1.The Government of Canada. The Canadian federal government consists of government departments, organizations and agencies. The Cabinet is the centre of the federal government. Led by the Prime Minister, the Cabinet directs the federal government by determining priorities and policies, and ensuring their implementation.

Canada is a federation of ten provinces (Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan) and three territories (Northwest Territories, Yukon, and Nunavut). Formally considered a constitutional monarchy, Canada is governed by its own House of Commons. While the governor-general is officially the representative of Queen Elizabeth II, in reality the governor-general acts only on the advice of the Canadian prime minister. The Federal Government of Canada The federal government is the national government of Canada. It includes the Prime Minister of Canada and cabinet, the Parliament of Canada, the federal courts and various departments and agencies which administer the day-to-day business of government.

About the Prime Minister of Canada The Prime Minister of Canada is the head of the government in Canada, usually the leader of the Canadian federal political party electing the most members to the Canadian House of Commons during a general election. The Prime Minister of Canada selects the members of cabinet, and with them is responsible to the Canadian House of Commons for the administration of the federal government.About the Parliament of Canada: The Parliament of Canada is the legislative branch of the federal government in Canada and makes the laws of Canada. Parliament is made up of three parts: the Crown or Queen, represented by the Governor General of Canada, the House of Commons and the Senate.

Governor General of Canada: In Canada, nearly all the powers and authority of the Crown or Queen have been delegated to the Governor General of Canada. Although appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, the Governor General stands above politics. The role of the Canadian Governor General is mostly symbolic and ceremonial. The Governor General summons and dissolves Parliament, gives Royal Assent to legislation and signs government documents.

Representative of the Crown in Canada The Queen or sovereign is the head of state in Canada. The Governor General of Canada represents the sovereign, and most of the powers and authority of the sovereign have been delegated to the Governor General. The role of the Canadian Governor General is mostly symbolic and ceremonial.The head of government in Canada is the Prime Minister, an elected political leader.

Appointment of the Governor General The Canadian Governor General is selected by the Prime Minister of Canada, although the formal appointment is made by the Queen. The term of office of the Governor General is usually five years, but it is sometimes extended up to seven years. There is a tradition of alternating between anglophone and francophone Governors General in Canada.

Official Duties of the Governor General of Canada

The official duties of the Governor General of Canada include:

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giving Royal Assent to bills passed in the Canadian House of Commons and Senate reading the Speech from the Throne which outlines the Canadian federal government

agenda for a new session of Parliament executing orders-in-council or cabinet decisions appointing superior court judges, on the advice of cabinet summoning, closing and dissolving Parliament, on the advice of the Prime Minister inviting the leader of the party with the most support in the House of Commons to form

the government. That party leader becomes Prime Minister. in times of emergency or special circumstances, exercising the special personal authority

of the Governor General to appoint or dismiss a prime minister or dissolve Parliament. This authority is rarely used.

receiving and sending ambassadors.

The Canadian Governor General plays a strong role in encouraging excellence in Canada through a system of honours and awards such as the Order of Canada and promotes national identity and national unity.The Governor General of Canada is also the Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces.

Canadian House of Commons: The House of Commons in Canada is the elected lower house of Parliament and also the most powerful body of Parliament. The House of Commons is made up of 308 members of parliament elected from ridings or electoral districts across Canada. Most federal legislation is introduced in the House of Commons and once passed there goes to the Senate for review.

Representing Constituents in Parliament Members of parliament represent the regional and local concerns of the constituents in their ridings (also called electoral districts) in the House of Commons. Members of parliament solve problems for constituents on a wide variety of federal government matters - from checking on individual problems with federal government departments to providing information on federal government programs and policies. Members of parliament also maintain a high profile in their ridings and take part in local events and official functions there.

Making Laws. While it is public servants and cabinet ministers who have direct responsibility for drafting new legislation, members of parliament can influence legislation through debates in the House of Commons and during all-party committee meetings to examine legislation. Even though members of parliament are expected to "toe the party line," both substantive and fine-tuning amendments to legislation are often made at committee stage. Votes on legislation in the House of Commons are usually a formality following party lines, but can be of significant strategic importance during a minority government. Members of parliament can also introduce legislation of their own, called "private members bills," however it is rare that a private members bill passes.

Watchdogs on Government. Canadian members of parliament can influence federal government policy by participating in House of Commons committees which review federal government department activities and spending, as well as legislation. Government members of parliament

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also raise policy issues in caucus meetings of members of parliament of their own party and can lobby cabinet ministers. Members of parliament in opposition parties use the daily Question Period in the House of Commons to raise issues of concern and bring them to the attention of the public.

Senate of Canada:

The Senate of Canada is the upper house of Parliament. Canadian senators are not elected. They are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Senate provides "sober, second thought" on the work done by the House of Commons by reviewing and amending legislation and on occasion vetoing bills. The Canadian Senate can also introduce its own bills, except for "money bills" which impose taxes or spend public money. Senate bills must also be passed in the House of Commons.

There are normally 105 senators in Canada. Members of the Canadian Senate, the upper house of the Parliament of Canada, are not elected; they are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister.

2. Aboriginal People in Canada are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of present-day Canada. They comprise the First Nations, Inuit and Métis. The descriptors "Indian" and "Eskimo" have largely fallen into disuse in Canada and are commonly considered pejorative. First Nations (most often used in the plural) has come into general use for the indigenous peoples of North America in Canada, and their descendants, who are neither Inuit nor Métis. Indian remains in place as the legal term used in the Canadian Constitution; its usage outside such situations can be considered offensive. Aboriginals is more commonly used to describe all indigenous peoples of Canada. It also refers to self-identification of aboriginal people who live within Canada claiming rights of sovereignty or aboriginal title to lands. The term Eskimo has pejorative connotations in Canada and Greenland. Indigenous peoples in those areas have replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit. Notwithstanding Canada's location within the Americas, the term "Native American" is not used in Canada as it is typically used solely to describe the indigenous peoples within the boundaries of the present-day United States . The Métis are a people descended from marriages between Europeans (mainly French and First Nations.

Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of human habitation in Canada. The Paleo-Indian Clovis, Plano and Pre-Dorset cultures pre-date current indigenous peoples of the Americas. Projectile point tools, spears, pottery, bangles, chisels and scrapers mark archaeological sites, thus distinguishing cultural periods, traditions and lithic reduction styles.

The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal civilizations included permanent settlements, agriculture, civic and ceremonial architecture, complex societal hierarchies and trading networks.The Métis culture of mixed blood originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and Inuit people married Europeans. The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during that early period.Various laws, treaties, and legislation have been enacted between

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European immigrants and First Nations across Canada. Aboriginal Right to Self-Government provides opportunity to manage historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control aspects within first people's communities.

3.Legislative process in Japan.As in the United States, Japan’s government is divided into three separate branches: judicial, executive, and legislative. However, in Japan, the National Diet, or Japan’s legislature, is considered “the highest organ of state power” and “the sole law-making organ of the State” based on the Constitution. The Diet is made up of two houses, the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors, that are primarily responsible for making laws, approving the annual national budget, initiating amendments to the Constitution, conducting investigations on the government, impeaching judges convicted of criminal or unethical conduct, and formally selecting the Prime Minister of Japan.

The House of Councillors is the upper house of the Diet of Japan, composed of 242 members who each serve six year terms. The House of Representatives is the lower house with 480 members. As opposed to the upper house, lower house members are elected for four-year terms. All citizens of Japan gain universal suffrage at age 20 and may take part in the election process. To run for office, you must be 25 years old in the House of Representatives and 30 years old in the house of Councillors. Both houses are elected under a parallel voting system, which basically means that the results of the election of the upper house has little or no impact on the results of the lower house. Additionally, voters partake in these elections using different voting systems.

Though both houses play a seemingly equal important role within the legislative branch of the government, the lower house, or the House of Representatives is considered more powerful. For instance, if a bill is passed by the House of Representatives, but then later struck down by the House of Councillors, the lower house has the authority to override this decision by a two-thirds vote. Furthermore, the House of Councillors cannot block legislation when certain issues arise such as treaty amendments and budget concerns. The lower house may also dissolve the government if it passes a motion of no-confidence introduced by 50 of its members. Despite the added power, the lower house is still subject to dissolution by the Prime Minister, who is currently Junichiro Koizumi, through a passage of no-confidence, as was recently seen in Canada late last year.

The Diet is required under the Constitution to meet at least once a year. During these sessions, the Emperor, who is recognized as the symbol of the Japanese nation and the unity of its people, outlines the government’s plans for the coming year. The National Diet Building is located in Japan’s capital, Tokyo.

4. Legislative process in Germany

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No lawmaking without Parliament In the Federal Republic of Germany, the making of law is a task performed by the country’s parliaments. The German Bundestag is therefore the most important organ of the legislative. It decides on all laws that fall within the sphere of competence of the German Federation in a legislative process that also requires the participation of the Bundesrat.

The Members and parliamentary groups of the German Bundestag are entitled to introduce new or revised pieces of legislation in the Bundestag as bills – a right also enjoyed by the Bundesrat and the Federal Government. It is in Parliament that such bills are debated, deliberated on and voted on in accordance with a precisely regulated procedure.

Since, under Germany’s federal system, the Länder hold a considerable share of the powers of the state, the Bundesrat also participates in the adoption of legislation. All acts are submitted to the Bundesrat for it to vote on and – depending on the nature of the proposed legislation – it may even cause the rejection of some proposals.

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5.Making foreign policy : propaganda, subversion, war, terroristic acts

Foreign policy is the relationships which central governments have with other countries, their central governments, and international organizations, both intergovernmental and non-governmental. The conduct of foreign policy is primarily directed at influencing the behavior of other central governments. Conversely, foreign governments maintain relations not only with our own central government in Washington but also with non-governmental, private organizations in America. Where possible they also seek to influence the American media and public opinion. With these caveats made, foreign policy is still primarily a central-government-to-central-government relationship.

Foreign policy can be either bilateral or multilateral. Bilateral, as the word implies, is the relationship between two countries. Multilateral relationships involve a group of countries. International organizations like the United Nations or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) are established through multilateral agreements (treaties) between the member states.

 Tools of State Power for the Conduct of Foreign Policy

DiplomacyForeign AidForeign TradePropagandaCultural Exchange ProgramsIntelligence Operations

Overt and Covert Operations,SubversionTerrorismTrade Wars

Trade EmbargoSeizure of AssetsCurrency ManipulationsDenial of Raw MaterialsBoycottBreaking Diplomatic RelationsGunboat DiplomacyMilitary ManeuversQuarantine

BlockadeWar

The purpose of foreign policy. The goals and objectives of a country’s foreign policy are as varied as are the motives of human beings.  They can, however, be arranged in an order of priorities.  The following foreign policy objectives may be identified for the United States and for all other foreign countries.

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    1. Protecting the Territorial Integrity of the Home Country.  The top foreign policy goal of any country is to protect the territorial integrity of that country from foreign attack.  This extends beyond the physical territory.  It also includes protecting one's embassies and safeguarding one's military forces stationed in or visiting other countries.  

    2.  Protecting the Territorial Integrity of Allies

    3.  Maintaining the International Balance of Power

    4.  Fostering International Security through the United Nations

    5.  Protecting Access to Strategic Resources

    6,  Maintaining International Legal Principles, such as Freedom of the High Seas

    7.  Furthering the Interests of American Business

    8.  Safeguarding American Nationals in Foreign Countries

    9.  Fostering Modernization and Economic Development throughout the World

    10.  Protecting Human Rights, Democracy, and other American Values.

    These foreign policy objectives are often divided into a. high politics and b. low politics. a. High Politics refers to the political and military relationships between states. Items 1 through 6 in the list above are components of high politics. b. Low Politics refers to the economic, social, and cultural relationships between states. Items 7 through 10 belong to what is called low politics. Historically, high politics has had preference over low politics in the conduct of countries' foreign policies.

    One should also differentiate strategic goals from tactical goals. Tactical objectives are means toward a larger, strategic goal. Strategic goals refer to the ultimate ends of a country's foreign policy. There are certain core values which any strategy must protect. These core values are often referred to as maintaining one's  national security and defending one's national interests.

Making Foreign Policy. Each country has its own foreign policy establishment. In the United States, the executive branch has the primary responsibility for making and implementing foreign policy. The President of the United States is the chief of state, chief executive, chief diplomat, commander-in-chief, chief economist, and national spokesperson. Each of these roles impacts on making foreign policy. The President is assisted by a large foreign policy establishment, which includes units within the Executive Office of the President, two cabinet departments, and many independent executive agencies and commissions.

In addition to the executive branch, the legislative branch shares many responsibilities as a junior partner. Congress must appropriate all funds that are spent on foreign policy initiatives. Congress has the power to declare war, although all military actions since World War II have

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been taken by Presidential initiative without a formal declaration of war. The Senate must approve treaties. The Senate must also confirm all appointments as ambassadors to foreign countries and all commissions in the Armed Forces of the United States from second lieutenant to general.

The judiciary plays a minor role, usually deferring to the executive in matters of international law and foreign policy.

Beyond the governmental actors, many domestic groups have an interest in foreign policy. These include global corporations, associations for various ethnic and religious groups, some foundations, think tanks, major universities having graduate programs in law and international affairs.

Mass public opinion rarely pays attention to foreign policy matters unless some major crisis compels concern. Then it can be quite powerful in influencing decision makers.(US Foreign Policy)

Subversion refers to an attempt to transform the established social order and its structures of power, authority, and hierarchy. Subversion (Latin subvertere: overthrow) refers to a process by which the values and principles of a system in place, are contradicted or reversed . More specifically, subversion can be described as an attack on the public morale and, “the will to resist intervention are the products of combined political and social or class loyalties which are usually attached to national symbols. Furthermore, it is a relatively cheap form of warfare that does not require large amounts of training.A subversive is something or someone carrying the potential for some degree of subversionTerrorist groups generally do not employ subversion as a tool to achieve their goals. Subversion is a manpower intensive strategy and many groups lack the manpower and political and social connections to carry out subversive activities. However, actions taken by terrorists may have a subversive effect on society. Subversion can imply the use of insidious, dishonest, monetary, or violent methods to bring about such change.

This is in contrast to protest, a coup d'état, or working through traditional means (if) available in a political system to bring about change. Furthermore, external subversion is where, “the aggressor state attempts to recruit and assist indigenous political and military actors to overthrow their government by coup d’état”. If subversion fails in its goal of bringing about a coup it is possible that the actors and actions of the subversive group could transition to insurrection, insurgency, and/or guerilla warfare.

The word is present in all languages of Latin origin *, originally applying to such events as the military defeat of a city. As early as the 14th century, it was being used in the English language with reference to laws, and in the 15th century came to be used with respect to the realm. The term has taken over from "sedition" as the name for illicit rebellion, though the connotations of the two words are rather different, sedition suggesting overt attacks on institutions, subversion something much more surreptitious, such as eroding the basis of belief in the status quo or setting people against each other.Subversive actions can generally be grouped into three interrelated categories:

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Establishing front groups and penetrating and manipulating existing political parties Infiltrating the armed forces, the police, and other institutions of the state, as well as

important non-government organizations Generating civil unrest through demonstrations, strikes, and boycotts.[18]

Other factors, while not specifically falling into these categories, may also be useful to subversive dissidents. Additionally, many tools may overlap into other groups of tools as well. As an example, subversives may infiltrate an organization for cultural subversion more so than for control. Civil unrest may be used to provoke the government into a violent response.

People often think of propaganda as something negative, as in a con or a lie. But propaganda really doesn't have anything to do with negative or positive. It's a technique. The word propaganda refers to any technique that attempts to influence the opinions, emotions, attitudes or behavior of a group in order to benefit the sponsor.

Propaganda is a form of communication aimed towards influencing the attitude of the community toward some cause or position. Propaganda statements may be partly false and partly true. Propaganda is usually repeated and dispersed over a wide variety of media in order to create the chosen result in audience attitudes.

As opposed to impartially providing information, propaganda, in its most basic sense, presents information primarily to influence an audience. Propaganda often presents facts selectively (thus possibly lying by omission) to encourage a particular synthesis, or uses loaded messages to produce an emotional rather than rational response to the information presented. The desired result is a change of the attitude toward the subject in the target audience to further a political, religious or commercial agenda. Propaganda can be used as a form of ideological or commercial warfare.

While the term propaganda has acquired a strongly negative connotation by association with its most manipulative and jingoistic examples (e.g. Nazi propaganda used to justify the Holocaust), propaganda in its original sense was neutral, and could refer to uses that were generally benign or innocuous, such as public health recommendations, signs encouraging citizens to participate in a census or election, or messages encouraging persons to report crimes to law enforcement, among others.

Specific techniques.Scholars have identified many standard techniques used in propaganda and persuasion:Ad hominem A Latin phrase that has come to mean attacking one's opponent, as opposed to attacking their arguments.

Ad nauseam This argument approach uses tireless repetition of an idea. An idea, especially a simple slogan, that is repeated enough times, may begin to be taken as the truth. This approach works best when media sources are limited or controlled by the propagator.

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Appeal to authority Appeals to authority cite prominent figures to support a position, idea, argument, or course of action.

Appeal to fear Appeals to fear and seeks to build support by instilling anxieties and panic in the general population, for example, Joseph Goebbels exploited Theodore Kaufman's Germany Must Perish! to claim that the Allies sought the extermination of the German people.

Appeal to prejudice Using loaded or emotive terms to attach value or moral goodness to believing the proposition. Used in biased or misleading ways.

Bandwagon and "inevitable-victory" appeals attempt to persuade the target audience to join in and take the course of action that "everyone else is taking".

Inevitable victory Invites those not already on the bandwagon to join those already on the road to certain victory. Those already or at least partially on the bandwagon are reassured that staying aboard is their best course of action.

Join the crowd This technique reinforces people's natural desire to be on the winning side. This technique is used to convince the audience that a program is an expression of an irresistible mass movement and that it is in their best interest to join.

Beautiful people The type of propaganda that deals with celebrities or depicts attractive, happy people. This suggests if people buy a product or follow a certain ideology, they too will be happy or successful.

The Lie The repeated articulation of a complex of events that justify subsequent action. The descriptions of these events have elements of truth, and the "big lie" generalizations merge and eventually supplant the public's accurate perception of the underlying events. After World War I the German Stab in the back explanation of the cause of their defeat became a justification for Nazi re-militarization and revanchist aggression.

Black-and-white fallacy Presenting only two choices, with the product or idea being propagated as the better choice. For example: "You're either with us, or against us...."

Classical conditioning All vertebrates, including humans, respond to classical conditioning. That is, if object A is always present when object B is present and object B causes a physical reaction (e.g., disgust, pleasure) then we will when presented with object A when object B is not present, we will experience the same feelings.

Cognitive dissonance People desire to be consistent. Suppose a pollster finds that a certain group of people hates his candidate for senator but loves actor A. They use actor A's endorsement of their candidate to change people's minds because people cannot tolerate inconsistency. They are forced to either to dislike the actor or like the candidate.

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Common man "The "plain folks" or "common man" approach attempts to convince the audience that the propagandist's positions reflect the common sense of the people. It is designed to win the confidence of the audience by communicating in the common manner and style of the target audience. Propagandists use ordinary language and mannerisms (and clothe their message in face-to-face and audiovisual communications) in attempting to identify their point of view with that of the average person. With the plain folks device, the propagandist can win the confidence of persons who resent or distrust foreign sounding, intellectual speech, words, or mannerisms."[13]

For example, a politician speaking to a Southern United States crowd might incorporate words such as "Y'all" and other colloquialisms to create a perception of belonging.

Cult of personality A cult of personality arises when an individual uses mass media to create an idealized and heroic public image, often through unquestioning flattery and praise. The hero personality then advocates the positions that the propagandist desires to promote. For example, modern propagandists hire popular personalities to promote their ideas and/or products.

Demonizing the enemy Making individuals from the opposing nation, from a different ethnic group, or those who support the opposing viewpoint appear to be subhuman (e.g., the Vietnam War-era term "gooks" for National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam aka Vietcong, or "VC", soldiers), worthless, or immoral, through suggestion or false accusations. Dehumanizing is also a termed used synonymously with demonizing, the latter usually serves as an aspect of the former.

Dictat This technique hopes to simplify the decision making process by using images and words to tell the audience exactly what actions to take, eliminating any other possible choices. Authority figures can be used to give the order, overlapping it with the Appeal to authority technique, but not necessarily. The Uncle Sam "I want you" image is an example of this technique.

Disinformation The creation or deletion of information from public records, in the purpose of making a false record of an event or the actions of a person or organization, including outright forgery of photographs, motion pictures, broadcasts, and sound recordings as well as printed documents.

Door-in-the-face technique Is used to increase a person's latitude of acceptance. For example, if a salesperson wants to sell an item for $100 but the public is only willing to pay $50, the salesperson first offers the item at a higher price (e.g., $200) and subsequently reduces the price to $100 to make it seem like a good deal.

Euphoria The use of an event that generates euphoria or happiness, or using an appealing event to boost morale. Euphoria can be created by declaring a holiday, making luxury items available, or mounting a military parade with marching bands and patriotic messages.

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Fear, uncertainty, and doubt An attempt to influence public perception by disseminating negative and dubious/false information designed to undermine the credibility of their beliefs.

Flag-waving An attempt to justify an action on the grounds that doing so will make one more patriotic, or in some way benefit a country, group or idea the targeted audience supports.

Foot-in-the-door technique Often used by recruiters and salesmen. For example, a member of the opposite sex walks up to the victim and pins a flower or gives a small gift to the victim. The victim says thanks and now they have incurred a psychological debt to the perpetrator. The person eventually asks for a larger favor (e.g., a donation or to buy something far more expensive). The unwritten social contract between the victim and perpetrator causes the victim to feel obligated to reciprocate by agreeing to do the larger favor or buy the more expensive gift.

Glittering generalities are emotionally appealing words that are applied to a product or idea, but present no concrete argument or analysis. This technique has also been referred to as the PT Barnum effect.

Half-truth A half-truth is a deceptive statement, which may come in several forms and includes some element of truth. The statement might be partly true, the statement may be totally true but only part of the whole truth, or it may utilize some deceptive element, such as improper punctuation, or double meaning, especially if the intent is to deceive, evade, blame or misrepresent the truth.

Labeling A euphemism is used when the propagandist attempts to increase the perceived quality, credibility, or credence of a particular ideal. A dysphemism is used when the intent of the propagandist is to discredit, diminish the perceived quality, or hurt the perceived righteousness of the Mark. By creating a "label" or "category" or "faction" of a population, it is much easier to make an example of these larger bodies, because they can uplift or defame the Mark without actually incurring legal-defamation. Example: "Liberal" is a dysphemism intended to diminish the perceived credibility of a particular Mark. By taking a displeasing argument presented by a Mark, the propagandist can quote that person, and then attack "liberals" in an attempt to both (1) create a political battle-ax of unaccountable aggression and (2) diminish the quality of the Mark. If the propagandist uses the label on too-many perceivably credible individuals, muddying up the word can be done by broadcasting bad-examples of "liberals" into the media. Labeling can be thought of as a sub-set of Guilt by association, another logical fallacy.

Latitudes of acceptance If a person's message is outside the bounds of acceptance for an individual and group, most techniques will engender psychological reactance (simply hearing the argument will make the message even less acceptable). There are two techniques for increasing the bounds of acceptance. First, one can take a more even extreme position that will make more moderate positions seem more acceptable. This is similar to the Door-in-the-Face technique.

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Alternatively, one can moderate one's own position to the edge of the latitude of acceptance and then over time slowly move to the position that was previously.[14]

Love bombing Used to recruit members to a cult or ideology by having a group of individuals cut off a person from their existing social support and replace it entirely with members of the group who deliberately bombard the person with affection in an attempt to isolate the person from their prior beliefs and value system—see Milieu control.

Lying and deception can be the basis of many propaganda techniques including Ad Homimen arguments, Big-Lie, Defamation, Door-in-the-Face, Half-truth, Name-calling or any other technique that is based on dishonesty or deception. For example, many politicians have been found to frequently stretch or break the truth.

Managing the news According to Adolf Hitler "The most brilliant propagandist technique will yield no success unless one fundamental principle is borne in mind constantly - it must confine itself to a few points and repeat them over and over."[15][16] This idea is consistent with the principle of classical conditioning as well as the idea of "Staying on Message."

An attempt to control the social environment and ideas through the use of social pressure

Name-calling Propagandists use the name-calling technique to incite fears and arouse prejudices in their hearers in the intent that the bad names will cause hearers to construct a negative opinion about a group or set of beliefs or ideas that the propagandist wants hearers to denounce. The method is intended to provoke conclusions about a matter apart from impartial examinations of facts. Name-calling is thus a substitute for rational, fact-based arguments against the an idea or belief on its own merits.[17]

Obfuscation, intentional vagueness, confusion Generalities are deliberately vague so that the audience may supply its own interpretations. The intention is to move the audience by use of undefined phrases, without analyzing their validity or attempting to determine their reasonableness or application. The intent is to cause people to draw their own interpretations rather than simply being presented with an explicit idea. In trying to "figure out" the propaganda, the audience forgoes judgment of the ideas presented. Their validity, reasonableness and application may still be considered.

Obtain disapproval or Reductio ad Hitlerum This technique is used to persuade a target audience to disapprove of an action or idea by suggesting that the idea is popular with groups hated, feared, or held in contempt by the target audience. Thus if a group that supports a certain policy is led to believe that undesirable, subversive, or contemptible people support the same policy, then the members of the group may decide to change their original position. This is a form of bad logic, where a is said to include X, and b is said to include X, therefore, a = b.

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Operant conditioning involves learning through imitation. For example, watching an appealing person buy products or endorse positions teaches a person to buy the product or endorse the position. Operant conditioning is the underlying principle behind the Ad Nauseam, Slogan and other repetition public relations campaigns.

Oversimplification Favorable generalities are used to provide simple answers to complex social, political, economic, or military problems.

Pensée unique Enforced reduction of discussion by use of overly simplistic phrases or arguments (e.g., "There is no alternative to war.")

Quotes out of context Selectively editing quotes to change meanings—political documentaries designed to discredit an opponent or an opposing political viewpoint often make use of this technique.

Rationalization (making excuses) Individuals or groups may use favorable generalities to rationalize questionable acts or beliefs. Vague and pleasant phrases are often used to justify such actions or beliefs.

Red herring Presenting data or issues that, while compelling, are irrelevant to the argument at hand, and then claiming that it validates the argument.

Repetition This is the repeating of a certain symbol or slogan so that the audience remembers it. This could be in the form of a jingle or an image placed on nearly everything in the picture/scene. This also includes using subliminal phrases, images or other content in a piece of propaganda.

Scapegoating Assigning blame to an individual or group, thus alleviating feelings of guilt from responsible parties and/or distracting attention from the need to fix the problem for which blame is being assigned.

Slogans A slogan is a brief, striking phrase that may include labeling and stereotyping. Although slogans may be enlisted to support reasoned ideas, in practice they tend to act only as emotional appeals. Opponents of the US's invasion and occupation of Iraq use the slogan "blood for oil" to suggest that the invasion and its human losses was done to access Iraq's oil riches. On the other hand, supporters who argue that the US should continue to fight in Iraq use the slogan "cut and run" to suggest withdrawal is cowardly or weak.

Stereotyping This technique attempts to arouse prejudices in an audience by labeling the object of the propaganda campaign as something the target audience fears, hates, loathes, or finds undesirable. For instance, reporting on a foreign country or social group may focus on the stereotypical traits that the reader expects, even though they are far from being representative of the whole country or group; such reporting often focuses on the anecdotal. In graphic

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propaganda, including war posters, this might include portraying enemies with stereotyped racial features.

Straw man A straw man argument is an informal fallacy based on misrepresentation of an opponent's position. To "attack a straw man" is to create the illusion of having refuted a proposition by substituting a superficially similar proposition (the "straw man"), and refuting it, without ever having actually refuted the original position.

Testimonials are quotations, in or out of context, especially cited to support or reject a given policy, action, program, or personality. The reputation or the role (expert, respected public figure, etc.) of the individual giving the statement is exploited. The testimonial places the official sanction of a respected person or authority on a propaganda message. This is done in an effort to cause the target audience to identify itself with the authority or to accept the authority's opinions and beliefs as its own.

Third party technique Works on the principle that people are more willing to accept an argument from a seemingly independent source of information than from someone with a stake in the outcome. It is a marketing strategy commonly employed by Public Relations (PR) firms, that involves placing a premeditated message in the "mouth of the media." Third party technique can take many forms, ranging from the hiring of journalists to report the organization in a favorable light, to using scientists within the organization to present their perhaps prejudicial findings to the public. Frequently astroturf groups or front groups are used to deliver the message.

Foreign governments, particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services, often promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods because the target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as vehicle for foreign messaging but also willing to receive the message while in a mental state of absorbing information from advertisements during television commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging technique is advertising campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations and services may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is common for advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or depictions of the foreign government's desired international public perception. Additionally, a wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective governments; examples include, though are not limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways (Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China), and Air China (People's Republic of China).

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By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light, countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public impressions. See: Soft Power.[citation needed]

Thought-terminating cliché A commonly used phrase, sometimes passing as folk wisdom, used to quell cognitive dissonance.

Transfer Also known as association, this is a technique that involves projecting the positive or negative qualities of one person, entity, object, or value onto another to make the second more acceptable or to discredit it. It evokes an emotional response, which stimulates the target to identify with recognized authorities. Often highly visual, this technique often utilizes symbols (e.g. swastikas) superimposed over other visual images (e.g. logos). These symbols may be used in place of words.

Selective truth Richard Crossman, the British Deputy Director of Psychological Warfare Division (PWD) for the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) during the Second World War said "In propaganda truth pays... It is a complete delusion to think of the brilliant propagandist as being a professional liar. The brilliant propagandist is the man who tells the truth, or that selection of the truth which is requisite for his purpose, and tells it in such a way that the recipient does not think he is receiving any propaganda... [...] The art of propaganda is not telling lies, but rather selecting the truth you require and giving it mixed up with some truths the audience wants to hear."

Unstated assumption This technique is used when the idea the propagandist wants to plant would seem less credible if explicitly stated. The concept is instead repeatedly assumed or implied.

Virtue words These are words in the value system of the target audience that produce a positive image when attached to a person or issue. Peace, happiness, security, wise leadership, freedom, "The Truth", etc. are virtue words. Many see religiosity as a virtue, making associations to this quality effectively beneficial. Their use is considered of the Transfer propaganda technique.

12. Describe the Treaty of Paris and its value for Canada

In the spring of 1760 the Chevalier de Levis led his regrouped French forces from Montreal to recapture Quebec City. The bloody action with the British, led by James Murray at the battle of Ste Foy brought the French a victory and forced the British back into the Fortress of Quebec.

The victory was short lived however when the British fleet appeared sailing up the St Lawrence on May 9th. There was no help coming from France, and the British forces from Quebec City,

and Lake Champlain converge to take Montreal and General Amherst accepted the French surrender of all of their North American territories.

The French had lost and 150 years New France history was at an end. The Treaty of Paris was agreed to in Europe and signed in 1763. The world war was over and peace was once again

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generally established throughout Europe and the European colonies throughout the world. This agreement allowed the French inhabitants of Canada to retain their religion and unique status but France gave up all territories except two small islands in the ST Lawrence to England. The great world war was over and most of North America was solidly under the control of Britain.

This however was not to last long. With the threat of the French gone and with the foreign barriers to westward expansion eliminated, the only restrictions left were those imposed by the British on it's own colonists. This application of authority over the colonies was not only resented but was to lead to an explosion of resistance to the Crown of Great Britain and thus were sow the seeds of the upcoming eruption that would be the American war of Independence and new challenges for the Canadians and loyal British subjects.

8. The French Third Republic, (1870/75-1940/46), was the governing body of France between the Second Empire and the Fourth Republic. It was a republican parliamentary democracy that was created on September 4, 1870 following the collapse of the Empire of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War. It survived until the invasion of France by the German Third Reich in 1940.In many ways it was an accidential and unloved republic, that stumbled from crisis to crisis before its final collapse. It was never intended to be a long-term republic at all. Throughout its seventy-year history, the Third Republic stumbled from crisis to crisis, from collapsing governments to the appointment of a mentally ill president.

6. Significant periods of drafting the constitution in Russia

Hopes for a constitution (1800–1917)The constitutional process in Russia has its origins in the beginning of the 19 century. By this time, the democratic constitution of 1787 was already in effect in the United States and Britain. With the ascent of Tsar Alexander I to the Russian throne, the idea of reforming Russia’s political system through creating a constitution that would guarantee citizens their personal freedom and civil liberties became increasingly popular.

Russia came close to adopting a constitution during the reign of reformist Tsar Alexander II. The abolition of serfdom in 1861 and steps to establish a local government system in the towns and the countryside gave rise to hopes in society that the country would get a constitution. In 1881, however, just before he was due to sign a manifesto opening the way to broad economic and administrative reform, Alexander II was killed by a terrorist. This barbaric act of violence

The Soviet constitutions (1917–1993)The Constitution of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) of 1918, adopted at the fifth All-Russian Congress of the Soviets on July 10, 1918, was very noticeably class-based in character. It reflected the slogans proclaimed by the Bolsheviks as they prepared the way for and carried out the 1917 coup. All power was given to the Soviets, private land ownership was abolished and certain social groups had their political rights restricted. On December 5, 1936, the VIII Extraordinary Congress of the USSR Soviets adopted a new constitution that aimed to strengthen the foundations of socialism and lay the basic guidelines for further work on building communism. In particular, the new constitution cemented the principle of the Communist Party’s leading role. The constitution also set out the basic economic principles of socialism: the abolition of private property, the predominance of the socialist economic system and socialist ownership of the means of production, and the establishment of state economic planning that would determine the country’s entire economic life.

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The construction of a new communist society did not proceed as rapidly as had been hoped and these delays were reflected in a new Soviet constitution proclaiming the construction of a “developed socialist society.” The constitution was adopted by the USSR Supreme Soviet on October 7, 1977. It went even further in extending Soviet citizens’ rights and freedoms, in particular, enshrining the right to housing and to healthcare.

The Russian Constitution of 1993 With the collapse of the Soviet Union it became clear that Russia would need a new constitution free from the layers of the past.

58.4 percent of those who took part in the referendum, voted in favour of the draft constitution and it was adopted. It officially came into force on December 25, 1993, at the moment of its official publication.

The 1993 constitution considerably changed the way the state power system is organised and made a lot of progress toward improving Russia’s federal structure. For the first time in Russia’s history, the constitution’s provisions have direct application. The constitution represents the highest law in the country and so all other laws must conform to its provisions.

12. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 10 February 1763 by France, Britain and Spain.The Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years’ War between them. It marked the end of that phase of European conflict in North America, and created the basis for the modern country of Canada. . Spain got the Louisiana territory for helping France out in the french and Indian war and England got all the land up to the Mississippi and the rest of Canada. Britain would later lose the southern North American colonies in the American Revolution. The northern colonies would become the modern country of Canada.

11. Legislative branch: bicameral legislature consists of the Federal Council or Bundesrat (69 votes; state governments sit in the Council; each has three to six votes in proportion to population and is required to vote as a block) and the Federal Parliament or Bundestag (630 seats; members elected by popular vote for a four-year term under a system of personalized proportional representation; a party must win 5% of the national vote or three direct mandates to gain proportional representation and caucus recognition)

elections:

Bundestag - last held on 22 September 2013 (next to be held no later than autumn 2017); most all postwar German governments have been coalitions; note - there are no elections for the Bundesrat; composition is determined by the composition of the state-level governments; the composition of the Bundesrat has the potential to change any time one of the 16 states holds an election

7. The first step in the end of the Cold War came when Mikhail S. Gorbachev implicitly abandoned the Brezhnev Doctrine.

The second act of the drama began in the fall of 1989 with peaceful revolutions in Eastern and Central Europe (except Romania) and the fall of the Soviet "outer empire." Shortly after Poland's

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electorate voted the Communists out of government in June 1989, Gorbachev announced that the Soviet Union would not interfere with the internal affairs of the Eastern European countries. By October, Hungary and Czechoslovakia followed Poland's example.

The third and final act closed with the 1991 dissolution of the USSR. By 1989 Gorbachev's domestic reforms had run into serious trouble, and the economy went into a tailspin. The centrifugal forces in the "outer empire" stimulated and accelerated those in the "inner empire", as the Soviet republics sought sovereignty and then independence.

On Christmas Day 1991, at 7:35 p.m., the Soviet flag flying over the Kremlin was lowered and replaced by the new Russian banner. The USSR officially ceased to exist on 31 December. The Cold War was over.

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