Cannabis (drug)

“Marijuana” redirects here. For other uses, seeMarijuana(disambiguation).

Cannabis, also known as marijuana[7] and by numer-ous other names,a[›] is a preparation of the Cannabisplant intended for use as a psychoactive drug ormedicine.[8][9] The main psychoactive part of cannabisis tetrahydrocannabinol (THC); it is one of 483 knowncompounds in the plant,[10] including at least 84 othercannabinoids, such as cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol(CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV).[11][12]

Cannabis is often consumed for mental and physical ef-fects, such as heightened mood, relaxation,[13] and anincrease in appetite.[14] Possible side-effects include adecrease in short-term memory, dry mouth, impairedmotor skills, red eyes,[13] and feelings of paranoia oranxiety.[15] Onset of effects is within minutes whensmoked and about 30 minutes when eaten.[16] They lastfor between two and six hours.[16]

Cannabis is mostly used recreationally or as a medicinaldrug. It may also be used as part of religious or spiritualrites. In 2013 between 128 and 232 million people usedcannabis (2.7% to 4.9% of the global population betweenthe ages of 15 and 65).[17] In 2015 about half of peoplefrom the United States have tried marijuana, 12% haveused it in the past year and 7.3% have used it in the pastmonth.[18] Usage has increased since 2013.[19]

The earliest recorded uses date from the 3rd millen-nium BC.[20] Since the early 20th century cannabis hasbeen subject to legal restrictions with the possession, use,and sale of cannabis preparations containing psychoac-tive cannabinoids currently illegal in most countries ofthe world; the United Nations deems it the most-used il-licit drug in the world.[21][22] Medical marijuana refers tothe physician recommended use of cannabis which is tak-ing place in Canada, Belgium, Australia, the Netherlands,Spain, and 23 U.S. states.[23] Cannabis use as well as sup-port for legalization has been increasing in the UnitedStates in recent years.[24]

1 Uses

1.1 Medical

Main article: Medical cannabis

Bodily effects of

CannabisEyes: - Reddening - Decreased intra-ocular pressure

Mouth: - Dryness

Heart: - Increased heart rate

Skin: - Sensation of heat or cold

Muscles: - Relaxation

Main short-term physical effects of cannabis

Cannabis is used to reduce nausea and vomiting dur-ing chemotherapy, to improve appetite in people withHIV/AIDS, to treat chronic pain, and help with musclespasms.[25][26] Its use for other medical applications is in-sufficient for conclusions about safety or efficacy. Short-term use increases minor adverse effects, but does notappear to increase major adverse effects.[27] Long-termeffects of cannabis are not clear,[27][28] and there are con-cerns including memory and cognition problems, risk foraddiction, risk of schizophrenia among young people, andthe risk of children taking it by accident.[25]

The medicinal value of cannabis is disputed. TheAmerican Society of AddictionMedicine dismisses med-ical use because of concerns about dependence and ad-verse health effects.[29] The US Food and Drug Adminis-tration (FDA) states that cannabis is associated with nu-merous harmful health effects, and that significant as-pects such as content, production, and supply are unregu-lated. The FDA approves of the prescription of two prod-ucts (not for smoking) that have pure THC in a small con-trolled dose as the active substance.[30]

1

2 2 ADVERSE EFFECTS

1.2 Recreational

Main article: Effects of cannabis

Cannabis has psychoactive and physiological effectswhen consumed.[31] The immediate desired effects fromconsuming cannabis include relaxation and mild eupho-ria (the “high” or “stoned” feeling), while some imme-diate undesired side-effects include a decrease in short-term memory, dry mouth, impaired motor skills and red-dening of the eyes.[32] Aside from a subjective changein perception and mood, the most common short-termphysical and neurological effects include increased heartrate, increased appetite and consumption of food, low-ered blood pressure, impairment of short-term and work-ing memory,[33][34] psychomotor coordination, and con-centration.

1.3 Spiritual

Main article: Entheogenic use of cannabis

Cannabis has held sacred status in several religions.

1.4 Available forms

Main article: Cannabis consumptionCannabis is consumed in many different ways:[35]

A joint prior to rolling, with a paper handmade filter on the left

• smoking, which typically involves inhaling vapor-ized cannabinoids (“smoke”) from small pipes,bongs (portable versions of hookahs with waterchamber), paper-wrapped joints or tobacco-leaf-wrapped blunts, roach clips, and other items.[36]

• vaporizer, which heats any form of cannabis to 165–190 °C (329–374 °F),[37] causing the active ingre-dients to evaporate into a vapor without burning theplant material (the boiling point of THC is 157 °C(315 °F) at 760 mmHg pressure).[38]

• cannabis tea, which contains relatively small concen-trations of THC because THC is an oil (lipophilic)and is only slightly water-soluble (with a solubilityof 2.8 mg per liter).[39] Cannabis tea is made byfirst adding a saturated fat to hot water (e.g. creamor any milk except skim) with a small amount ofcannabis.[40]

• edibles, where cannabis is added as an ingredient toone of a variety of foods.

2 Adverse effects

Main article: Long-term effects of cannabisFurther information: Cannabis in pregnancyAccording to theUnited States Department of Health and

3

2

1

00 1 2 3

Dependence

Physical Harm

Heroin

Cocaine

Barbiturates

Street methadone

Alcohol

Ketamine

Benzodiazepines

Amphetamine

Tobacco

BuprenorphineCannabis

Solvents

4-MTALSDMethylphenidate

Anabolic steroids

GHBEcstasy

Alkyl nitrites

Khat

Cannabis is ranked as one of recreational drugs with a loweramount of harm.[41]

Human Services, there were 455,000 emergency roomvisits associated with cannabis use in 2011. These statis-tics include visits in which the patient was treated for acondition induced by or related to recent cannabis use.The drug use must be “implicated” in the emergency de-partment visit, but does not need to be the direct causeof the visit. Most of the illicit drug emergency room vis-its involved multiple drugs.[42] In 129,000 cases, cannabiswas the only implicated drug.[43][44]

A 2013 literature review said that heavy, long term ex-posure to marijuana may have biologically-based phys-ical, mental, behavioral and social health consequencesand may be “associated with diseases of the liver (par-ticularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, andvasculature”.[45] It is recommended that cannabis use bestopped before and during pregnancy.[46]

2.5 Neurological 3

2.1 Toxicity

THC, the principal psychoactive constituent of thecannabis plant, has low toxicity, the dose of THC neededto kill 50% of tested rodents is extremely high. Acuteeffects may include anxiety and panic, impaired at-tention, and memory (while intoxicated), an increasedrisk of psychotic symptoms, and possibly and increasedrisk of accidents if a person drives a motor vehi-cle while intoxicated.[47] Psychotic episodes are well-documented and typically resolve within minutes orhours. There have been few reports of symptoms last-ing longer.[48][49] Cannabis has not been reported to causefatal overdose.[50] Studies have shown that cannabis usecauses impairments in memory that persist beyond short-term intoxication.[51]

2.2 Lungs

There has been a limited amount of studies that havelooked at the effects of smoking cannabis on the respi-ratory system.[52] Chronic heavy marijuana smoking isassociated with coughing, production of sputum, wheez-ing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis.[47] Reg-ular cannabis use has not been shown to cause signifi-cant abnormalities in lung function.[53] Short-term use ofcannabis is associated with bronchodilation.[54]

2.3 Cancer

Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inor-ganic chemical compounds. This tar is chemically similarto that found in tobacco smoke,[55] and over fifty knowncarcinogens have been identified in cannabis smoke,[56]including; nitrosamines, reactive aldehydes, and polycylichydrocarbons, including benz[a]pyrene.[57] As of 2015,there is no consensus regarding whether cannabis smok-ing is associated with an increased risk of cancer.[58]Light and moderate use of cannabis is not believed to in-crease risk of lung or upper airway cancer. Evidence forcausing these cancers is mixed concerning heavy, long-term use. In general there are far lower risks of pul-monary complications for regular cannabis smokers whencompared with those of tobacco.[53] Combustion prod-ucts are not present when using a vaporizer, consumingTHC in pill form, or consuming cannabis foods.

2.4 Cardiovascular

There is serious suspicion among cardiologists, spurringresearch but falling short of definitive proof, that cannabisuse has the potential to contribute to cardiovasculardisease.[59] Cannabis is believed to be an aggravating fac-tor in rare cases of arteritis, a serious condition that insome cases leads to amputation. Because 97% of case-reports also smoked tobacco, a formal association with

cannabis could not bemade. If cannabis arteritis turns outto be a distinct clinical entity, it might be the consequenceof vasoconstrictor activity observed from delta-8-THCand delta-9-THC.[60] Other serious cardiovascular eventsincluding myocardial infarction, stroke, sudden cardiacdeath, and cardiomyopathy have been reported to be tem-porally associated with cannabis use. Research in theseevents is complicated because cannabis is often used inconjunction with tobacco, and drugs such as alcohol andcocaine.[61] These putative effects can be taken in contextof a wide range of cardiovascular phenomena regulatedby the endocannabinoid system and an overall role ofcannabis in causing decreased peripheral resistance andincreased cardiac output, which potentially could pose athreat to those with cardiovascular disease.[62]

2.5 Neurological

A 2013 review comparing different structural and func-tional imaging studies showed morphological brain alter-ations in long-term cannabis users which were found topossibly correlate to cannabis exposure.[63] A 2010 re-view found resting blood flow to be lower globally andin prefrontal areas of the brain in cannabis users, whencompared to non-users. It was also shown that giv-ing THC or cannabis correlated with increased blood-flow in these areas, and facilitated activation of theanterior cingulate cortex and frontal cortex when par-ticipants were presented with assignments demandinguse of cognitive capacity.[64] Both reviews noted thatsome of the studies that they examined had method-ological limitations, for example small sample sizes ornot distinguishing adequately between cannabis and al-cohol consumption.[63][64] A 2011 review found thatcannabis use impaired cognitive functions on several lev-els, ranging from basic coordination to executive functiontasks.[65] A 2013 review found that cannabis users consis-tently had smaller hippocampi than nonusers, but notedlimitations in the studies analyzed such as small samplesizes and heterogeneity across studies.[66]

2.6 Suicide

It is not clear whether cannabis use affects the rate ofsuicide.[50]

2.7 Chronic use

Effects of chronic use may include bronchitis, a cannabisdependence syndrome, and subtle impairments of atten-tion and memory. These deficits persist while chroni-cally intoxicated.[47] There is little evidence that cognitiveimpairments persist in adult abstinent cannabis users.[67]Compared to non-smokers, people who smoked cannabisregularly in adolescence exhibit reduced connectivity in

4 4 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

specific brain regions associated with memory, learn-ing, alertness, and executive function.[44] A study hassuggested that sustained heavy, daily, adolescent onsetcannabis use over decades is associated with a decline inIQ by age 38. No effects were found in those who initi-ated cannabis use later, or in those who ceased use earlierin adulthood.[68]

2.8 Tolerance and withdrawal

Main article: Cannabis dependence

Cannabis usually causes no tolerance or withdrawalsymptoms except in heavy users. In a survey of heavyusers 42.4% experienced withdrawal symptoms whenthey tried to quit marijuana such as craving, irritability,boredom, anxiety and sleep disturbances.[69] About 9%of those who experiment with marijuana eventually be-come dependent. The rate goes up to 1 in 6 among thosewho begin use as adolescents, and one quarter to one-halfof those who use it daily according to a NIDA review.[44]A 2013 review estimates daily use is associated with a 10-20% rate of dependence.[25] The highest risk of cannabisdependence is found in those with a history of poor aca-demic achievement, deviant behavior in childhood andadolescence, rebelliousness, poor parental relationships,or a parental history of drug and alcohol problems.[70]

3 Pharmacology

3.1 Mechanism of action

See also: Effects of cannabis § Biochemical mechanismsin the brain

The high lipid-solubility of cannabinoids results in theirpersisting in the body for long periods of time.[71] Evenafter a single administration of THC, detectable levels ofTHC can be found in the body for weeks or longer (de-pending on the amount administered and the sensitivityof the assessment method).[71] A number of investigatorshave suggested that this is an important factor in mari-juana’s effects, perhaps because cannabinoids may accu-mulate in the body, particularly in the lipid membranesof neurons.[72]

Not until the end of the 20th century was the specificmechanism of action of THC at the neuronal level stud-ied. Researchers have subsequently confirmed that THCexerts its most prominent effects via its actions on twotypes of cannabinoid receptors, the CB1 receptor andthe CB2 receptor, both of which are G-protein coupledreceptors.[73] The CB1 receptor is found primarily in thebrain as well as in some peripheral tissues, and the CB2receptor is found primarily in peripheral tissues, but is

also expressed in neuroglial cells.[74] THC appears to al-ter mood and cognition through its agonist actions onthe CB1 receptors, which inhibit a secondary messengersystem (adenylate cyclase) in a dose dependent manner.These actions can be blocked by the selective CB1 re-ceptor antagonist SR141716A (rimonabant), which hasbeen shown in clinical trials to be an effective treatmentfor smoking cessation, weight loss, and as a means of con-trolling or reducing metabolic syndrome risk factors.[75]However, due to the dysphoric effect of CB1 antagonists,this drug is often discontinued due to these side effects.[76]

Via CB1 activation, THC indirectly increases dopaminerelease and produces psychotropic effects. Cannabidiolalso acts as an allosteric modulator of the mu and deltaopioid receptors.[77] THC also potentiates the effects ofthe glycine receptors.[78] The role of these interactions inthe “marijuana high” remains elusive.

4 Physical and chemical properties

4.1 Detection in body fluids

Main article: Cannabis drug testing

THC and its major (inactive) metabolite, THC-COOH,can be measured in blood, urine, hair, oral fluid or sweatusing chromatographic techniques as part of a drug usetesting program or a forensic investigation of a traffic orother criminal offense.[79] The concentrations obtainedfrom such analyses can often be helpful in distinguishingactive use from passive exposure, elapsed time since use,and extent or duration of use. These tests cannot, how-ever, distinguish authorized cannabis smoking for medi-cal purposes from unauthorized recreational smoking.[80]Commercial cannabinoid immunoassays, often employedas the initial screening method when testing physiologi-cal specimens for marijuana presence, have different de-grees of cross-reactivity with THC and its metabolites.[81]Urine contains predominantly THC-COOH, while hair,oral fluid and sweat contain primarily THC.[79] Bloodmaycontain both substances, with the relative amounts depen-dent on the recency and extent of usage.[79]

The Duquenois-Levine test is commonly used as ascreening test in the field, but it cannot definitively con-firm the presence of cannabis, as a large range of sub-stances have been shown to give false positives. Despitethis, it is common in the United States for prosecutorsto seek plea bargains on the basis of positive D-L tests,claiming them definitive, or even to seek conviction with-out the use of gas chromatography confirmation, whichcan only be done in the lab.[82] In 2011, researchers atJohn Jay College of Criminal Justice reported that di-etary zinc supplements can mask the presence of THCand other drugs in urine.[83] However, a 2013 study con-ducted by researchers at the University of Utah School of

5

Medicine refute the possibility of self-administered zincproducing false-negative urine drug tests.[84]

5 Varieties and strains

Types of cannabis

CBD is a 5-HT₁A receptor agonist, which may also con-tribute to an anxiolytic effect.[85] This likely means thehigh concentrations of CBD found in Cannabis indicamitigate the anxiogenic effect of THC significantly.[85]The effects of sativa are well known for their cerebralhigh, hence its daytime use as medical cannabis, whileindica is well known for its sedative effects and preferrednight time use as medical cannabis.[85]

5.1 Psychoactive ingredients

According to the United Nations Office on Drugs andCrime (UNODC), “the amount of THC present in acannabis sample is generally used as a measure ofcannabis potency.”[86] The three main forms of cannabisproducts are the flower, resin (hashish), and oil (hash oil).The UNODC states that cannabis often contains 5%THCcontent, resin “can contain up to 20% THC content”,and that “Cannabis oil may contain more than 60% THCcontent.”[86]

A study published in 2010 has shown that the averageTHC content of seized marijuana increased from 3.4%

in 1993 to 8.8% in 2008.[87] Other studies have foundsimilar increases in potency since cannabis THC contentbegan to be studied in the late 1970s.[88] It is unclear,however, whether the increase in THC content has causedpeople to consume more THC or if users adjust based onthe potency of the cannabis. It is likely that the higherTHC content allows people to ingest less tar. At the sametime Cannabidiol (CBD) levels in seized samples havelowered as users look for a more mind altering high.[89]

Australia’s National Cannabis Prevention and Informa-tion Centre (NCPIC) states that the buds (flowers) of thefemale cannabis plant contain the highest concentrationof THC, followed by the leaves. The stalks and seeds have“much lower THC levels”.[90] The UN states that leavescan contain ten times less THC than the buds, and thestalks one hundred times less THC.[86]

After revisions to cannabis rescheduling in the UK, thegovernment moved cannabis back from a class C to aclass B drug. A purported reason was the appearanceof high potency cannabis. They believe skunk accountsfor between 70 and 80% of samples seized by police[91](despite the fact that skunk can sometimes be incorrectlymistaken for all types of herbal cannabis).[92][93] Extractssuch as hashish and hash oil typically contain more THCthan high potency cannabis flowers.[94]

6 Preparations

• Dried flower buds

• Kief

• Hashish

• Tincture

• Hash oil

• Infusion (dairy butter)

• Pipe resin

• A forced-air vaporizer. The detachable balloon fillswith vapors

6.1 Marijuana

Marijuana consists of the dried flowers and subtendingleaves and stems of the femaleCannabis plant.[95][96] Thisis the most widely consumed form, containing 3% to 20%THC,[97] with reports of up-to 33% THC.[98] In contrast,cannabis varieties used to produce industrial hemp con-tain less than 1% THC and are thus not valued for recre-ational use.[99]

This is the stock material from which all other prepa-rations are derived. It is noted that cannabis or itsextracts must be sufficiently heated or dehydrated to

6 7 HISTORY

cause decarboxylation of its most abundant cannabinoid,tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), into psychoactiveTHC.[100]

6.2 Kief

Main article: Kief

Kief is a powder, rich in trichomes,[101] which can besifted from the leaves and flowers of cannabis plants andeither consumed in powder form or compressed to pro-duce cakes of hashish.[102] The word “kif” derives fromcolloquial Arabic kēf/kīf, meaning pleasure.[103]

6.3 Hashish

Main article: Hashish

Hashish (also spelled hasheesh, hashisha, or simply hash)is a concentrated resin cake or ball produced from pressedkief, the detached trichomes and fine material that fallsoff cannabis flowers and leaves.[104] or from scraping theresin from the surface of the plants and rolling it intoballs. It varies in color from black to golden brown de-pending upon purity and variety of cultivar it was ob-tained from.[105] It can be consumed orally or smoked,and is also vaporised, or 'vaped'.[106] The term “RosinHash” refers to a high quality solventless product obtainedthrough heat and pressure.[107]

6.4 Tincture

Main article: Tincture of cannabis

Cannabinoids can be extracted from cannabis plant mat-ter using high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol) to cre-ate a tincture, often referred to as “green dragon”.[108]Nabiximols is a branded product name from a tincturemanufacturing pharmaceutical company.[109]

6.5 Hash oil

Main article: Hash oil

Hash oil is a resinous matrix of cannabinoids obtainedfrom theCannabis plant by solvent extraction,[110] formedinto a hardened or viscous mass.[111]

Hash oil can be the most potent of the main cannabisproducts because of its high level of psychoactivecompound per its volume, which can vary dependingon the plant’s mix of essential oils and psychoactivecompounds.[112] Butane and supercritical carbon dioxidehash oil have become popular in recent years.[113]

6.6 Infusions

There are many varieties of cannabis infusions owing tothe variety of non-volatile solvents used. The plant mate-rial is mixed with the solvent and then pressed and filteredto express the oils of the plant into the solvent. Examplesof solvents used in this process are cocoa butter, dairybutter, cooking oil, glycerine, and skin moisturizers. De-pending on the solvent, these may be used in cannabisfoods or applied topically.[114]

6.7 Adulterated cannabis

Contaminants may be found in hashish obtained from“soap bar"-type sources.[115] The dried flowers ofthe plant may be contaminated by the plant takingup heavy metals and other toxins from its growingenvironment,[116] or by the addition of glass.[117] In theNetherlands, chalk has been used to make cannabis ap-pear to be of a higher quality.[118] Increasing the weightof hashish products in Germany with lead caused lead in-toxication in at least 29 users.[119]

Despite cannabis being generally perceived as a naturalproduct,[120] in a recent Australian survey[121] one in fourAustralians consider cannabis grown indoors under hy-droponic conditions to be a greater health risk due to in-creased contamination, added to the plant during cultiva-tion to enhance the plant growth and quality.

6.8 Medical usage

Further information: Medical cannabis

Medical marijuana refers to the use of the Cannabis plantas a physician-recommended herbal therapy as well assynthetic THC and cannabinoids. So far, the medical useof cannabis is legal only in a limited number of territories,including Canada, Belgium, Australia, the Netherlands,Spain, and several U.S. states. This usage generally re-quires a prescription, and distribution is usually donewithin a framework defined by local laws. There is ev-idence supporting the use of cannabis or its derivatives inthe treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vom-iting, neuropathic pain, and multiple sclerosis. Lowerlevels of evidence support its use for AIDS wasting syn-drome, epilepsy, rheumatoid arthritis, and glaucoma.[44]

7 History

See also: War on Drugs, Legal history of cannabis in theUnited States and History of medical cannabisCannabis is indigenous to Central and South Asia.[124]Evidence of the inhalation of cannabis smoke can befound in the 3rdmillenniumBCE, as indicated by charred

7

The Chinese character for hemp ( or má) depicts two plantsunder a shelter.[122] Cannabis cultivation dates back at least 3000years in Taiwan.[123]

cannabis seeds found in a ritual brazier at an ancient burialsite in present-day Romania.[125] In 2003, a leather basketfilled with cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was foundnext to a 2,500- to 2,800-year-old mummified shaman inthe northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region ofChina.[126][127] Evidence for the consumption of cannabishas also been found in Egyptian mummies dated about950 BC.[128][129]

Cannabis is also known to have been used by the an-cient Hindus of India and Nepal thousands of years ago.The herb is called ganja (Sanskrit: गञ्जा, IAST: gañjā) organjika in Sanskrit and other modern Indo-Aryan lan-guages.[130][131] Some scholars suggest that the ancientdrug soma, mentioned in the Vedas, was cannabis, al-though this theory is disputed.[132]

Cannabis was also known to the ancient Assyrians,who discovered its psychoactive properties through theAryans.[133] Using it in some religious ceremonies, theycalled it qunubu (meaning “way to produce smoke”),a probable origin of the modern word “cannabis”.[134]Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to theScythians, Thracians and Dacians, whose shamans (thekapnobatai—"those who walk on smoke/clouds”) burnedcannabis flowers to induce a state of trance.[135]

Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is foundin pharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seedsdiscovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early cer-emonial practices like eating by the Scythians occurredduring the 5th to 2nd century BCE, confirming previoushistorical reports by Herodotus.[136] It was used by Mus-lims in various Sufi orders as early as the Mamluk period,for example by the Qalandars.[137]

A study published in the South African Journal of

Cannabis sativa from Vienna Dioscurides, 512 AD

Science showed that “pipes dug up from the gardenof Shakespeare's home in Stratford-upon-Avon containtraces of cannabis.”[138] The chemical analysis was car-ried out after researchers hypothesized that the “notedweed” mentioned in Sonnet 76 and the “journey in myhead” from Sonnet 27 could be references to cannabis andthe use thereof.[139] Examples of classic literature fea-turing cannabis include Les paradis artificiels by CharlesBaudelaire and The Hasheesh Eater by Fitz Hugh Ludlow.John Gregory Bourke described use of “mariguan”,which he identifies as Cannabis indica or Indian hemp,by Mexican residents of the Rio Grande region of Texasin 1894. He described its uses for treatment of asthma,to expedite delivery, to keep away witches, and as a love-philtre. He also wrote that many Mexicans added theherb to their cigarritos or mescal, often taking a bite ofsugar afterward to intensify the effect. Bourke wrotethat because it was often used in a mixture with toloachi(which he inaccurately describes as Datura stramonium),mariguanwas one of several plants known as "locoweed".Bourke compared mariguan to hasheesh, which he called“one of the greatest curses of the East”, citing reportsthat users “become maniacs and are apt to commit allsorts of acts of violence and murder”, causing degener-ation of the body and an idiotic appearance, and men-tioned laws against sale of hasheesh “in most Easterncountries”.[140][141][142]

Cannabis was criminalized in various countries beginningin the early 20th century. In the United States, the firstrestrictions for sale of cannabis came in 1906 (in Districtof Columbia).[143] It was outlawed in South Africa in1911, in Jamaica (then a British colony) in 1913, and inthe United Kingdom and New Zealand in the 1920s.[144]

8 8 SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Cannabis indica fluid extract, American Druggists Syndicate,pre-1937

Canada criminalized cannabis in the Opium and DrugAct of 1923, before any reports of use of the drug inCanada. In 1925 a compromise was made at an inter-national conference in The Hague about the InternationalOpium Convention that banned exportation of “Indianhemp” to countries that had prohibited its use, and re-quiring importing countries to issue certificates approv-ing the importation and stating that the shipment was re-quired “exclusively for medical or scientific purposes”. Italso required parties to “exercise an effective control ofsuch a nature as to prevent the illicit international trafficin Indian hemp and especially in the resin”.[145][146]

In the United States in 1937, the Marihuana Tax Act waspassed, and prohibited the production of hemp in addi-tion to cannabis. The reasons that hemp was also in-cluded in this law are disputed—several scholars have

claimed that the act was passed in order to destroy theUS hemp industry,[147][148][149] with the primary involve-ment of businessmen Andrew Mellon, Randolph Hearst,and the Du Pont family.[147][149] But the improvements ofthe decorticators, machines that separate the fibers fromthe hemp stem, could not make hemp fiber a very cheapsubstitute for fibers from other sources because it couldnot change that basic fact that strong fibers are only foundin the bast, the outer part of the stem. Only about 1/3 ofthe stem are long and strong fibers.[147][150][151][152] Thecompany DuPont and many industrial historians disputea link between nylon and hemp. They argue that the pur-pose of developing the nylon was to produce a fiber thatcould be used in thin stockings for females and competewith silk.[153][154][155]

In New York City, there were more than 19,000 kg(41,000 lb) of marijuana growing like weeds throughoutthe boroughs until 1951, when the “White Wing Squad”,headed by the Sanitation Department General Inspec-tor John E. Gleason, was charged with destroying themany pot farms that had sprouted up across the city. TheBrooklyn Public Library reports: this group was held toa high moral standard and was prohibited from “enteringsaloons, using foul language, and neglecting horses.” TheSquad found the most weed in Queens but even in Brook-lyn dug up “millions of dollars” worth of the plants, manyas “tall as Christmas trees”. Gleason oversaw incinerationof the plants in Woodside, Queens.[156]

The United Nations’ 2012 Global Drug Report stated thatcannabis “was the world’s most widely produced, traf-ficked, and consumed drug in the world in 2010”, iden-tifying that between 119 million and 224 million usersexisted in the world’s adult (18 or older) population.[157]

8 Society and culture

8.1 Legal status

Main article: Legality of cannabisSee also: Prohibition of drugs and Drug liberalizationSince the beginning of the 20th century, most coun-tries have enacted laws against the cultivation, posses-sion or transfer of cannabis.[159] These laws have im-pacted adversely on the cannabis plant’s cultivation fornon-recreational purposes, but there are many regionswhere, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabisis legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened thepenalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis, sothat it is punished by confiscation and sometimes a fine,rather than imprisonment, focusing more on those whotraffic the drug on the black market.In some areas where cannabis use has been historicallytolerated, some new restrictions have been put in place,such as the closing of cannabis coffee shops near theborders of the Netherlands,[160] closing of coffee shops

8.2 Economics 9

Cannabis propaganda sheet from 1935

near secondary schools in the Netherlands and crack-downs on “Pusher Street” in Christiania, Copenhagen in2004.[161][162]

Some jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment pro-grams and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequentknown users. Simple possession can carry long prisonterms in some countries, particularly in East Asia, wherethe sale of cannabismay lead to a sentence of life in prisonor even execution. More recently however, many politi-cal parties, non-profit organizations and causes based onthe legalization of medical cannabis and/or legalizing theplant entirely (with some restrictions) have emerged.In December 2012, the U.S. state of Washington be-came the first state to officially legalize cannabis in astate law (Washington Initiative 502) (but still illegal byfederal law),[163] with the state of Colorado followingclose behind (Colorado Amendment 64).[164] On January1, 2013, the first marijuana “club” for private marijuanasmoking (no buying or selling, however) was allowed forthe first time in Colorado.[165] The California SupremeCourt decided in May 2013 that local governments canban medical marijuana dispensaries despite a state lawin California that permits the use of cannabis for medi-cal purposes. At least 180 cities across California haveenacted bans in recent years.[166]

In December 2013, Uruguay became the first country tolegalize growing, sale and use of cannabis.[167] However,as of August 2014, no cannabis has yet been sold legallyin Uruguay. According to the law, the only cannabis thatcan be sold legally must be grown in the country by nomore than five licensed growers, and these have yet tobe selected; in fact the call for applications did not goout until August 1, 2014.[168] In the elections of Octo-ber 2014, there is a significant chance that lawmakersopposed to legal cannabis will come to control the leg-islature, and the law will be repealed before it has fullytaken effect.[169][170][171]

Woman selling cannabis and bhang in Guwahati, Assam, India

8.2 Economics

8.2.1 Production

Main article: Cannabis cultivation

It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbalcannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation tech-niques have increased the potency of cannabis since thelate 1960s and early '70s, when THC was first discoveredand understood. However, potent seedless cannabis suchas "Thai sticks" were already available at that time. Sin-semilla (Spanish for “without seed”) is the dried, seed-less inflorescences of female cannabis plants. BecauseTHC production drops off once pollination occurs, themale plants (which produce little THC themselves) areeliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination.Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics,cloning, high-intensity artificial lighting, and the sea ofgreen method are frequently employed as a response (inpart) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make out-door cultivation more risky. It is often cited that the av-erage levels of THC in cannabis sold in United States rosedramatically between the 1970s and 2000, but such state-ments are likely skewed because of undue weight givento much more expensive and potent, but less prevalentsamples.[172]

“Skunk” refers to several named strains of potentcannabis, grown through selective breeding and some-times hydroponics. It is a cross-breed of Cannabis sativaand C. indica (although other strains of this mix existin abundance). Skunk cannabis potency ranges usuallyfrom 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The aver-age THC level in coffee shops in the Netherlands is about18–19%.[173]

8.2.2 Price

The price or street value of cannabis varies widely de-pending on geographic area and potency.[174]

In the United States, cannabis is overall the number four

10 11 SEE ALSO

value crop, and is number one or two in many statesincluding California, New York and Florida, averaging$3,000/lb.[175][176] It is believed to generate an estimated$36 billion market.[177] The United Nations Office onDrugs and Crime claims in its 2008 World Drug Reportthat typical U.S. retail prices are $10–15 per gram (ap-proximately $280–420 per ounce). Street prices in NorthAmerica are known to range from about $40 to $400 perounce, depending on quality.[178]

The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and DrugAddiction reports that typical retail prices in Europe forcannabis varies from €2 to €20 per gram, with a ma-jority of European countries reporting prices in the range€4–10.[179]

8.2.3 Distribution

Marijuana vending machines for selling or dispensingcannabis are in use in the United States and are plannedto be used in Canada.[180]

8.3 Gateway drug

Further information: Gateway drug theory

The Gateway Hypothesis states that cannabis use in-creases the probability of trying “harder” drugs. The hy-pothesis has been hotly debated as it is regarded by someas the primary rationale for the United States prohibi-tion on cannabis use.[181][182] APewResearch Center pollfound that political opposition to marijuana use was sig-nificantly associated with concerns about health effectsand whether legalization would increase marijuana useby children.[183]

Some studies state that while there is no proof for thegateway hypothesis,[184] young cannabis users shouldstill be considered as a risk group for interventionprograms.[185] Other findings indicate that hard drugusers are likely to be poly-drug users, and that interven-tions must address the use of multiple drugs instead of asingle hard drug.[186] Almost two-thirds of the poly drugusers in the “2009/10 Scottish Crime and Justice Survey”used cannabis.[187]

The gateway effect may appear due to social factors in-volved in using any illegal drug. Because of the illegalstatus of cannabis, its consumers are likely to find them-selves in situations allowing them to acquaint with indi-viduals using or selling other illegal drugs.[188][189] Uti-lizing this argument some studies have shown that alco-hol and tobacco may additionally be regarded as gate-way drugs;[190] however, a more parsimonious explana-tion could be that cannabis is simply more readily avail-able (and at an earlier age) than illegal hard drugs. In turnalcohol and tobacco are easier to obtain at an earlier pointthan is cannabis (though the reverse may be true in some

areas), thus leading to the “gateway sequence” in thoseindividuals since they are most likely to experiment withany drug offered.[181]

An alternative to the gateway hypothesis is the CommonLiability to Addiction theory (CLA). It states that someindividuals are, for various reasons, willing to try mul-tiple recreational substances. The “gateway” drugs aremerely those that are (usually) available at an earlier agethan the harder drugs. Researchers have noted in an ex-tensive review, Vanyukov et al., that it is dangerous topresent the sequence of events described in gateway “the-ory” in causative terms as this hinders both research andintervention.[191]

9 Research

Further information: Medical cannabis#Research

Cannabis research is challenging since the plant is il-legal in most countries.[192][193][194][195][196] Research-grade samples of the drug are difficult to obtain for re-search purposes, unless granted under authority of na-tional governments.There are also other difficulties in researching the ef-fects of cannabis. Many people who smoke cannabisalso smoke tobacco.[197] This causes confounding fac-tors, where questions arise as to whether the tobacco, thecannabis, or both that have caused a cancer. Another dif-ficulty researchers have is in recruiting people who smokecannabis into studies. Because cannabis is an illegal drugin many countries, people may be reluctant to take part inresearch, and if they do agree to take part, they may notsay how much cannabis they actually smoke.[198]

10 Footnotes

^ a: Weed,[199] pot,[200] grass,[201] and herb[202] areamong the many other nicknames for marijuana orcannabis as a drug.[203][204]^ b: Sources for this section and more information canbe found in the Medical cannabis article

11 See also

• Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome

• Nederwiet

11

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[122] Alison Matthews; Laurence Matthews (2007). TuttleLearning Chinese Characters: A Revolutionary New Wayto Learn and Remember the 800 Most Basic Chinese Char-acters. Tuttle Publishing. p. 336. ISBN 978-0-8048-3816-0.

[123] Peter G. Stafford; Jeremy Bigwood (1992). PsychedelicsEncyclopedia. Ronin Publishing. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-914171-51-5.

[124] “Marijuana and the Cannabinoids”, ElSohly (p. 8).

15

[125] Rudgley, Richard (1998). Lost Civilisations of the StoneAge. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-684-85580-1.

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[127] Hong-En Jiang et al. (2006). “A new insight intoCannabis sativa (Cannabaceae) utilization from2500-year-old Yanghai tombs, Xinjiang, China”.Journal of Ethnopharmacology 108 (3): 414–22.doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.05.034. PMID 16879937.

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[140] John G. Bourke (1984-01-05). “Popular medicine, cus-toms, and superstitions of the Rio Grande”. Journal ofAmerican folklore 7–8: 138.

[141] "(Record of “marijuan” sample submitted by Bourke tothe National Museum, 1892)".

[142] Bourke cites an anonymous writer in the “Evening Star”,Washington, D. C., January 13, 1894 for additional re-marks on the use of mariguan and Jamestown weed byinhabitants of the area.

[143] “Statement of Dr. William C. Woodward”. Drug library.Retrieved 2010-09-20.

[144] “Debunking the Hemp Conspiracy Theory”.

[145] W. W. Willoughby (1925). “Opium as an internationalproblem”. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. Re-trieved 2010-09-20.

[146] Opium as an international problem: the Geneva confer-ences – Westel Woodbury Willoughby at Google Books

[147] Laurence Armand French; Magdaleno Manzanárez(2004). Nafta & Neocolonialism: Comparative Criminal,Human & Social Justice. University Press of America. p.129. ISBN 978-0-7618-2890-7.

[148] Mitch Earleywine (2002). Understanding Marijuana: ANew Look at the Scientific Evidence. Oxford UniversityPress. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-19-513893-1.

[149] Preston Peet (2004). Under The Influence: The Disinfor-mation Guide To Drugs. Consortium. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-932857-00-9.

[150] Hayo M.G. van der Werf : Hemp facts and hemp fiction.

[151] Dr. Ivan BÛcsa, GATE Agricultural Research Institute,Kompolt – Hungary, Book Review Re-discovery of theCrop Plant Cannabis Marihuana Hemp (Die Wiederent-deckung der Nutzplanze Cannabis Marihuana Hanf)

[152] Sterling Evans (2007). Bound in twine: the history andecology of the henequen-wheat complex forMexico and theAmerican and Canadian Plains, 1880–1950. Texas A&MUniversity Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-58544-596-7.

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[154] “Nylon: A Revolution in Textiles”. chemheritage.org.

[155] American Chemical Society: THE FIRST NYLONPLANT. 1995

[156] Van Luling, Todd (2014-04-17). “8 Things Even NewYorkers Don't Know About New York City”. The Huff-ington Post.

[157] Eliana Dockterman (29 June 2012). “Marijuana Now theMost Popular Drug in the World”. Time NewsFeed. TimeInc. Retrieved 16 March 2013.

[158] Mohan J, ed. (June 2014). “World Drug Report 2014”(PDF). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. p. 3.Retrieved 18 August 2014.

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[162] “43 Amsterdam coffee shops to close door”, RadioNetherlands, Friday 21 November 2008

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[164] Alan Duke (2012-11-08). “2 states legalize pot, but don't'break out the Cheetos’ yet”. CNN.com. Retrieved 2013-01-02.

[165] “Marijuana clubs ring in new year in Colorado as legalizedpot smoking begins”. Abcnews.go.com. 2013-01-01. Re-trieved 2013-01-02.

[166] Horward Mintz (2013-05-06). “Medical pot: CaliforniaSupreme Court allows cities to ban weed dispensaries”.Marin Independent Journal.

[167] Vicky Baker. “Marijuana laws around the world: whatyou need to know”. the Guardian.

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17

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[199] “Weed – Definition”. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Re-trieved 2012-10-09.

[200] “Pot – Definition”. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Re-trieved 2012-10-09.

[201] “Grass – Definition”. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Re-trieved 2012-10-09.

[202] “Herb – Definition”. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Re-trieved 2012-10-09.

[203] Pedro Ruiz, M.D.; Eric C. Strain (2011). SubstanceAbuse: A Comprehensive Textbook. Lippincott Williams& Wilkins. p. 214. ISBN 978-1-60547-277-5.

[204] “Marijuana Dictionary”.

13 External links• Wiktionary Appendix of Cannabis Slang

18 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text• Cannabis (drug) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)?oldid=677919296 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bryan Derksen, No-valis, Fubar Obfusco, Heron, Leandrod, Stevertigo, D, Bewildebeast, Fred Bauder, Fuzzie, Ronincyberpunk, Gabbe, Ixfd64, 172, AlexR,Qaz, GTBacchus, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Angela, JWSchmidt, LittleDan, Julesd, Ugen64, Glenn, Bogdangiusca, Cratbro, Deisenbe, Ever-cat, Beck, Eszett, Nohat, Andrevan, Dino, Random832, Ike9898, Geary, Steinsky, Tpbradbury, Hyacinth, Grendelkhan, Bhuston, LMB,Ed g2s, Floydian, Moros~enwiki, Samsara, Mackensen, Dbabbitt, Bloodshedder, Pakaran, Jerzy, Aenar, Catskul, Sander123, Gak, Moon-dyne, Goethean, Altenmann, JosephBarillari, Calmypal, Samrolken, Merovingian, Aaron Pannell, Academic Challenger, Markewilliams,Premeditated Chaos, Auric, Rhombus, Rebrane, Catbar, Roozbeh, Mushroom, SoLando, Dina, Vacuum, Nagelfar, Alan Liefting, Dave6,Cedars, Matt Gies, Alerante, Decrypt3, Centrx, Waliy sherpa, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Nat Krause, Nunh-huh, BenFrantz-Dale, Tom harrison, Meursault2004, Ferkelparade, Orangemike, Peoplesyak, Ich, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Bkonrad, Lode Runner, Ali-son, Henry Flower, Jfdwolff, Guanaco, FrYGuY, LockeShocke, Iota, AlistairMcMillan, Falcon Kirtaran, Tweenk, Boothinator, SWAdair,AdamJacobMuller, Bobblewik, Wmahan, JE, Barneyboo, Thewikipedian, Chowbok, Kukuman, Utcursch, Uranographer, Calm, Cryp-toDerk, Sonjaaa, Gzuckier, Antandrus, Alteripse, Lockeownzj00, Drue, Beland, Elembis, Kaldari, Kiteinthewind, Jossi, MacGyverMagic,Rdsmith4, Kesac, DragonflySixtyseven, Sharavanabhava, Cihan, Kevin B12, Daniel11, Gscshoyru, Commodore Sloat, Creidieki, Mrdec-tol, Neutrality, Joyous!, Jcw69, Imjustmatthew, Goobergunch, Buickid, Tromatic, Neale Monks, Aknorals, Sonett72, Karl Dickman,Picapica, JavaTenor, ScrollMaker, Laguna72, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Acsenray, Moxfyre, Shotwell, Ilhamster, Mike Rosoft, Alkivar, Reason~enwiki, Mormegil, Dramenbejs, Freakofnurture, AliveFreeHappy, Monkeyman, Primary0, Jiy,Mindspillage, Kathar, Discospinster, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Avriette, Inkypaws, Silverweed, Insertwackynamehere, DavidSchaich, Nuview, Xezbeth, Paul August, Horsten, Bender235, ESkog, Cyclopia, Jambalaya~enwiki, Mashford, JoeSmack, Violetriga,Pedant, PsychoDave, Mr. Billion, Livajo, Ben Webber, Mwanner, Chairboy, Aude, Shanes, Tom, Spearhead, RoyBoy, Dennis Brown,Triona, Bookofjude, Nrbelex, Amerika, Aaronbrick, Mschoel, Jpgordon, Causa sui, Alxndr, PatrikR, Bobo192, Utopianfiat, Martey,NetBot, Hurricane111, Smalljim, Clawson, K0hlrabi, Viriditas, Jbrader, Hismattness, Foobaz, Scapermoya, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc,Wolfrider~enwiki, Irrawaddy, La goutte de pluie, Pgsa, Rje, Zetawoof, James Foster, Krellis, Stephen Bain, NickCatal, Danski14, Alan-sohn, Gary, Eric Kvaalen, Theaterfreak64, Atlant, Philip Cross, Rd232, Keenan Pepper, Jeltz, PatrickFisher, Andrewpmk, Cjthellama,Howrealisreal, El stiko, Riana, AzaToth, Yamla, Thoric, Lectonar, Calton, Axl, Hinotori, SlimVirgin, Zekklen, Ciaran H, Apoc2400,Ransack, Kz9dsr0t387346, Mailer diablo, InShaneee, Phocks, Dark Shikari, Theodore Kloba, Muugokszhiion, Hu, Malo, Yummifruit-bat, Katefan0, Bart133, Caesura, NTK, Bootstoots, Snowolf, Miltonhowe, Schaefer, Benna, Wtmitchell, Sudasana, Gdavidp, Keepsleep-ing, Cburnett, Jakek101, Stephan Leeds, Garzo, Leoadec, Docboat, Evil Monkey, Canar, Omphaloscope, Ilse@, Harej, Amorymeltzer,Jon Cates, Costoa, Danthemankhan, Wadems, Scott Gall, BlastOButter42, Computerjoe, BDD, Gene Nygaard, Drbreznjev, Axeman89,Memenen, NuVanDibe, Bookandcoffee, Ceyockey, Galaxiaad, RyanGerbil10, Kenyon, Dismas, Squiquifox, Tariqabjotu, Mahanga, Mhaz-ard9, DarTar, Dr Gangrene, Gmaxwell, BadLeprechaun, Louisgag, MickWest, FrancisTyers, Joelpt, Angr, Kelly Martin, Alvis, Jeffrey O.Gustafson, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, TigerShark, LOL, Beanluc, Yansa, Sburke, Miaow Miaow, Uncle G, Yuubinbako, Mazca, Asta-tor, ^demon, Urod, JeremyA, Mms, MONGO, Lapsed Pacifist, Bdj, Meeso, RadicalHarmony, Bkwillwm, Cbustapeck, Bbatsell, Trid-dle, Damicatz, Terence, Mangojuice, Bluemoose, Steinbach, Flamingspinach, SCEhardt, Male1979, Laurel Bush, Tmrobertson, Brendan-conway, Wayward, Tokek, Abd, Phlebas, Rad Racer, Zpb52, Natrius, Peligroso, MrSomeone, Mandarax, Sin-man, SqueakBox, Mon-pirri, Angrtre, Ashmoo, DaFuZzMaStA, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, Mrmicrophone, Wnosewor, Cuchullain, Qwertyus, MCMasterChef, Kbdank71, Xxpor, FreplySpang, The Disco King, Bleaked, ^Syke^, Kane5187, Josh Parris, Search4Lancer, Canderson7,Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus, Ian Page, TitaniumDreads, Ctdunstan, Stuart Hardie, Bob A, Bill37212, Amire80, JHMM13, Tan-gotango, Wahkeenah, TheRingess, Soakologist, MZMcBride, Tawker, Cwfranson, Heah, Vegaswikian, CancerOfJuly, Stilgar135, Miser-lou, Crazynas, HappyCamper, Ligulem, Savethemooses, Moorlock, Zozza~enwiki, Boccobrock, Lairor, Brighterorange, SenorAnderson,Bhadani, DuKot, Mikm, Eskimo42, Sango123, DirkvdM, Leningrad, Yamamoto Ichiro, MWAK, Magmafox, Titoxd, Johnnyw, Schumin-Web, BradHD, Ground Zero, AED, Dan Guan, Musical Linguist, Doc glasgow, Latka, Godlord2, Nihiltres, GT, Nivix, Chanting Fox,AJR, Last1in, Kerowyn, Jdm, Skillz187, RexNL, Gurch, Foolishgrunt, Bennie Noakes, Jrtayloriv, Str1977, Ralphael, OrbitOne, R Lee E,TeaDrinker, NotJackhorkheimer, EronMain, Alphachimp, Diza, BradBeattie, Freepablo, TheSun, BMF81, Esoterica, Spencerk, Butros,King of Hearts, Atchius, ...adam..., Chobot, Kulindar, DaGizza, Deyyaz, Haldrik, Celebere, Zath42, Nagytibi, Bornhj, Rikoshi, Mhk-ing, JesseGarrett, Gdrbot, Random user 39849958, VolatileChemical, Voodoom, Bgwhite, Hall Monitor, Digitalme, GarconDansLeNoir,NSR, Scuzzi, WriterHound, Gwernol, Tone, Ivesfreak, Myeager, Quid~enwiki, Raelx, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, ThunderPeel2001,Radishes, Crotalus horridus, Eraserhead1, Sceptre, Stan2525, Jachin, Dnik, Peter G Werner, Brandmeister (old), Jeffthejiff, RussBot,FrenchIsAwesome, AcrophobicEagle, Jtkiefer, Backburner001, Severa, Anonymous editor, Garglebutt, Splash, Pigman, Anache, Gener-alleoff, StarkRG, SpuriousQ, Skidoo, Fabricationary, Tsch81, Matt Fitzpatrick, Akamad, Stephenb, Manop, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius,Ksyrie, Shaddack, Megastar, Theelf29, Rockyhorror42, Kimchi.sg, Varnav, Wimt, Bullzeye, The Hokkaido Crow, Gustavb, Daveswagon,Alynna Kasmira, Shanel, NawlinWiki, IAMTHEEGGMAN, SEWilcoBot, Wiki alf, Ytcracker, Bachrach44, Kremmy, Jaxl, D-Katana,Clam0p, Twin Bird, Poison girl, Dilaudid~enwiki, Howcheng, Robchurch, Joelr31, JTBurman, Lexicon, JDoorjam, Irishguy, Nick, AaronBrenneman, Anetode, Banes, Trollderella, Dmoss, Dennis!, Matticus78, Esqg, Blu Aardvark, Yoasif, Raven4x4x, Ezeu, Lachie, Furtim,Tony1, Alex43223, SameerKhan, Syrthiss, DGJM, M2k41, Todfox, DeadEyeArrow, BigRedBall, Asarelah, Klutzy, Cardsplayer4life,Derek.cashman, Hosterweis, Spark.1.4, Tullie, Thereverendeg, Elkman, DuffDudeX1, Ochiwar, Mjsabby, Black Falcon, Louieduvall,Nlu, User27091, Smaines, Wknight94, MagicOgre, Volantares, Ms2ger, Searchme, Amigan, BazookaJoe, FF2010, Veatch, Jczerwin-ski, Calcwatch, Johndburger, Djramone, Ali K, Gtdp, Imaninjapirate, Ankles, TheMadBaron, Saranghae honey, Theda, Closedmouth,Spondoolicks, Ketsuekigata, Arthur Rubin, Pb30, Adpas, Sean Whitton, BorgQueen, Black-Velvet, GraemeL, Haddock420, JoanneB,Vicarious, Alias Flood, Scoutersig, Jolb, JLaTondre, ArielGold, Tsiaojian lee, Curpsbot-unicodify, Channels, Johnpseudo, Tall Midget,ASchmoo, Nsevs, Allens, Internaciulo~enwiki, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Junglecat, RG2, PietrzakL, DearPrudence, John Broughton,The Way, BigaZon, AssistantX, Drunkmule, Jdufresne, Babij, DVD R W, Kf4bdy, Bibliomaniac15, SaulPerdomo, That Guy, From ThatShow!, Quadpus, Sambauers, Luk, Sycthos, Hiddekel, SpLoT, Drippingmintleaves, Vanka5, Crystallina, Sarah, Fightindaman, Anth anarchy, SmackBot, Amcbride, Bluelip, Ashenai, RedHouse18, Avengerx, Sticky Parkin, Moeron, Bobet, Urania3, Tarret, Benzo, Knowl-edgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, McGeddon, Skeezix1000, Shoy, Pgk, C.Fred, Od Mishehu, AndyZ, Blue520, Bomac, Edakin, Davewild,Chairman S., KVDP, Jrockley, Delldot, Jongpil Yun, Jihiro, Antrophica, Arny, Hardyplants, RamsayHank, Athaler, PJM, Timeshifter,Frymaster, Vilerage, SampsonSimpson, Apartmento, Nil Einne, Swerdnaneb, Nscheffey, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Alex earlier account,LonglivetheDee, Preeeemo, Gaff, Flannel, Xaosflux, DarkIye, Aksi great, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Portillo, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Beta-command, Oscarthecat, Skizzik, Msignor, Chromo SDR, NickGarvey, SourceLimit, OldsVistaCruiser, Tennekis, Andy M. Wang, Hrae-fen, Keytool, Schmiteye, Wikicali00, Moskvech, Wigren, KD5TVI, Scaife, Bluebot, PDD, Stevenwagner, Kurykh, Awaggener, Jjalexand,

14.1 Text 19

SlimJim, Shaggorama, Rkitko, Rampart, Cews, Persian Poet Gal, Rex Germanus, NCurse, Shoofy, Ksenon, Sirex98, Master of Pup-pets, BabuBhatt, The Jordan, Liamdaly620, Frecklegirl, IanBailey, Fluri, Mdwh, Hibernian, Victorgrigas, Killerdude494949, Deli nk,StrangerInParadise, Uthbrian, Pomegranite, JeromeCharles Potts, RasstheLenek, CSWarren, HubHikari, Ctbolt, Colonies Chris, BenChris-tian, Konstable, Antonrojo, Rlevse, Gracenotes, Lightspeedchick, KojieroSaske, Zachorious, Tekhnofiend, Mladifilozof, PTPete25, For-ponia, Xeryus, Royboycrashfan, Chendy, Zsinj, J•A•K, Quaque, Punchbright, Kotra, Burstroc, Muboshgu, Can't sleep, clown will eatme, Trystan Morris-Davies, JoelWhy, Tamfang, Metallurgist, Jinxed, Chelsea99, Zone46, Vulcanstar6, OrphanBot, Onorem, Jennica,Nixeagle, Tzanc, Adrian fine, Zzz345zzz, JAVIonics, RickyCourtney, AaronTAB, TheKMan, Prmacn, Matchups, TKD, Bp28, Pevarnj,Pnkrockr, Rsm99833, Addshore, Edivorce, DR04, Jam packed, Adamantios, Grover cleveland, Kashomon, Stevenmitchell, Cyhatch, Nuk-lear, Khoikhoi, WhereAmI, Jmlk17, Nasty Dick, MartinRobinson, Poppppppp, PetterBudt, Krich, Flyguy649, Bulbous, Reid A., Tinc-torius, Mightyxander, E. Sn0 =31337=, Crisericson, Mytwocents, Simonapro, Daqu, Makemi, Nakon, Jackohare, Savidan, Ne0Freedom,KeithAllen, TedE, MichaelBillington, Andymarczak, RaCha'ar, Dream out loud, Jellyfisho, Stevenrosson, Dreadstar, RandomP, Wikicru-sader, ShaunES, Akriasas, Lcarscad, Executor665, BullRangifer, Cannawrite, Weregerbil, Shortarse hedgewitch, KI, Iridescence, Wisco,Supersuzanne, Hammer1980, DMacks, Unias, Yom, Wizardman, Ultraexactzz, Powelldinho, Speesiac76, Kouterguine, Sturm, Andeggs,Philipben, Where, Ligulembot, Springnuts, Pilotguy, Ifrit, Wv235, Mostly Rainy, Thejerm, Richdick96, Hmoul, The undertow, Spino-lio, Aaron Horn, Nishkid64, Rory096, Robomaeyhem, AThing, Swatjester, Erowidder, Stewie814, Alakey2010, Valfontis, JzG, Dbtfz,Kuru, John, AmiDaniel, Cwilli201, WhiteCat, FrozenMan, Scientizzle, Keystonelight, Heimstern, Frank Carmody, Loodog, Gobonobo,JohnCub, Xth0s, Soumyasch, Xakaxunknownx, Dude9393, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Perfectblue97, Linnell, Blinutne, Core-desat, Accurizer, Minna Sora no Shita, Testerer, NenDaiKi, Bannana, Genedial, Mr. Lefty, Yugi121, Don't fear the reaper, Jordan-gordanier, PseudoSudo, JWaters, Ckatz, Anguis, FrostyBytes, East lite, ThisMightBeRyan, MarkSutton, Naturrien, Willy turner, Slakr,Jonty303, Drdevil44, MadnessASAP, MTN~enwiki, Notwist, Johnskate17, Johnandbob, EddieVanZant, Rleidigh, Fatalshot, FadieZ, MrStephen, Nickhuh, Raventales, Meco, Waggers, SandyGeorgia, CharlesMartel, Spydercanopus, Dhp1080, Michael J Swassing, Nageeb,Midnightblueowl, Truthmissile, Shella, Ryulong, Manifestation, Marcipangris, M855GT, Citicat, 2mr.cokes, C-ray, H, Avant Guard, Galac-tor213, Vagary, Darry2385, Sifaka, Amitch, Keitei, JimmyEmden, The Real Walrus, Norcal etree, Keahapana, KJS77, Stephen B Streater,Tawkerbot, DabMachine, Mackan, Novictimnocrime, JYi, Levineps, Alan.ca, Ludwjt5, OnBeyondZebrax, Meraloma, Khan3817, Seqsea,Dead3y3, Iridescent, WezlyTwin, Stangoldsmith, Bryanw03, MatthewJTague, Dansiman, Maestlin, Cannibus288, Cry baby99, Vanisheduser 90345uifj983j4toi234k, Kernow, Debeo Morium, Mindzpore, Dansemacabre, Muéro, Theoldanarchist, J Di, Darth Borehd, Ncos-mob, LoDown86, SweetNeo85, Noodlez84, Happy-melon, Carlip, RJustin23, Mr Chuckles, Maelor, Buckyboy314, Adambiswanger1,Regionalsimp, WakiMiko, Oluicsaram2, Ochmanek, Tawkerbot2, Nahteecirp, Runderwo, Cashie, DonChris, Timrem, Flubeca, Abso-lutDan, Aristotle1990, Emote, TheHorseCollector, SpeedKing, Ioannes Pragensis, Eastlaw, SleepyDan, CalebNoble, The Haunted An-gel, Wanucha~enwiki, Switchercat, Georgejames5168, Shlaapy, Kotzker, Crazyjoeda, Ddcc, Loverman69, Xcentaur, Paddyg, J Milburn,Maria202, JForget, Ezadarque, Billyfishzwei, InvisibleK, Sleeping123, Pzyko drummer77, Phillip J, CmdrObot, NorwegianMarcus, Fuzzy-casserole, Kolten27, Wafulz, Dycedarg, Foot Dragoon, Mgumn, Triage, Muneesh, Gahoonisme, Orjanbye, KyraVixen, N3X15, VForVen-detta, Spike BH, Curty1123, DeLarge, Runningonbrains, Sadist94, R9tgokunks, Nadyes, The Man13, Kylu, Chuva, Zack3rdbb, Reahad,Rykard, Steve355, Markbirenbaum, BigMar992, Bensommers, BunkNUGZ, Robmichz, MarsRover, Drmed36, Valju, Shizane, Casper2k3,ButterApple, Neelix, Zinjixmaggir, BrownUniv13, EvilTacox4, Gandhijr23, Guitarmankev1, Noahs ark, Longshot.222, Tim1988, LokalProfil, Karenjc, MrFish, Helios Entity 2, Leakeyjee, JavaDog, Johnjohnston, Irienow, TJDay, Tomfreelance, Jordan Brown, Pstarbuck,Sopoforic, Cydebot, Kayikcioglu, Atomaton, Cahk, Ubiq, Meighan, Eugene V. Packham, Abeg92, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Supposed, AD 13, Fnoriegac, Bpg542, Steel, Zeppelin462, Michaelas10, MissMetalmouth, Gogo Dodo, Jkokavec, AtTheAbyss, Albert0, Anthonyh-cole, JFreeman, Fastolfe00, JosephO75, Llort, Rajveers2001, Thirstyferret, Amchamp, Beefnut, Torvik, Sappy2yah, Wikipediarules2221,Elyse420, Luckyherb, Sa.vakilian, Caliga10, Karafias, Tawkerbot4, Gspence, Msnicki, M a s, Flatninthbird, DumbBOT, BfloSabres09,Asenine, Crana, Nickleus, Javsav, Dinnerbone, Gojukebox, Viridae, CanadianConservative, Zer0faults, Skanking, The Lizard Wizard,Superbeatles, Omicronpersei8, JodyB, G0t rap3, Tedbundy777, Mindrearranger, Lo2u, Hex01A4, Grant M, Bellpepper, Krylonblue83,Christopher Isar, Independent Journalist, EvocativeIntrigue, Lightabyss, Barnaldo, Rjm656s, Crazyeddy17, Johnblock1988, Barticus88,123mehe, DaemonLee, Erich Schmidt, Do-nutz@hotmail.com, Djluminus89, Sv23, Mongoosedogg, PetePassword, Wwoody123, LeeG,Sm0key321, Tsmartman123, Free fool, Dasani, Blowski, Tommybtennis2, CL8~enwiki, Loudsox, Ucanlookitup, Craggyisland, Bendroz,N5iln, Elementjunky, Mojo Hand, Anupam, D digidy dod, Subvertc, Riico96, Onestorystreet, Rifra~enwiki, Marek69, Aiko, John254,Smile a While, Tapir Terrific, Nofxmn1, SomeStranger, Justinshogg, Bashholt, Tellyaddict, DavidLeeLambert, Budd man, CameoAppear-ance, Jessedavid, Mark ed, Mokkan88, NigelR, Whooooooknows, GideonF, Guido.scalise, AgentPeppermint, Dgies, CharlotteWebb, TheFat Man Who Never Came Back, Steveagle06, Cooljuno411, Srose, Doctorjo5, TangentCube, Smokey485, Natalie Erin, Stybn, Tabz1991,Supran, Mentifisto, Ju66l3r, Nightclerk, Wordforge, KrakatoaKatie, The prophet wizard of the crayon cake, Canadian, AntiVandalBot,RoyalAbidi, Stevo D, Yellowarcher, Majorly, Luna Santin, Miracleezz~enwiki, Derrylwc, AndrewJesseBrown, MrNoblet, Opelio, An-toinePancakes, Travelgoer, Mamed1, Bigtimepeace, EarthPerson, ReverendG, Fru1tbat, Prolog, KP Botany, Doc Tropics, Efyoo, Cnota,Biggz48, Anonymou$, Stev17, James Epstein, Casual Karma, 17Drew, SmokeyTheCat, Juwelzz, Vic226, Jj137, TimVickers, Daniel Vil-lalobos, Jcrock, Smartse, Caesarcub, Konob16, Hopiakuta, Chuchunezumi, Dinferno, LibLord, Opertinicy, Darklilac, Malcolm, Msmrise,G Rose, Pixelface, Sktrc9, Fireice, Storkk, Qwerty Binary, Toxic1024, Myanw, Jace1, Neur0X, Maxclarke, Uchohan, Kaini, PresN, Figma,Canadian-Bacon, Uusitunnus, Black6989, BlueResistance, Markthemac, JAnDbot, Narssarssuaq, Runner253, Leuko, Husond, Jimothytrot-ter, Poga, Puppybiscuit, Kaobear, Yames Ward, MER-C, BlindEagle, Landismatthew, Kaabi, Janejellyroll, Tonyrocks922, ProfessorSmith,Greyo, Onelover, Soccerplayur012, Relyk, Xeno, 01001, Hut 8.5, 100110100, Malpertuis, GurchBot, Shawnarocks, SmokeyTheFatCat,PlazzTT, TV Genius, Osufan900, WildlifeAnalysis, The shirt23, Kerotan, Xact, Baz 95, Psicorps, LittleOldMe, SiobhanHansa, Blue-SoxSWJ, Tehjosher, SteveSims, Moni3, Riddleout, Meeples, Bogdanszabo, Kibiusa, Magioladitis, AlexGC, Jaysweet, Ace ventura, Al-baloo, Bennybp, VoABot II, MartinDK, AuburnPilot, Magneez, Aseems, Wikidudeman, Davidjk, Destor~enwiki, Heckter18, Rob08,Theraskalking, Ff1959, Skull-king911, Jbrarrow, Mbc362, Cynadar, Swpb, 42° South, TVGH, Trusko, Sic.sick6, Soulbot, Chondrite,Jim Douglas, Archophiles, Froid, Mr.troughton, AlanPerry, PureRumble, Marchold, Carn, Carlolsen, Jbav1278, Templetrini, Thern-lund, Hiplibrarianship, Animum, DonES, Cgingold, EGGMAN, Cranberryjuice10, Hereispuneet, BizarroGT, POTAJ1, Robotman1974,Anom8trw8, Terjen, Allstarecho, Lethaniol, Tins128, $yD!, El Rojo, Chllgy, Cpl Syx, Spellmaster, Bugtrio, Cswingle, Vssun, Memotype,Halogenated, Glen, DerHexer, Matt B., Edward321, Zzzzeta, Fulvius~enwiki, JFeustel, Indianajoes67, Sillywalker, Hbent, TheRanger,Patstuart, Russianbolero, Vishvax, Hypo Mix, Alexihlo, Rickard Vogelberg, Pikolas, Douglashamit, Mercurialmusic, Mmustafa~enwiki,Xxcheesexx, Jemijohn, Ineffable3000, Neonblak, Leaderofearth, Hdt83, MartinBot, Mmoneypenny, CliffC, Houshisama, Mermaid fromthe Baltic Sea, Coaster420, Wlwcom9000, Sagabot, General Jazza, John Doe or Jane Doe, Ghostwo, Arjun01, The Architect 01, Poeloq,Axlq, Gunnerdogg, Jorjepot, Naohiro19, Nikpapag, Osquar F, Rettetast, Roastytoast, Ryanoz, Slyfoxx, Calicheese23, Drudman, Street-carp89, Doodledoo, MirrorSyndrome, Mschel, R'n'B, Trojanman9393, BigBilly08, CommonsDelinker, Vox Rationis, Nono64, KittyCol-lier, Bobdude32, Jazza89, Leyo, Kris scofield, Lilac Soul, Icezizim, SASGW, Freeboson, Artcrp, Ashxox6, Cubetriangle, Duane Elverum,Ieatscones, J.delanoy, Unconscious, CFCF, Trusilver, Thechezman14, Grim Revenant, Huey45, Eddyjay~enwiki, Rub-a-dub~enwiki, Cere-

20 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Menon, Metalhead94, Götz, Hadrian89, Atroche, M00npirate, Glenfar-clas, Treeofrock, Mahmudmasri, Giants27, Citation bot, Kalamkaar, Jasbll333, Debug60, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Simultaneous movement,

14.2 Images 21

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14.2 Images• File:Bodily_effects_of_cannabis.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Bodily_effects_of_cannabis.svg

License: Public domain Contributors: All used images are in public domain. Original artist: Mikael Häggström• File:Cannab2_new.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Cannab2_new.png License: Public domain Con-

tributors:

• Cannab2.jpg Original artist: User:Photohound *derivative work:• File:Cannabis_Plant.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Cannabis_Plant.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0

Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cannabis Training University• File:Cannabis_leaf.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Cannabis_leaf.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-

tributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Oren neu dag• File:Cannabissativadior.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Cannabissativadior.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: Scan aus: Pedanius Dioscurides –DerWiener Dioskurides. Codex medicus Graecus 1 der Österreichischen Nationalbiblio-thek, Graz: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt 1999 Band 1 fol. 167 verso. Kommentar von Otto Mazal: S. 70 ISBN 3-201-01699-3Original artist: Unknown

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• File:Drug_bottle_containing_cannabis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Drug_bottle_containing_cannabis.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

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• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

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• File:Woman_selling_Cannabis_and_Bhang_in_Guwahati,_Assam,_India.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Woman_selling_Cannabis_and_Bhang_in_Guwahati%2C_Assam%2C_India.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:Own work Original artist: Subhashish Panigrahi

22 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File: -order.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/%E9%BA%BB-order.gif License: CC BY 3.0 Contribu-tors:

• ROC: (Stroke order 14 rules), by the Taiwan Ministry of Education. Book available online (authoritative work). ISBN957-00-7082-X Original artist: See user in the “File history” section.

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