape values.

Nestled between the Craigieburn and Torlesse Ranges, Castle Hill is considered outstanding because of the scale, number and extraordinary appearance of the limestone landforms. This area is managed by DOC and makes up the Kura Tawhiti Conservation Area.

The Castle Hill area is of high ecological value. The limestone outcrops provide habitats for a range of threatened plant species. Kura Tawhiti is the site of the first scientific reserve in New Zealand, established specifically to protect the Castle Hill Buttercup.

This area and its grand limestone tors have special significance to Ngai Tahu. Kura Tawhiti literally means “the treasure from a distant land”, referring to the kumara that was once cultivated in this region. Kura Tawhiti has Topuni status, which is a legal recognition of the site’s importance to the Ngai Tahu tribe.

The limestone formations are highly legible landscape features and have high aesthetic values. The distinctive outcrops are a popular destination for tourists and are highly valued by many rock climbing enthusiasts.

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Adjacent ONF/L

Castle Hill/ Kura Tawhiti ONF/L

Below: The many limestone outcrops at Castle Hill create amazing shadow patterns. The setting of the basin contributes to its outstanding landscape qualities.

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Castle Hill/ Kura Tawhiti ONF/L

Castle Hill





Flock Hill

Cave Stream

SH 73

7. Torlesse RangeThis ONF/L is located within the Front Range landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions)

locatioN

The area identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L) includes the entire Torlesse Range.

This boundary remains unchanged from the 1993 study.



- Large parts of the Torlesse Range are managed by DOC.

- Widespread areas of indigenous vegetation. The tussocklands in this area are in particularly good condition.

Legibility Values

- Extensive greywacke scree slopes and distinctive rocky outcrops found along the summits and ridges.

Aesthetic Values

- The dissected, steep Torlesse Range forms the impressive backdrop to Christchurch and the Canterbury Plains. The view gained from State Highway 73 when travelling west across the Canterbury Plains is one of the memorable impressions of the front ranges.

- The coherent front range landscape does not display significant signs of built modification.

Transient Values

- Snow-capped peaks are clearly visible from the plains.


- The area has significance to tangata whenua.

- The range was an integral part of a network of trails used by tangata whenua to access mahinga kai and greenstone resources of the west coast.


- The distinctive landforms of the range, steep shingle slides, rocky ridges and forested slopes form the background for many paintings of the Canterbury Plains landscape.

- The range forms part of the Korowai/Tussocklands Conservation Park which has high recreational values.

Historic Values

- Charles Torlesse was the first European to climb the slopes of the range.

- Historic sites in the area include the old pack track used by the Porter brothers, Avoca Homestead and the Mt Torlesse Coal Mines.

evaluatioN

The Torlesse Range has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. This landscape is considered outstanding due to its high aesthetic, historic and tangata whenua values. The range also has moderate to high natural science, legibility, transient and shared and recognised landscape values.

The Torlesse Range is the most striking of the frontal ranges. Its jagged craggy skyline, which includes ‘The Gap’, is an iconic Canterbury landmark and is clearly visible from the plains particularly when travelling west along SH 73.

The Torlesse Range has high botanical values and a large part of this landscape is within the Korowai/Tussocklands Conservation Park which is managed by DOC. The Torlesse Range is of significance to tangata whenua and is valued for its recreational opportunities which include tramping, hunting, winter climbing and cross-country skiing.

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Adjacent ONF/L


Below: The snow capped peaks along the Torlesse Range play a central role in the iconic views from the plains.

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Castle Hill Peak Mt Torlesse


Castle Hill ONF/L

Lower Waimakariri

River ONF/L

SH 73

8. Upper Rakaia ValleyThis ONF/L is located within the Intermontane Basins and Ranges landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

The Upper Rakaia River Valley and the head-waters of its main tributaries – the Wilberforce, Harper and Mathias Rivers – have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape ONF/L. The original ONF/L identified in the 1993 study, which only contained the valley floors of these rivers, has been amended to include the Craigieburn and Arrowsmith Ranges and the valley floor around Lake Coleridge.

This ONF/L includes the upper sections of the Rakaia River. The lower sections (from the gorge to the coast) are also considered to be outstanding; this is discussed in the Lower Rakaia River ONF/L. The original 1993 boundary between the Palmer Range and the gorge has been amended to include the immediately adjacent slopes of the Black Hill and Hutt Ranges. This outline is consistent with other basin/valley ONLs.



- The Rakaia River is protected by a National Water Conservation Order (1988).

- The mountainous headwaters of this river have special wilderness character, an expansive and vast valley setting and landscape features that are of a high degree of naturalness.

- The upper river valleys and parts of the Lake Coleridge Basin contain significant wetland areas.

- Largely weed free.

- Large parts within DOC management.

- The beech gap in the upper Rakaia/ Rangitata area is a notable characteristic of Central Canterbury.

- Significant stands of native Cedar trees (Libocedrus bidwillii) are found in the headwaters and tributaries of the Wilberforce River (Rakaia River tributary)

- The headwaters and tributaries of the Upper Rakaia include the Arrowsmith Range and the ice plateaus of the Adams Wilderness Area.

Legibility Values

- The extensive river terraces and large tributary fans are highly legible landscape features expressive of their formation.

- The extensive braided patterning of the rivers is highly expressive and is a dynamic legible landscape feature.

- Numerous geopreservation sites which are excellent examples of relict glacial lake features, such as the Goldney Hill rock avalanche deposit near Lake Coleridge.

Aesthetic Values

- The Upper Rakaia River is an exceptional example of a braided river system.

- It is an iconic landscape feature – its sinuous patterning is both highly expressive and attractive.

- The majestic mountains of the Arrowsmith, Jollie and Butler Ranges form impressive backdrops to the braided river valleys.

Transient Values

- The braided patterning of the Rakaia River is a highly expressive and constantly evolving landscape feature.


- A part of a network of mahinga kai and resource gathering trails which tangata whenua developed to link the east and west coast of New Zealand.


- The Rakaia River, its braids, terraces and mountainous headwaters, are one of the quintessential landscapes of Canterbury.

- It has inspired numerous artists and writers.

- Exceptional panoramic views of both the surrounding mountains and river plains are experienced from within the Upper Rakaia valley.

- These views are an integral and widely celebrated image of the Canterbury High Country Landscape.

- Landscape provides for a wide array of recreational opportunities. In particular Lake Coleridge and the Craigieburn Range are very popular.

- The Arrowsmith Range provides key remote Canterbury tramping and climbing opportunities.

Historic Values

- Historical features include the Mt Harper Ice Rink (1931-32) which was possibly the first ever purpose-built public skating rink in the southern hemisphere.

- History of pastoral high country settlement and early explorers.

evaluatioN

The Upper Rakaia River Valley including the Mathias, Wilberforce and Harper Rivers, and the Craigieburn and Arrowsmith Ranges have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. These landscapes are considered outstanding as they contain exceptional natural science, very high legibility, aesthetic and high tangata whenua, shared and recognised and historic landscape values.

The Rakaia River is protected by a National Water Conservation Order (1988) which seeks to safeguard ‘the river’s outstanding natural values’. Parts of this landscape are protected by DOC, and there are extensive areas of important habitats which support an array of indigenous flora and fauna.

The Upper Rakaia valley and surrounding mountain ranges form a massive landscape, full of drama and foreboding. This is a remote landscape which is largely inaccessible aside from the many tracks which are popular with hunters, trampers and skiers. It is an attractive landscape which is widely celebrated and provides inspiration for many artists and writers.

The valley is home to numerous legible features and important geopreservation sites which are highly expressive of their glacial origins.

W e s t C o a s t R e g i o nW e s t C o a s t R e g i o n0 6 123

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Adjacent ONF/L


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W e s t C o a s t R e g i o nW e s t C o a s t R e g i o n0 6 123

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Adjacent ONF/L


Lake Coleridge

Mathias River

Rakaia River

Wilberforce River


Upper Rangitata Valley ONF/L

Mt Somers ONF/L

Lake Heron and

Ashburton Lakes ONF/L


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Adjacent ONF/L


9. Upper Rangitata ValleyThis ONF/L is located within the Intermontane Basins and Ranges landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

The Upper Rangitata River Valley has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

The boundary outlined in the 1993 study has been amended to include the gorge.



- The Rangitata River is protected by a National Water Conservation Order (2006).

- Largely weed free.

- The mountainous headwaters of this river have a special wilderness character, an expansive and vast valley setting and landscape features that are of a high degree of naturalness.

- Large parts are managed by DOC.

- The beech gap in the upper Rakaia/ Rangitata area is a notable characteristic of central Canterbury.

- The headwaters and tributaries of the Upper Rakaia include the Garden of Eden/ Allah ice plateaus, which are part of the Adams Wilderness Area.

Legibility Values

- The extensive river terraces in the river valleys are highly legible features, representative of the powerful erosive processes of the rivers which flow through them. The extensive braided patterning of these rivers is a highly expressive and dynamic landscape feature.

- The Rangitata Gorge is a highly legible landscape feature.

Aesthetic Values

- The Upper Rangitata is an exceptional example of a braided river system. Its sinuous patterning is both highly expressive and attractive.

Transient Values

- The braided patterning of the rivers within this landscape type is a highly expressive and constantly evolving landscape feature.


- Part of a network of mahinga kai and resource gathering trails which tangata whenua developed to link the east and west coast of New Zealand.


- The intermontane ranges, vast river valleys and basins are one of the quintessential landscapes of Canterbury. These high country landscapes have inspired numerous artists and writers for generations to express their impressions in paint, poetry and prose.

- Exceptional panoramic views of both the surrounding mountains and river outwash plains are experienced within the Upper Rakaia and Rangitata valleys. These views are an integral and widely celebrated image of the Canterbury High Country Landscape.

- The area supports an array of recreational opportunities.

Historic Values

- Early explorers John Acland, Charles Tripp and Thomas Potts established early stations in the area, such as Mesopotamia.

evaluatioN

The Upper Rangitata River Valley has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. The Upper Rangitata is considered outstanding as it contains very high natural science, legibility and aesthetic values, and high tangata whenua, shared and recognised and historic landscape values.

The Rangitata River is protected by a National Water Conservation Order which seeks to protect ‘the outstanding natural values of the river’. Large parts of this landscape are managed by DOC, including the Hakatere Conservation Park. This park encompasses the rugged mountain country, tussocklands, beech forest and sparkling clear rivers and lakes between the Rakaia and Rangitata Rivers.

The immense scale of the Rangitata valley and the clarity of its landforms are outstanding. The screes on the embracing valley-sides are exceptional in scale and age. The sense of wilderness and space is remarkable and the area has a particular place in high country literature.

Below: The Upper Rangitata River Valley contains very high natural science, legibility and aesthetic landscape values. It has high tangata whenua, shared and recognised and historic values.

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Adjacent ONF/L


Lawrence River

Havelock River

Rangitata River

Mackenzie Basin ONF/L

Mt Peel and Four Peaks Range ONF/L

Lake Heron and Ashburton Lakes ONF/L


10. Lake Heron and Ashburton Lakes This ONF/L is located within the Intermontane Basins and Ranges landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

The wider Ashburton Lakes Basin, including Lake Heron, Emma and Clearwater have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

The boundary outlined in the 1993 study has been amended to include the adjacent mountainous areas, such as the Arrowsmith and Cloudy Peak Ranges, which link up with this existing basin area. The values of the Arrowsmith Range are discussed in the Upper Rakaia Valley ONF/L. The boundary along the Palmer Range has been amended to include the adjacent mountain slopes. This outline is consistent with other basin/ valley ONLs.



- The lakes provide some of the largest areas of habitat for water birds in New Zealand, and support approximately 30% of indigenous New Zealand species. Some 40,000 birds can be present at any one time and include species such as the endemic wrybill, black-fronted tern and black-billed gull.

- The wetlands in the area are of exceptional ecological value.

- Large areas are under DOC management.

Legibility Values

- Numerous geopreservation sites can be found in the Ashburton Lakes Basin, including the Balmacaan middle Triassic faunas found on the Harper Range, the Ashburton River rock avalanche splash, and the Ryton Valley debris flow.

Aesthetic Values

- The stunning backdrop of high glaciated peaks and broad carved basins and valleys form an impressive landscape with uninterrupted long-distance views.

- The largely unmodified lakes add a recognisable visual quality to the basin landscape.

- The area does not display any significant visual signs of human modification. The basin retains a high degree of intactness and aesthetic coherence.

Transient Values

- The wildlife values of the area are exceptional. The presence of birds is the key transient value to be experienced around the lakes.


- The Ashburton Lakes Area (O Tu Whareakai) is acknowledged in the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act (1998).

- The area was part of a seasonal trail for mahinga kai and resource gathering.


- The lakes are very popular recreation areas, with camp grounds bustling in summer time. The DOC-managed lakes support fishing, and watersport activities.

Historic Values

- Large high country stations such as Mesopotamia were established between Lake Heron and the Rangitata.

- Traces of this early pastoral settlement still remain in the landscape with the development of homesteads, farm buildings, sheep yards, pack bullock & dray tracks, mustering huts, shelterbelts and fences.

evaluatioN

Lake Heron and the Ashburton Lakes area with its adjacent mountain ranges have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. This area is considered outstanding as it contains exceptional natural science and very high legibility, aesthetic, tangata whenua and shared and recognised, and moderate to high historic landscape values.

Large parts of this landscape are managed by DOC, which includes the Hakatere Conservation Park. This park encompasses 60,000 hectares of rugged mountain country, tussocklands and sparkling clear rivers and lakes between the Rakaia and Rangitata rivers.

The Ashburton Lakes Area (O Tu Whareakai) is acknowledged in the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act (1998) for its cultural, spiritual, historic and traditional associations. The Lake Heron/Ashburton Lakes area was part of a seasonal trail of mahinga kai and resource gathering highly valued by tangata whenua. Knowledge of these trails continues to be held by whanau and hapu and is regarded as taonga.

The Heron, Clearwater, Ashburton Lakes landscape is very different from the other high country basins. It is smaller in scale than the Mackenzie and Waimakariri Basins. It does not contain any large-scale infrastructure or settlements and extensive grazing forms an integral part of this landscape. The landscape clearly reflects geological processes and the lakes and associated wetlands are significant from an ecological perspective.

Lake Heron is an exceptionally beautiful lake with clear water, a variety of marginal vegetation and varied shoreline. There are strong visual relationships with the Arrowsmith and Taylor Ranges.

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Adjacent ONF/L


Above: The lakes are popular recreation areas, supporting activities such as fishing, boating and watersports.

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Lake Heron

Lake Emma

Lake Clearwater


Mt Somers ONF/L


11. Mt SomersThis ONF/L is located within the Front Range landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

Mt Somers from the summit to its base has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

This is a new ONF/L which was originally identified as a significant landscape in the 1993 study. The eastern boundary of this area reflects the change in landcover between the upper and lower slopes of Mt Somers.



- Large parts are managed by DOC and contain native beech forest and tussock lands.

- The lava columns around the north face of Mt Somers are of geological interest.

Legibility Values

- Highly legible volcanic outcrops.

- Many geological features, including impressive lava columns, silica sands and coal deposits.

Aesthetic Values

- Mt Somers is a distinctive part of the front ranges, rising sharply from the plains.


- No permanent sites of occupancy are documented, but primitive drawings in rock shelters on Mount Somers are evidence of early Maori visitors.


- Recreation values of Mt Somers walkway, which is a popular multi day walk for families. The rock faces are a unique rock climbing area.

Historic Values

- The Mt Somers area has a rich history of mining, coal and lime quarrying operations.

evaluatioN

Mount Somers has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. This landscape is considered outstanding due to its high legibility and historic landscape values. Its moderate to high natural science, tangata whenua and shared and recognised values also contribute to its landscape value.

Mt Somers has remarkable geological features including striking volcanic lava columns which rise spectacularly to create towering pillars and overhangs. It is an area of moderate to high ecological value supporting a range of indigenous flora and fauna.

The area has an extensive history of mining and quarrying operations. Many traces of this history remain today with features such as the Blackburn Mine. The Mt Somers track is a popular attraction.

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Adjacent ONF/L

Mt Somers ONF/L

Left: The Acland Shelter, Mt Somers.

Middle: The volcanic outcrops are highly legible landscape features.

Right: Large parts of the mountain are managed by the Department of Conservation and are popular recreation areas.

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Mt Somers ONF/L

Mt Somers

Lake Heron and

Ashburton Lakes ONF/L

12.Mt Peel and Four Peaks RangeThis ONF/L is located within the Downlands and Foothills and Front Range landscape types (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

The area identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L) encompasses Mt Peel from the summit to its base and includes Peel Forest .

The western boundary (proposed in 1993) has been slightly modified to follow the landform along the base of the mountain. The tops of the Four Peaks Range and the Orari Gorge have also been included in this area of ONF/L.



- Significant areas of indigenous podocarp and hardwood forest can be found on the slopes of Mt Peel. This remnant forest is of particular value due to its diversity and size.

Legibility Values

- The Orari Gorge is a highly legible landscape feature.

Aesthetic Values

- The Four Peaks Range is an important landmark of the southern part of the region, where the front ranges meet the Mackenzie Basin. These distinctive peaks form the backdrop when viewed from the Timaru Plains.


- Numerous Maori legends are associated with both the Four Peaks Range and Mt Peel.


- Peel Forest is an accessible recreation area.

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Mt Peel and Four Peaks ONF/LAbove: Significant areas of indigenous podocarp and hardwood forest can be

found on the ranges in this area.

evaluatioN

Mt Peel, Peel Forest, Orari Gorge and the Four Peaks Range have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. This landscape is considered outstanding due to its high natural science, as well as its moderate to high aesthetic, tangata whenua and shared and recognised landscape values.

The landscape qualities of Peel Forest were first recognised in 1911 when it was made a scenic reserve. Since then this extensive indigenous podocarp and hardwood forest has become a valuable recreation area.

It is part of an outstanding landscape that has a relatively unmodified vegetation sequence from the sub-alpine areas around the peak of Mount Peel to the lowland podocarp forest. The Four Peaks Range forms an important landmark when viewed from the southern part of the Canterbury Plains, it has moderate to high aesthetic, tangata whenua and shared and recognised landscape values. The Orari Gorge is an important landscape feature. The Gorge is highly legible and has high aesthetic landscape values. The historical development of the Peel Forest area and the visual connections with the plains and Rangitata River all add up to a regionally outstanding landscape.

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Mt Peel and Four Peaks ONF/L

Mt Peel

Four Peaks Range


Mt Somers ONF/L

13. Two Thumb, Hall and Gammack RangesThis ONF/L is located within the Intermontane Basins and Ranges, High Rainfall Divide and Front Range landscape types (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

The Two Thumb, Sibbald, Hall and Gammack Ranges and the Macaulay, Cass and Jollie River Valleys have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape(ONF/L). The eastern slopes of the McLeod Range form the eastern boundary of the area. The Phantom Valley, located west of the High Claytons, has also been included.

This is a new ONF/L which was identified as ‘significant’ in the 1993 study.



- Plant community habitats include alpine fellfields, herbfields, tussock lands, shrub lands and wetlands. Most forest has been burned for grazing.

- Many specialised scree plants, such as herbs and lichens.

- The invertebrate fauna of the valleys and surrounding mountain ranges reflects the mosaic of habitat types present in the area.

- Generally very low weed infestation.

Legibility Values

- Large parts of the range slopes are covered with hummocky lateral moraine, deposited by successive glacial advances.

- Icescraped valley walls, moraine deposits, and extensive areas of stream fan advancement and stream down-cutting following the gradual retreat of the glaciers clearly show the landscape’s formative processes.

- Extensive, mobile scree slopes are characteristic features of these mountain ranges. Erosive forces are clearly continuing to shape this landscape.

Aesthetic Values

- Provide the backdrop to the Mackenzie Basin.

- This backdrop is an important element of the aesthetic values of these basin landscapes and to views beyond to the ice-capped mountains of Mt Cook National Park.

- The area’s inherent landscape values lie in the dominance of tussocklands, rock and scree slopes.

- The remote Phantom Valley displays high scenic value and impressive high country character.

Transient Values

- In the winter months these dry hills are often snow-covered. This creates an interesting contrast with the smooth basins and lakes below.


- The area provides multiple opportunities for recreation, primarily in a mountain setting providing front-country, backcountry and remote experiences. Recreational activities include skiing (Mount Dobson and Round Hill ski fields), ski-touring, climbing, tramping, hunting, mountain biking and fishing.

Historic Values

- Large, early high country runs were established in this area. However, few historic resources remain in the landscape.

evaluatioN

The Two Thumb, Hall and Gammack Ranges, including the river valleys, have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. These are considered outstanding due to their high aesthetic and natural science values. They also have moderate to high legibility, transient and shared and recognised landscape values.

The semi-arid and dissected mountains that border the Mackenzie Basin contribute to the outstanding basin landscape. This visual relationship is their key quality. As such the natural landform and land cover patterns, uninterrupted skylines, the simplicity of vegetation cover and the subtle colours of the mountainsides are all important characteristics.


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Adjacent ONF/L

Hall, Gammack and Two Thumb Ranges ONF/L

Below: The barren, arid slopes of these ranges border the Mackenzie Basin and are

often snow-covered in the winter months.

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Hall, Gammack and Two Thumb Ranges ONF/L

Two Thumb Range

Hall Range

Gammack Range


Aoraki/Mt Cook ONF/L


14. Mackenzie BasinThis ONF/L is located within the Intermontane Basins and Ranges and Semi Arid Mountain Ranges landscape types (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions)

locatioN

The area identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L) includes the entire Mackenzie Basin with its valley floors and surrounding slopes and ridgelines.

The boundary proposed in the 1993 study has been amended to follow the ridgelines of the surrounding mountain ranges. Two areas were added to this ONF/L: The Upper Godley Valley and Lake Benmore with its surrounding mountain slopes. The Benmore Range, which lies between the Mackenzie and Benmore basins, was included, as it contains the visual catchments. The more modified part of the basin floor around and south of Twizel has been excluded, as it does not display the same outstanding qualities as the remainder of the basin. The exclusion extends further south (to the Ahuriri River) than in the 1993 study.



- The upper river valleys (such as the Godley and Tasman) are largely weed-free and have a high degree of naturalness.

- These river valleys support an array of unique and threatened native birds.

- Kettleholes in the basin floors are an important habitat.

- Numerous DOC-managed reserves, including scientific reserves are in the basin and valleys (linking with Aoraki/Mt Cook National Park).

Legibility Values

- Highly legible features such as moraines, rôches moutonnées, hanging valleys, terraces and fans.

- The outwash plains are highly legible features of the basin.

- ‘Kame terraces’ near Lake Pukaki are highly legible landscape features.

- Numerous geopreservation sites are located within the basin.

Aesthetic Values

- The vast basin, large river valleys and enclosing mountain ranges form a dramatic and spectacular landscape. While some parts of the basin have been substantially modified by residential, hydro and agricultural development, the basin as a whole retains its openness and largely coherent character.

- Impressive views up the wide U-shaped valleys to the snow and ice covered peaks of the Alps are experienced from the basin.

- Pukaki and Tekapo reflect a striking milky-blue colour in sunlight. They form an integral part of one of the most memorable landscapes in the country.

- The golden tussock-laden slopes which surround the basin have high aesthetic values.

Transient Values

- Snow coats the ranges and basin floors during much of the winter months.

- The distinctive turquoise colour of the lakes in sunny conditions is spectacular.

- Nowhere else in the country can the effects of ‘norwester’ weather patterns and the rainfall gradient from west to east be as vividly experienced as in the Mackenzie Basin.


- Lakes Tekapo, Pukaki, Benmore and Ohau are acknowledged in the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act (1998).

- The Mackenzie Basin lakes (Tekapo, Pukaki and Ohau) are all referred to in the legend of “Nga Puna Wai Karikari o Rakaihautu” which describes how the principal lakes of Te Wai Pounamu were dug by the rangatira (chief) Rakaihautu.

- Maori used the lakes in this area for mahinga kai (waterfowl).

- These lakes are part of a wider mahinga kai trail that ran from Lake Pukaki down the original path of Waitaki River to the coast.


- Iconic South Island landscape.

- Inspiration for numerous artists and writers.

- The lakes and the basin are tourist icons.

- National importance for tourism and recreation.

- Lake Ruataniwha near Twizel has been developed as a national rowing venue.

Historic Values

- Historic features include homesteads, farm buildings, sheep yards, pack bullock & dray tracks, mustering huts, shelterbelts and fences.

- The Mackenzie Basin is named after the first European to discover the area, James Mackenzie. Mackenzie, convicted of sheep stealing, has a monument commemorating his capture.

evaluatioN

The entire Mackenzie Basin, including the Godley Valley, has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. This landscape contains areas of exceptional legibility, aesthetic, transient, shared and recognised, very high natural science and high tangata whenua and historic landscape values. It is acknowledged that landscape qualities vary across an area of this size, which contains areas of human modification. Lake Benmore, while a man-made feature, has high aesthetic, shared and recognised and tangata whenua values, which warrant its identification as ‘outstanding’.

The lakes and their basin setting are highly expressive of their formative processes and have high aesthetic values. The glacial origins of the basin landscape are expressed in many legible landscape features including moraines, rôches moutonnées, hanging valleys and terraces. The openness of the vast basin landscape and expansive views of the encompassing mountain ranges are spectacular and are widely celebrated.

The entire basin is of great importance to tangata whenua who used the lakes for mahinga kai. The basin was a part of a wider network of trails which linked the coast to the Alps. The basin is widely recognised throughout New Zealand for its high tourism and recreational values. It is a landscape which has provided inspiration for writers and artists for generations.

The Mackenzie Basin has an important place in high country history. Early pioneers established large remote stations, and traces of this history remain in the landscape today.


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Lake Pukaki

Lake Tekapo

Lake Ohau

Lindis and Ahuriri ONF/L

Hopkins and Dobson Valley ONF/L

15. Aoraki/Mt Cook National ParkThis ONF/L is located within the High Rainfall Divide landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions)

locatioN

The entire Aoraki/Mt Cook National Park has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

This boundary remains unchanged from the 1993 study.

The National Park stretches from the headwaters of the Dobson River to the northern limit at Mt D’Archiac. The park includes the headwaters of the Tasman and Godley Valleys, whose glaciers drains into the rivers and lakes of the Mackenzie Basin.



- Aoraki/Mt Cook National Park is of exceptional conservation value.

- Part of the Te Waipounamu - South Westland World Heritage Area.

- The alpine snow-meadows of Aoraki/Mt Cook are of high importance.

Legibility Values

- The Alps are highly expressive of their formation.

- Glacial processes continue to shape the landscape. Ice avalanches can be constantly observed in the area. This is a landscape of ongoing formation, erosion and change and is unique within the country.

- The extensive glaciers, such as the Tasman, Hooker and Mueller glaciers, and their terminal lakes and moraines are exceptionally legible. The area contains some of the prime examples of glacial landscapes in the world.

Aesthetic Values

- The Southern Alps form the backbone of the South Island. This area contains the highest peaks with magnificent ice caps. The landscape is one of the most memorable in the country. Its landscape quality has not been compromised by human modification.

- The impressive and spectacular mountains are visible throughout most of Canterbury and form the distant backdrop to a vast number of views.

Transient Values

- Dramatic weather changes and cloud formations are key ephemeral values of this landscape.

- The constant process of geomorphological change makes this landscape unpredictable and foreboding.


- The mountains are seen as ancestors by tangata whenua.

- Aoraki/Mount Cook is of special significance to Ngai Tahu, and has Topuni status (Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998).


- Aoraki/Mount Cook is the highest peak in New Zealand and is the most well-known.

- Numerous paintings and postcards have been produced showing Aoraki/Mt Cook. It is a New Zealand icon.

- Aoraki/Mount Cook Village is the focus of tourism activity and attracts large numbers of international visitors.

- Unique recreational values, which include scenic flights and renowned climbing opportunities. Early mountaineers from all over the world explored this part of the New Zealand Alps with the intention of climbing the unclimbed peaks.

Historic Values

- European immigrants and visitors alike have come to the Aoraki/Mt Cook area from the earliest times of settlement. Many stories have been told by explorers and mountaineers. in their attempts to record first ascends and name peaks.

- Visitors have been attracted to the Hermitage Hotel from the early days.

evaluatioN

The Mount Cook National Park has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. It is considered outstanding due to its exceptional natural science, legibility, aesthetic, transient, tangata whenua, shared and recognised and historic landscape values.

The park forms a key part of Te Waipounamu - South Westland World Heritage Area, in recognition of its outstanding natural values. This landscape is protected through its National Park status and is managed by DOC.

Encompassing a total of 70,111 ha, it is an exceptional landscape of ice-tipped mountains, rocky outcrops, silty lakes and glaciers. It has the highest peaks and largest glaciers in New Zealand.

At 3,754 metres, Aoraki/Mt Cook is the country’s highest mountain which lies amidst the many, spectacular, snow capped peaks of the Southern Alps. The mountain was first climbed in 1894, and since then the region has been the main focus for climbing in New Zealand. It was the training ground for Sir Edmund Hillary and other famous mountaineers. The park is hugely popular for walking, hiking, mountaineering, climbing, and skiing.

The area is of great importance to tangata whenua. This has been recognised in the Ngai Tahu Settlement Act (1998) which has granted Aoraki/Mt Cook Topuni Status. Aoraki/Mt Cook is also known as Aoraki, from the Maori legend of Aoraki and his three brothers.


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Adjacent ONF/L

Mt Cook National Park ONF/L

Above: Aoraki/Mt Cook Village lies at the foot of the mountain and is the focus of

tourism activity, attracting large numbers of international visitors.

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Mt Cook National Park ONF/L

Aoraki/Mt Cook



Hall, Gammack and Two Thumb Range ONF/L

Lake Tekapo

Lake Pukaki

16. Hopkins and Dobson ValleyThis ONF/L is located within the Intermontane Basins and Ranges and High Rainfall Divide landscape types (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

The Hopkins and Dobson Valleys have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

This is a new (ONF/L) which was identified as ‘significant’ in the 1993 study.

The Ahuriri River boundary proposed in the 1993 study has been amended to include the Barrier Range and Hopkins and Dobson Valley east and north of the Ahuriri headwaters.



- Part of the Te Waipounamu-South Westland World Heritage Area.

- Significant wetland habitat in the valleys and delta above Lake Ohau.

- The Dobson and Hopkins Valleys, which are relatively unmodified, provide habitat of national significance, not well represented elsewhere in the country (large size, diverse microhabitats and water bird faunas, and contain viable populations of almost all species typical of the habitat type).

- The mountainous headwaters and tributaries of the Ahuriri and Hopkins Rivers have a high degree of naturalness.

- The slopes of these valleys and tributaries contain significant areas of largely unmodified mountain beech forest.

- Unlike many mid- and low- altitude rivers, these upper rivers are notable for their unmodified flow regimes and the lack of extensive invasion by introduced plants such as broom, gorse, and willow.

Legibility Values

- Both valleys are exceptional examples of long, alpine, braided river valleys.

Aesthetic Values

- The remote, wide, expansive and grand river valleys are spectacular landscapes. Views of the high snow-capped peaks contrast with the forested slopes and tussock-covered river valleys.

- The valleys display striking mountain landscape characteristics, such as clear rivers meandering through tussock and grass covered terraces and fans backed by steep, rugged, rocky slopes with forested gullies.

- This spectacular glacial landscape shows few signs of human activity, apart from small huts and occasional fencing on the valley floor.

Transient Values

- The proximity to the divide and the straight shape of the valleys allow for views to the distinctive cloud rolling over from the west during ‘norwest’ storms.


- Valued for hunting, fishing, four wheel driving, tramping and climbing opportunities. Closer to Lake Ohau the area is popular for sightseeing, skiing and a range of other activities.

evaluatioN

The Dobson and Hopkins Valleys and the tributaries to the west have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. This landscape is considered outstanding due to its very high natural science, aesthetic and high legibility, shared and recognised and moderate to high transient landscape values.

This landscape is a part of the Te Waipounamu-South Westland World Heritage Area which recognises the outstanding natural values of the area. This is a remote and wild landscape which has high natural values. The largely unmodified beech forest cover on the mountain slopes of the valleys and tributaries is of significant ecological value.



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Below:The Dobson and Hopkins Valleys and their mountain beech-clad slopes are

relatively unmodified and have a high degree of naturalness.

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Hopkins River

Dobson River



Lake Ohau

Lake Pukaki

Aoraki / Mt Cook ONF/L

17. Lindis and AhuririThis ONF/L is located within the Intermontane Basins and Ranges and High Rainfall Divide landscape types (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

The Ahuriri River Valley and Lindis Pass area has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

The eastern boundaries of this ONF/L remain unchanged from the 1993 study.

The ONF/L now joins up with new ONF/L areas including the Barrier Range to the east and tributaries of the Hopkins River to the north.



- The Ahuriri River is protected by a National Water Conservation Order (1990).

- River valleys and wetlands in this area provide outstanding habitat for many species.

- The mountainous headwaters of the Ahuriri River have a high degree of naturalness and are protected by the Ahuriri Conservation Park (DOC).

- Largely weed-free.

- Beech forest slopes adjacent to the Ahuriri River have high natural science value.

- The large area of tall tussock grassland in the Lindis Pass area is ecologically significant.

Legibility Values

- The extensive river terracing and braided river bed are highly legible features.

Aesthetic Values

- The Ahuriri River Valley is a dramatic and spectacular landscape.

- Has a special, wild character, an expansive and vast valley setting.

- The coherent appearance of the Lindis Pass slopes with their extensive tussock cover are symbolic of this memorable landscape.

Transient Values

- The braided Ahuriri River is a highly expressive and constantly evolving landscape feature.

- The movement of tussocks in the wind is one of the characteristic features of the Lindis.


- The Lindis Pass (SH8) important connection to the Otago region.

- The Lindis Pass area is an ‘iconic’ New Zealand landscape.

- Inspiration for many artists and authors alike.

Historic Values

- Part of Canterbury’s high country landscape with a rich history of pastoral farming.

evaluatioN

The Lindis Pass and Ahuriri River valley have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. These landscapes are considered outstanding due to their exceptional aesthetic and shared and recognised landscape values and high natural science, legibility and transient values.

The Lindis Pass area and parts of the Ahuriri Valley are amongst the best examples of accessible tussock landscapes in the region and are arguably the most recognised landscapes of their kind in the country. The combination of landform and landcover is exceptional.

The ‘outstanding wildlife habitat, outstanding fisheries, and angling features’ of the Ahuriri River are protected by a National Water Conservation Order (1990). The mountainous slopes of the Upper Ahuriri River Valley contain significant areas of beech forest and large parts of these landscapes are managed by DOC. The extensive river terracing and braided river bed found in the Ahuriri River valley are highly legible features.

The dramatic Lindis Pass Highway links the Mackenzie Basin with the Central Otago region. This pass has exceptional shared and recognised landscape values. This landscape has many important historic and cultural associations that are important elements of Canterbury’s high country.



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Above: The Lindis Pass (SH8) is an iconic tussock landscape.

Above: The extensive terracing of the Ahuriri River are highly legible.

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Lindis Pass

Ahuriri River

Mackenzie Basin ONF/LLake Ohau

Lake Pukaki

SH 73

Omarama


18. Hawkdun and St Marys Ranges/OteakeThis ONF/L is located within the Semi Arid Mountain Ranges landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions)

locatioN

Large parts of the semi-arid mountain ranges within the Oteake Conservation Park and surrounds (as shown on map) have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

This is a new ONF/L which was not identified as outstanding or significant in the 1993 study. However, within the Otago Region an area, including the eastern and southern slopes of the Hawkdun and Ida Ranges and the Kyeburn approach to Danseys Pass, was identified as an ONL (1998). The ONF/L within the Canterbury Region has a similar extent following the regional boundary along the mountain ranges and links with the Mackenzie Basin ONF/L to the north (refer ONF/L 14).



- The whole of the mountain tops remain relatively unmodified and provide an uninterrupted sequence in altitude.

- Plant community habitats include alpine fell fields, herb fields, tussock lands and shrub lands.

- In the Otago Regional Landscape Study (1998) two large and significant natural areas with high value examples of mountain land plant communities and habitats were identified in the Hawkdun and Ida Ranges. These areas cross over into the Canterbury Region.

Legibility Values

- The mountain ranges in this ONF/L clearly express the dynamic natural processes of erosion and mountain formation.

- There are several geopreservation sites located in this ONF/L including the Hawkdun Cirque; the Vulcan and Hawkdun Faults; Tunnel Hill and the Kohurau patterned ground. Their significance ranges from regionally to nationally important.

Aesthetic Values

- The Hawkdun Ranges, which form the boundary between Canterbury and Otago, are one of New Zealand’s iconic high country landscape features.

- Despite the landcover modifications induced by historic farming practices, the area maintains a high level of visual coherence.

- Parts of the mountain ranges in the ONF/L provide the backdrop to the Mackenzie Basin and Waitaki Valley. The openness and extensive views are characteristic of this landscape.

- The clarity and simplicity of form in these mountain ranges is impressive. The bold, smooth landforms overlaid with scree form uniform, distinctive ridges and summit plateaus.

- The rocky schist outcrops found near the Otago boundary are a distinctive feature of the semi-arid mountain ranges, which only occur in the southernmost part of Canterbury.

Transient Values

- The ranges within this ONF/L endure climatic extremes with hot summers and harsh winters.

- The views from these snow-covered peaks down to the basin and its distinctive turquoise coloured lakes are spectacular.

- Long shadows accentuate the ridgelines, rock outcrops and fine grassland textures especially in low evening and morning light.


- Danseys Pass and the Hawkdun ranges are important landscapes for tangata whenua.


- The area offers multiple opportunities for recreation, providing remote experiences. Recreational activities provided in the Oteake Conservation Park include tramping, hunting, mountain biking, backcountry skiing, 4WD touring and horse trekking.

Historic Values

- Strong heritage associated with pastoral farming.

- A long history of gold mining in the area around Guffies Creek and its catchments.

- The Mount Buster field is one of New Zealand’s highest gold workings. The remnant pinnacles and outcrops that were created by hydraulic sluicing create are unique and dramatic landscape features.

- Danseys Pass, named after a large run holder William Dansey, formed an important connection between the Maniototo Plains and the Waitaki Valley when the Kyeburn River dredging and gold diggings were in use. While the landscape tells a story of furious activity, the only substantial building remaining is the Danseys Pass Coach Inn built in 1862.

evaluatioN

The Hawkdun, Ida and St Marys Ranges (Oteake Conservation Park) have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. These ranges lie within the Waitaki District and form the southern boundary with the Otago Region. This part of the semi-arid mountain ranges is considered outstanding due to its very high aesthetic, historic and transient landscape values and high natural science, shared and recognised and legibility landscape values.

The Hawkdun, Ida and St Marys Ranges are remote, dry mountain ranges and plateaus, containing snow-capped peaks, rocky outcrops, extensive tussock lands and incised river valleys. This is a spectacular landscape of extremes, with searing summer heat and drought alongside bitter snowy winters. The area has strong historical associations with early gold mining enterprises and the establishment of high country pastoral farming, traces of which are still evident in the landscape today.


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Adjacent ONF/L

Hawdun and St Marys Ranges/Oteake ONF/L

Above: Expansive views across open, tussock covered slopes are impressive.

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Hawdun and St Marys Ranges/Oteake ONF/L

19. Kaikoura Peninsula and CoastThis ONF/L is located within the Low Altitude Plains and Coastal Limestone Hills landscape types (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions)

locatioN

The area identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L) includes four separate sections of the Kaikoura coastline: the Kaikoura Peninsula, the northern portion of the coast and inland hills (from the Hapuku River to Okiwi Bay) and a southern section (from Oaro to Kahutara River). The Clarence River Mouth has also been included.

The boundary of the southern coastal section from Oaro to Kahutara River remains unchanged from the 1993 study. The boundary of the northern section from the Hapuku River to Paparoa Point has been amended to include the coastal hills around Rakautara. This links the Inland and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges ONF/L and coastal ONF/Ls.

The Clarence River mouth was identified as ’significant’ in the 1993 study.

The coastal/marine area of the Kaikoura peninsula was included as an ONL in the 1993 study; this has been amended to include an additional portion of the outer peninsula (the Kaikoura District ONF/L boundary was adopted, which excludes the existing settlement).



- The rocky and rugged Kaikoura coast and peninsula support a wide array of wildlife and many notable seal colonies.

- The northern section of the Kaikoura coastal hills has many DOC-managed reserves with substantial areas of indigenous vegetation.

Legibility Values

- The rocky shore platforms of the peninsula are highly legible features.

Aesthetic Values

- The rugged coastline and the peninsula are highly visible from the State Highway and have significant aesthetic values.

- Rocky shelves, stony beaches and limestone cliffs are attractive features of these landscapes.

- The close proximity of high peaks, steep slopes and the coast, as found along the northern part of the Seaward Kaikoura Range, is unique in the region and the South Island’s East Coast. This mountain to sea linkage forms a highly attractive landscape when viewed from the coast and sea.

Transient Values

- Many seal colonies are found along the coast and peninsula. The abundance of wildlife present along the coast is a key feature.

- The landscapes of the mountains and the coast have high transient values. The snow-covered peaks of the mountains are visible within close proximity of Kaikoura and the main state highway.


- The Kaikoura coast and peninsula are important mahinga kai areas.

- The coastal area was used by Maori during their travels north and south.

- Legend has it that Maui used the peninsula as a foothold to brace himself when he fished the North Island out of the sea.

- Many archaeological sites are located along the coast.

- Long association with the peninsula and evidence of this, such as pa sites, can be seen in the landscape today.


- Important area for New Zealand domestic and international tourism.

- The entire coastal area is of high recreation and scenic value.

Historic Values

- The peninsula and coast have many significant archaeological sites associated with the historic whaling industry.

evaluatioN

The two sections of the Kaikoura Coast and Kaikoura Peninsula have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. These landscapes are outstanding due to their very high natural science, legibility, shared and recognised, transient, aesthetic, tangata whenua and historic landscape values.

The Kaikoura coastline, where the bush-clad and mountainous slopes meet a rocky shore, is dramatic. This visual connection between the coast and the mountains in close proximity is a unique characteristic of this landscape. State Highway One and the main railway line, which connect the Canterbury and Marlborough Regions, wrap around this coast and are major scenic routes. The coastal area is of very high importance for tangata whenua.

The Kaikoura Peninsula is a spectacular landform which protrudes sharply from the coast. This is a landscape with spectacular legible rock platforms, which supports an abundance of wildlife. The peninsula has high tourism value, many historic sites and is of great significance to tangata whenua.


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Kaikoura Coast and Peninsula ONF/L

Adjacent ONF/L

Below: The dramatic rocky platforms and cliffs of the Kaikoura Peninsula.

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Kaikoura Coast and Peninsula ONF/L

Adjacent ONF/L

Haumuri Bluffs

Kahutara River

Hapuku River


Okiwi Bay

20. Weka PassThis ONF/L is located within the Downlands and Foothills landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions)

locatioN

The area identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L) includes the limestone outcrops around Weka Pass.

The original 1993 boundary has been refined to follow a more accurate land tying and excludes some flat farmland areas around the fringe. The Waipara Gorge continues to lie within this ONF/L area and Pyramid Swamp has also been included.



- Important habitat for indigenous flora, in particular specialist limestone species.

- A number of internationally and regionally significant geopreservation sites.

Legibility Values

- Limestone outcrops are legible landscape features that are highly expressive of their formation.

Aesthetic Values

- The limestone outcrops have high aesthetic value.


- Concentration of Maori rock art sites and rock shelters.


- Impressive views of these limestone outcrops can be obtained from State Highway 7, which is a major transit route.

Historic Values

- Historic features include the Weka Pass Railway.

- Pyramid Swamp is a nationally important archaeological site where moa bones were first discovered in 1938.

evaluatioN

The Weka Pass area and its limestone outcrops have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. This area is considered outstanding due to its high aesthetic, tangata whenua and legibility values. The area also has moderate to high shared and recognised and historic landscape values.

The limestone outcrops of Weka Pass are highly legible landforms, which provide unique habitats for a range of flora. This landscape is of great importance to tangata whenua, and has a large number of Maori rock art sites. The limestone outcrops are highly visible due to their proximity to State Highway 7, and have been affectionately named over many generations. The area contains an array of important geopreservation sites and the historic Weka Pass railway passes through this landscape.

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Weka Pass ONF/L

Below: The limestone outcrops are impressive features which are visible from State Highway 7 near Waikari township.

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Weka Pass ONF/L

Waikari

Waipara Gorge

Weka

Pass

21. Motunau IslandThis ONF/L is located within the Low Altitude Plains Landscape Type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

The entire Motunau Island has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

This is a new ONF/L which was identified as ‘significant’ in the 1993 study.



- Internationally important breeding colony for seabirds, including the NZ white-faced storm petrel, little blue penguins and the endemic white-flippered penguin/korora.

- The island is free of introduced mammals.

- Three species of lizard including the regionally uncommon Leiolopsima lineocellatum are found on the island.

- Rocky shore platforms are used as a haul-out area for fur seals/kekeno.

- The island is a nature reserve (DOC).

- This is the only offshore island in the Canterbury Region.

Aesthetic Values

- Motunau Island has attractive sharp cliffs and a distinctive flat top.

Transient Values

- The richness of wildlife found on this island provides transient values, which can only be experienced in a few places in New Zealand.

Historic Values

- Archaeological site.

- Island was once a whaling station.

evaluatioN

Motunau Island has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. It is considered outstanding due to its exceptional natural science and very high transient values.

Motunau Island, with its distinctive flat top, lies 1.2 kilometres off the North Canterbury coast, south of NapeNape. It is the only major island located off the Canterbury Coast. This small island of eroding cliffs is an internationally significant breeding site for seabirds and an important habitat for many other species. Notably, it is an outstanding breeding colony for the white-flippered penguin/korora.

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Adjacent ONF/L

Motunau Island ONF/L

Below: Motunau Island is the only island off the Canterbury Coast and is home to

an array of wildlife.

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Adjacent ONF/L

Motunau Island ONF/L

Motunau Island

Weka Pass ONF/L

Motunau

22. Lower Waimakariri River and GorgeThis ONF/L is located within the Low Altitude Plains landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions)

locatioN

The Waimakariri River bed has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L) from the gorge to the coast.

The Waimakariri River is considered to be outstanding from its source to the sea. The upper reaches are discussed in the Waimakariri Basin ONF/L.

The original 1993 has been amended to include Brooklands Lagoon (Waimakariri River mouth).



- The river bed provides significant habitat for migratory fish species and indigenous birds.

- The Brooklands spit contains an important sequence of dune and interdune wetland communities.

- The lagoon provides a breeding habitat, wintering site and a feeding stop for many migrating bird species.

Legibility Values

- The major braided rivers of the Canterbury Plains are the best examples of their kind in New Zealand.

- The Waimakariri gorge is a highly legible landscape feature.

Aesthetic Values

- Sinuous braided patterning contrasts with the geometric patchwork of the plains.

- Visual/ physical connection from mountains to sea.

Transient Values

- The braided river systems are dynamic and constantly changing through flood events.


- The large braided rivers of Canterbury were part of a network of trails which linked the east and west coast of the South Island.

- The Waimakariri River and Brooklands Lagoon were important mahinga kai and resource gathering areas for tangata whenua.


- Braided rivers are important elements of the Canterbury landscape.

- The sinuous braided pattern of the rivers has been recognised as distinctive and has inspired both literature and art.

- The wider river and lagoon area provide for many recreational activities, including jet boating, kayaking, rafting, fishing, and hunting and informal recreation.

Historic Values

- Extensive history of settlement along its river banks.

- Establishing bridges across the Canterbury rivers, in particular the Waimakariri, and controlling the hazard from flooding were two of the key endeavours of early settlers.

evaluatioN

The Waimakariri River from the gorge to the coast, including Brooklands Lagoon, has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape that has high aesthetic, legibility, tangata whenua, shared and recognised and moderate to high transient and natural science values.

The sinuous braided pattern of the Waimakariri River bed, which traverses the patchwork of the plains landscape, is an iconic Canterbury image. This landscape is also of importance to tangata whenua. The Waimakariri River formed part of a network of trails used by tangata whenua on their journeys between the east and west coasts of the South Island and was an important mahinga kai and resource gathering area. The river is also valued for its recreational opportunities in proximity to Christchurch.

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Adjacent ONF/L

Lower Waimakariri River ONF/L

Above: The Lower Waimakariri River is an important and iconic element of the Canterbury Plains.

Above: The Waimakariri River and gorge is a highly legible landscape feature.

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Adjacent ONF/L

Lower Waimakariri River ONF/L

Brooklands Lagoon

Waimakariri

Basin ONF/L

Banks Peninsula ONF/L

Te Waihora/Lake Ellesmere and Kaitorete Spit ONF/L

Lower Rakaia River ONF/L

23. Banks Peninsula and Port HillsThis ONF/L is located within the Banks Peninsula landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

The entire Banks Peninsula and upper parts of the Christchurch Port Hills have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L). Lake Ellesmere and Kaitorete Spit have also been identified as an ONF/L.

The eastern boundary remains unchanged from the 1993 study.

In the 1993 study no detailed analysis of the landward boundary of this area was attempted (Port Hills). The 1993 study indicated that a ‘natural dominance’ zone may be a sensible basis for determining the extent of this outstanding landscape. As part of this review, the western boundary was amended to exclude the built-up area of the Port Hills. The remainder of the eastern boundary follows the base of the hills.



- Some of the best examples of volcanic features in the world are found on the peninsula.

- Small fragmented pockets of native vegetation remain.

- Large number of reserves managed by DOC, QEII Trust and the Banks Peninsula Conservation Trust.

- The peninsula supports a range of native invertebrates, lizards and bird communities.

- The coastline is of national significance for marine conservation.

Legibility Values

- Banks Peninsula and the Port Hills are highly expressive of their geological formation.

- Numerous volcanic features are found within this landscape.

- Several internationally important geopreservation sites are located on the peninsula.

- The crater rims of the two ancient volcanoes are highly legible.

Aesthetic Values

- Prominent ridges and rocky coastline are key features of high aesthetic value.

- Contrast between the rugged ‘wild’ coast and the cultural landscape of the bays and harbours.

- The Port Hills provide a significant backdrop to the Canterbury Plains.

Transient Values

- Higher parts of Banks Peninsula and the Port Hills are snow-covered in the winter months.

- Impressive views towards impending southerly storms.

- Presence of wildlife dependent on the changing seasons.


- Te Tai o Mahaanui (Banks Peninsula coastal area) is acknowledged in the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act.

- Tangata whenua have a long spiritual and physical association with the peninsula landscape.

- Ripapa Island in Lyttelton Harbour has Topuni status.

- Many settlements, including pa, were established on the peninsula.

- The Peninsula coast is an important mahinga kai area.


- Banks Peninsula and the Port Hills are highly valued landscapes by tourists and locals.

- Important recreational activities.

- Many paintings reflect the high aesthetic value of the peninsula.

Historic Values

- Landscape ‘steeped’ in history and is important for both Maori and Pakeha.

- Several settlements such as Akaroa and Little River have strong heritage values.

evaluatioN

The whole of Banks Peninsula including the Port Hills have been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. This landscape is considered outstanding due to its exceptional legibility, very high aesthetic and shared and recognised, tangata whenua and historic landscape values, high natural science and moderate to high transient values. It is acknowledged that landscape qualities vary across an area of this size.

The Peninsula is a spectacular landscape which is highly expressive of its geological formation. This area has an extensive history of occupation from an early date and traces of this remain evident in the landscape. There are several important reserves and significant biological and geopreservation sites which are spread throughout the Peninsula. This is a landscape of attractive and dramatic harbours, rocky cliffs and headlands.

The Port Hills provide a significant backdrop to the City of Christchurch when viewed from the Canterbury Plains. This rocky skyline is immensely important as a contrast to the city and its lowland surrounds. Both, the Port Hills and Peninsula landscapes are important recreation areas for Christchurch and the region.

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Adjacent ONF/L

Above: Prominent ridges, rocky coastline and cliffs are landscape features of high

aesthetic value.

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Adjacent ONF/L

Akaroa

Lyttleton


Te Waihora/Lake Ellesmere and Kaitorete Spit ONF/L

Little River

Christchurch

24. Lake Ellesmere/Te Waihora and Kaitorete SpitThis ONF/L is located within the Low Altitude Plains landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

The area identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L) includes Lake Ellesmere/Te Waihora, its shoreline and Kaitorete Spit.

The original 1993 boundary has been refined to include the lake shoreline and associated wetlands. The reviewed ONF/L excludes the farmland on the surrounding flats.



- National Water Conservation Order (1990) for Lake Ellesmere/ Te Waihora. This seeks to protect the outstanding wildlife habitats of the lake.

- Significant habitat for a range of indigenous flora and fauna.

- Many notable rare plants along the lake shore.

- Kaitorete Spit is the largest landform of its kind in New Zealand, with indigenous specialised plants along the shore.

Legibility values

- Geomorphologists consider Kaitorete Spit to be of national importance.

Transient values

- Seasonal changes are reflected by the changes in the wildlife that are present on the lake.

Tangata Whenua values

- Great significance to tangata whenua.

- Highly valued for mahinga kai.

evaluatioN

Lake Ellesmere/Te Waihora and Kaitorete Spit have been identified as Outstanding Natural Features and Landscapes. They are considered outstanding due to their exceptional natural science, tangata whenua, very high transient and high legibility landscape values.

The importance of Lake Ellesmere/Te Waihora is recognised by a National Water Conservation Order (1990) which seeks to ‘protect the lake’s outstanding wildlife habitats’. The lake, which is one of the last major wetlands left on the Canterbury Plains, is an important habitat for a range of indigenous fauna, and is home to many notable plants. The lake is of great importance to tangata whenua as a mahinga kai area.

Kaitorete Spit is considered to be outstanding due to its high legibility and natural science values. The spit is considered to be of national importance by geomorphologists, and is the largest landform of its kind in New Zealand. Its shoreline is an important habitat for an array of indigenous flora and fauna.

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Adjacent ONF/L

Lake Ellesmere/ Kaitorete Spit ONF/L

Below: Kaitorete Spit is the largest landform of its kind in New Zealand and is considered to be of national

importance by geomorphologists.

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Lake Ellesmere/ Kaitorete Spit ONF/L

Kaitorete Spit

Lake Ellesmere/Te Waihora



25. Lower Rakaia River and GorgeThis ONF/L is located within the Low Altitude Plains landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

The Rakaia River bed from the gorge to the coast has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

The Rakaia River has been identified as Outstanding from source to sea. The upper reach is included in the Upper Rakaia Valley ONF/L.

The original 1993 boundary for the Lower Rakaia River and Gorge ONF/L has been amended to follow the edge of the lower river terraces more accurately.



- National Water Conservation Order (1988). This seeks to protect the outstanding wildlife habitats of the river.

- The Rakaia River provides significant habitat for many fish species and indigenous braided river birds.

Legibility Values

- The major braided rivers of the Canterbury Plains are the best examples of their kind in New Zealand.

- The Rakaia gorge and adjacent river terraces are highly legible landscape features.

Aesthetic Values

- Sinuous braided patterning set against the patchwork of the plains.

- Views through to the Southern Alps behind.

Transient Values

- The braided river systems are dynamic and are constantly changing in flood events.


- The large braided rivers of the plains were a part of a network of trails which linked the east and west coast of the South Island.

- The Rakaia River is an important mahinga kai and resource gathering area for tangata whenua.


- Braided rivers are an important element of the Canterbury landscape.

- The sinuous braided pattern of the rivers has been recognised as distinctive and has inspired both literature and art.

- The river provides for many recreational activities, including jet boating, kayaking, rafting, fishing and hunting.

Historic Values

- Extensive history of rural settlement along its river banks.

- For generations the Rakaia River has been an important water resource in the region, in particular for irrigation.

evaluatioN

The Rakaia River from the gorge to the coast has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. It is considered outstanding due to its high natural science, legibility, shared and recognised and aesthetic landscape values. This landscape is also of great importance to tangata whenua.

The Rakaia River is protected by a National Water Conservation Order (1988) which seeks to ‘protect the river’s outstanding natural characteristics, outstanding wildlife habitat, fisheries, and recreational, angling, and jet boating features’.

As with the Waimakariri River, the sinuous braided pattern of the Rakaia River bed contrasts with the modified plains landscapes, which is one of the characteristic Canterbury images, in particular when seen from the air. The Rakaia River was a part of a network of trails used by tangata whenua on their journeys between the east and west coasts of the South Island and was an important mahinga kai and resource gathering area.

The Rakaia Gorge is an impressive landscape with its highly legible sequence of grassed terrace flats. The gorge is a popular destination for tourists and is highly valued for its recreational opportunities.

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Adjacent ONF/L

Lower Rakaia River and gorge ONF/L

Left: The gorge and adjacent terraces are highly legible landscape features.

Middle: The Rakaia River winds its way across the plains to meet the coast near Ashburton.

Right: The braided patterning of the river contrasts with the geometric patterning of the plains landscape.

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Lower Rakaia River and gorge ONF/L

Rakaia Gorge


Lower Waimakariri

River ONF/L

26. Wainono LagoonThis ONF/L is located within the Low Altitude Plains landscape type (see Section C for landscape character and value descriptions).

locatioN

The Wainono Lagoon and shoreline has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape (ONF/L).

This is a new ONF/L which was identified as ‘significant’ in the 1993 study (same boundary outline).



- Significant habitat for many important wildlife species, including waterfowl, migratory birds, coastal birds and native fish.

- Supports many threatened bird species including the wrybill/ngutupare, royal spoonbill and white heron/kotuku.

- International importance under the RAMSAR Wetland Convention.


- Important mahinga kai area for tangata whenua.

evaluatioN

The Wainono Lagoon has been identified as an Outstanding Natural Feature and Landscape. This landscape is considered outstanding due to its exceptional natural science, very high transient and high tangata whenua landscape values.

The Wainono Lagoon has been recognised as an internationally important wetland under the RAMSAR wetland convention. It is the second largest wetland on the Canterbury Plains. The lagoon is a very important wildlife habitat for waterfowl, native fish and many threatened bird species. Wainono Lagoon is also valued by tangata whenua for mahinga kai.

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Wainono Lagoon ONF/L

Below: The lagoon provides internationally recognised habitat for a range of waterfowl.

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Wainono Lagoon ONF/L

Wainono Lagoon

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reFereNcesAshdown, M, Lucas, D. 1987. Tussock grasslands landscape values and vulnerability. New Zealand Environment Council.

Barton, B. 2005. Outstanding landscapes. New Zealand Law Society intensive: environmental issues: insight and inspiration

Barton, B. 2006. Outstanding Landscapes. Resource Management: theory & practice. p.84-156

Bennett, E and Lucas, D 1992. Upper Waimakariri Basin Landscape Guideline’s. Malvern District.

Bishop, N. 2000. From the Mountains to the Sea: the secret life of New Zealands Rivers and Wetlands. Reed Publishing, Auckland.

Boffa Miskell 2000. Kaikoura District Landscape Study. Kaikoura District Council.

Boffa Miskell 2007. Banks Peninsula Landscape Study. Christchurch City Council.

Boffa Miskell 1998. Investigations into Otago’s Natural Character, Landscape and Significant Natural Areas. Otago Regional Council.

Boffa Miskell Limited & Lucas Associates; October 1993. Canterbury Regional Landscape Study Volume 1.

Boffa Miskell Limited & Lucas Associates; October 1993. Canterbury Regional Landscape Study Volume 2.

Boffa Miskell Limited; Goodwin, John; de Lambert, Rachel; Dawson, Sarah; McMahon, Shona; Rackham, Allan; July 2000. Ministry for the Environment – The impact of rural subdivision and development on landscape values

Boffa Miskell Partners Limited 1992. Waimakariri District Landscape Study. Waimakariri District Council.

Boffa Miskell 1993. Ashburton Lakes Landscape Assessment. Ashburton District Council.

Burrows, C. 1977. Cass: History and Science in the Cass District, Canterbury. Department of Botany, University of Canterbury.

David Given & Associates 1999. Lees Valley Vegetation Survey. Waimakariri District Council.

Densem, Graham 2007. The Mackenzie Basin Landscape: Character and Capabilities. Mackenzie District Council.

Densem, Graham 2006. Eastern Mackenzie Landscape Study. Mackenzie District Council.

Densem, Graham 2001. Selwyn District Plan Review. Malvern Hills Section: Landscape Recommendations. Selwyn District Council.

Densem, Graham 2001. Selwyn District Plan Review. High Country Section: Landscape Recommendations. Selwyn District Council.

Densem, Graham 2004. Waitaki Landscape Study. Waitaki District Council.

DOC 2007. History of high-country pastoralism: south island up to 1948. Wellington.

DOC (year unknown) Native Plant Communities of the Canterbury Plains.

DOC 2004. Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park Management Plan. Christchurch.

Federated Farmers (year unknown). Sprit of the High Country: the search for wise land use. South Island High Country Division of Federated Farmers.

Hayward, J. 1967. The Waimakariri Catchment. Lincoln College Press.

Hayward, B.W; Kenny, J.A, Johnston, M.R 1999. Inventory and Maps of Important Geological Sites and Landforms in the Nelson and Marlborough Regions, including Kaikoura District. Geological Society of New Zealand Miscellaneous Publication 104.

Hayward, B.W; Kenny, J.A, Johnston, M.R 1998. Inventory and Maps of Important Geological Sites and Landforms in the Canterbury Region, including the Chatham Islands. Geological Society of New Zealand Miscellaneous Publication 98.

Lucas, D 1981. Landscape Guidelines for Rural South Canterbury.

Lucas Associates 1995. Landscapes of the Hurunui District. Hurunui District Council.

Lynn, I.H 1993. Land Types of the Canterbury Region. Landcare Research New Zealand, Lucas Associates.

Molloy, L. and Smith, R. 2002. Landforms: The Shaping of New Zealand. Craig Potton Publishing.

Neville, P and Patrick, B. 1999. Wild Central: Discovering the natural history of Central Otago. University of Otago Press.

Neville, P and Patrick, B. 1999. Wild Rivers: Discovering the Natural History of the Central South Island. University of Otago Press.

Peart, R 2005. Landscape Planning Guide, For Peri-urban and Rural Areas. Environmental Defence Society.

Peart, R 2004. A Place to Stand; The protection of New Zealand’s natural and cultural landscapes. Environmental Defence Society.

Peart, R 2005. The Community Guide to coastal development under the Resource Management Act. Environmental Defence Society.

Peart, R 2005. The Community Guide for Landscape Protection under the Resource Management Act. Environmental Defence Society.

Ryan, PM; 1989. The Revised Dictionary of Modern Maori.

Relph, D. 2007. From Tussocks to Tourists: the story of the central Canterbury high country. Christchurch, Canterbury University Press.

Ratternbury, M; Townsend, D; Johnston, M. 2006. Geology of the Kaikoura area. GNS Science, Lower Hutt.

Soons, J.M.; Selby, M.I. 1992: Landforms of New Zealand, Second Edition.Longman Paul Ltd.

The Landscape Institute with the Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment; 2002. Guidelines for Landscape and Visual ImpactAssessment, Second Edition.

Winterbourn, M; Knox, G; Burrows, C and Marsden, I. 2008. The Natural History of Canterbury. Canterbury University Press.

Whitten, D, Brooks, J. 1972. The Penguin Dictionary of Geology. Penguin Books, Middlesex, England.

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Relevant DOC documents and brochures. Sourced from www.doc.govt.nz

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appeNdix oNe: QuicK reFereNce oNF/l table Number oNF/l Name district landscape type

1 Inland and Seaward Kaikouras Kaikoura Kaikoura

Downlands and Foothills

2 Molesworth Hurunui Intermontane Basins and Ranges

3 Lake Sumner Area and Lewis Pass Hurunui and Selwyn Intermontane Basins and Ranges

4 Arthur’s Pass National Park Selwyn High Rainfall Divide

5 Waimakariri Basin Selwyn Intermontane Basins and Ranges

6 Castle Hill/Kura Tawhiti Selwyn High Country Limestone

7 Torlesse Range Selwyn Front Range

8 Upper Rakaia Valley Selwyn and Ashburton Intermontane Basins and Ranges

9 Upper Rangitata Valley Ashburton and Timaru Intermontane Basins and Ranges

10 Lake Heron and Ashburton Lakes Ashburton Intermontane Basins and Ranges

11 Mt Somers Ashburton Front Range

12 Mt Peel and Four Peaks Range Timaru and MackenzieDownlands and Foothills

Front Range

13 Two Thumb, Hall and Gammack Ranges Timaru and Mackenzie

Intermontane Basins and Ranges


Front Range

14 Mackenzie Basin Mackenzie, Waitaki and WaimateIntermontane Basins and Ranges

Semi Arid Mountain Ranges

15 Aoraki/Mt Cook National Park Mackenzie High Rainfall Divide

16 Hopkins and Dobson Valleys Mackenzie and WaitakiIntermontane Basins and Ranges


17 Lindis and Ahuriri WaitakiIntermontane Basins and Ranges


18 Hawkdun and St Marys Ranges/Oteake Waitaki Semi Arid Mountain Ranges

19 Kaikoura Peninsula and Coast Kaikoura Low Altitude Plains

Coastal Limestone Hills

20 Weka Pass Hurunui Downlands and Foothills

21 Motunau Island Hurunui Low Altitude Plains

22 Lower Waimakariri River and GorgeSelwyn, Christchurch City and Waimakriri

Low Altitude Plains

23 Banks Peninsula and Port Hills Christchurch City Banks Peninsula

24 Lake Ellesmere/Te Waihora and Kaitorete Spit Christchurch City and Selwyn Low Altitude Plains

25 Lower Rakaia River and Gorge Selwyn and Ashburton Low Altitude Plains

26 Wainono Lagoon Waimate Low Altitude Plains

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appeNdix tWo: 1993 regioNally sigNiFicaNt laNdscapes reproduced from canterbury regional landscape study (1993)

volume 1, p. 68-72

regional significance

The Regional Council’s responsibilities are not restricted to outstanding natural features and landscapes. The Council, under S.30(l)(a) and (b), has the following functions:

“The preparation of objectives and policies in relation to any actual or potential effects of the use, development, or protection of land which are of regional significance”.

Policy documents produced by different regions have used a wide range of factors to justify the status of regional significance. The study team consider the criteria for assessing regional significance are less onerous than those for assessing whether something or somewhere is outstanding. The presence of ‘outstanding natural features and landscapes’ identified in this study is clearly a matter of regional significance. However, we consider that there are many natural features and landscapes that are of regional significance without meeting the exacting standards required for ‘outstanding’ status. Similarly there may be regionally significant effects that do not adversely affect outstanding natural features and landscapes.

Natural Features and landscapes of regional significance

a low altitude plains landscape

- The Clarence River mouth

- The whole of the Kaikoura Peninsula

- Motunau to Conway Coastal Plain

- Saltwater Creek and Ashley Estuary

- Brooklands Lagoon, Waimakariri

- Travis Swamp, Christchurch

- The Christchurch Greenbelt

- The Avon Heathcote Estuary

-’ Riccarton Bush, Christchurch

- McLeans Island Woodlands and Grasslands

- Burnt Hill, Oxford

- Racecourse Hill, Darfield

- Staveley Beech Forest, near Mt Somers

- Rangitata River and Gorge

- Woodbury Totara Forest

- Arowhenua Bush, Temuka

- Wainono Lagoon, near Waimate

- Hakataramea (approach to the Pass)

- Waitaki River

- Maerewhenua River Valley, Waitaki

Because of the highly modified nature of these landscapes the presence of certain generic features are also considered regionally significant. They include:

- rivers

- springs

- wetlands

- river terraces

- coastal cliffs

- dunes

- inland sandhills

- tussock and flax lands

- shrubland and forest

- prehistoric sites

b banks peninsula and port hills landscapes

The entire area is treated as outstanding.

c downland and Foothill landscapes

- Clarence ox-bow

- Kaikoura Lakes

- Peketa Hill (Puketa) Kaikoura Coast

- Mount Oxford to Mt Grey Range

- Ashley River and Gorge

- Approach to Porters Pass

- Russell Range, Springfield

- Whitecliffs (mid Canterbury)

- Rangitata Gorge and road corridor

- Orari Gorge

- Waihi Gorge

- Talbot Forest and downs, woodlands, Geraldine

- Kakahu Hills and Rocky Ridges

- Limestone Valley, between Cave and Taiko

- Hunters Range, including river gorges and Waihao catchment vegetation

- Elephant Hills

- Maerewhenua - Ngapara area

- Approach towards Danseys Pass

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regionally significant generic natural features and landscapes include:

- limestone scarps, outcrops and sinkholes

- tussock and wetlands

- forest and shrubland

- flax and cabbage trees

- prehistoric sites

- skylines

d coastal limestone hill landscapes

- gravel bluffs in headwaters of streams between Clarence River and Washdyke Stream

- headwaters of Wharekiri, Miller and George Streams (botanical), Kaikoura Coast

Also the following natural features:

- debris flows and erosion scars (earth science)

- distinctive limestone landforms and vegetation

e high country limestone hill landscapes

Generic features of regional significance include:

- limestone outcrops

- caves

- prehistoric sites/ rock drawings

- springs

- remnant vegetation

F Front range landscapes

- remainder of Puketeraki Range

- Lees Valley

- Mount Hutt Range

- Mount Somers Range

- Clent Hills

- Ashburton Gorge

- Taylor Range

- Four Peaks Range


- Native forest down to lower slopes and plains

g semi-arid Mountain range landscapes

- hydro lakes and their settings - Benmore, Aviemore and Waitaki

- Rollesby and Dalgety Ranges

- Burkes, Hakataramea and Mackenzie Passes and their approaches


- remnant tussock grassland and shrubland

- the open landscape character

i intermontane range and basin landscapes

J high rainfall divide landscapes

K Kaikoura Mountain landscapes

Extensive parts of these three landscapes are outstanding. Areas that have not been assessed as such are of regional significance, particularly around high country lakes and rivers, unless extensive modification has occurred eg. around Twizel.

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Appendix three: LAndscApe ModeLs (LUcAs AssociAtes And iAn Lynn)

173

Landscape Types of Kaikoura

174

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2 Low Altitude Plains Low Altitude Plains Landscapes (L1–7, 24)

1 Banks Peninsula Banks Peninsula Landscapes (L8-10)

L3 L4

L21

L2 L1

L21

H14

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3 Downlands & Foothills Hard Rock Foothill and Downland Landscapes (L17,L20-23)

Soft Rock Foothill and Downland Landscapes (L11-16)

L12/L15

L11/L14

L13/L16

L21/L22

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4 Coastal Limestone Hills Coastal Limestone Hill Landscapes (L18-L19)

5 High Country Limestone Hills High Country Limestone Hill Landscapes (H6)

L18

L19

H14

H6

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7 Semi Arid Mountain Ranges Semi Arid Range Landscapes (H17+18)

6 Front Ranges Front Range Landscapes (H10)

H10

H17

H18

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9 High Rainfall Divide High Rainfall Divide Landscapes (H19+20)

8 Intermontane Ranges & Basin Intermontane Range & Basin Landscapes (H13-15, H1-7)

H13-15

H2

H7

H7

H3

H4

H13-15

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10 Kaikoura Mountains Kaikoura Mountain Landscapes (H8)

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Canterbury Land Types

181

Everything is connectedPromoting quality of life through balanced resource management

www.ecan.govt.nz

Environment Canterbury offices

Christchurch 58 Kilmore StreetPO Box 345Christchurch 8013

P: 03 365 3828F: 03 365 3194

Timaru75 Church StreetPO Box 550Timaru 7940

P: 03 687 7800F: 03 687 7808

R10/58ISBN: 978-1-877574-43-6 (hard copy) 978-1-877574-44-3 (electronic copy)

Documents

Canterbury regional landscape study review 2010