Canadian Glacier Hydrology, 2003-2007

Canadian Water Resources Journal Vol. 34(2): 195–204 (2009) © 2009 Canadian Water Resources AssociationRevue canadienne des ressources hydriques

Sarah Boon1, Gwenn E. Flowers2, and D. Scott Munro3

1 University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M42 Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S63 University of Toronto, Mississauga, ON L5L IC6

Submitted July 2007; accepted February 2009. Written comments on this paper will be accepted until December 2009.

Canadian Glacier Hydrology, 2003-2007

Sarah Boon, Gwenn E. Flowers, and D. Scott Munro

Abstract: Glacier hydrological research in Canada from 2002-2007 continues to advance, driven by new observations of glacier retreat in all regions of the country. New observation networks have been formed to study various aspects of glacier change and linkages with the hydrological system. Small-scale studies of accumulation and melt processes on glacier surfaces continue, and are being used to parameterize spatially distributed models of glacier mass balance and melt. Increasing emphasis has been placed on downscaling of regional and global climate model output to use as input to mass balance models. Advances in our understanding of water movement from the glacier surface to the bed has led to increased interest in runoff from glacierized catchments, which has significant policy implications for downstream water users. Continuing research includes maintenance and enhancement of field monitoring capabilities, improved algorithms to downscale climate model output, and adjustments to hydrological models to more accurately represent glacier cover for streamflow prediction.

Résumé : Des progrès continuent d’être réalisés par suite des recherches hydrologiques sur les glaciers au Canada, menées entre 2002 et 2007. Ces progrès s’appuient sur de nouvelles observations du retrait des glaciers dans toutes les régions du pays. De nouveaux réseaux d’observation ont été créés pour étudier les divers aspects du changement au niveau des glaciers et leurs liens avec le système hydrologique. Les études à petite échelle portant sur les processus d’accumulation et de fonte à la surface des glaciers se poursuivent, et elles servent à paramétrer des modèles spatialement distribués de bilan massique et de fonte des glaciers. Un accent de plus en plus grand a été mis sur la réduction d’échelle des sorties de modèle climatique régional et mondial afin qu’elles servent de données d’entrée aux modèles de bilan massique. Des progrès entourant notre compréhension de la circulation de l’eau à partir de la surface du glacier jusqu’au lit glaciaire ont donné lieu à un intérêt accru face au ruissellement des bassins englacés, ce qui a des répercussions considérables en matière de politique pour les utilisateurs d’eau en aval. Les recherches en cours englobent la mise à jour et l’amélioration des capacités de surveillance sur le terrain, l’amélioration des algorithmes pour la réduction d’échelle des sorties du modèle climatique et les ajustements aux modèles hydrologiques en vue de représenter de manière plus précise la couverture glaciaire pour la prédiction des débits.

196 Canadian Water Resources Journal/Revue canadienne des ressources hydriques

© 2009 Canadian Water Resources Association

Global Context

Canada’s share of the cryosphere covers 200,000 km2, distributed among glaciers and small ice caps in the Cordillera and the Arctic islands, excluding sea ice. The area is an order of magnitude less than Greenland, two orders of magnitude less than Antarctica, but nevertheless contains the third largest fresh water reservoir in the cryosphere. It is an ever shrinking reservoir, reflecting the changes that have occurred in glaciers and ice caps over the past century (Ohmura, 2006), with attendant implications for sea-level rise (Oerlemans et al., 2005). This paper gives an overview of glacier hydrological research in Canada from 2002-2007, which is marked by glacier mass balance investigations, studies in winter snow cover, summer ice and snow melt experiments, and discoveries in meltwater hydrology.

Mass Balance Investigations

As part of its contribution to cryospheric monitoring, Canada supports a National Glacier-Climate Observing System (NGCOS) operated by the Geological Survey of Canada in partnership with numerous university researchers, through which annual mass balance is measured at selected sites in the Cordillera and the Arctic, thus keeping track of glacier variations and hydrological response (Agnew et al., 2002). Some sites are used to train new cryospheric scientists under government and university supervision, notably at the Peyto Glacier, where mass balance measurements began in 1965 (Østrem, 2006). To this network may be added two new research networks: Improved Processes and Parameterization for Prediction (IP3) in cold regions, based at the University of Saskatchewan, and the Western Canada Cryospheric Network (WC2N), based at the University of Northern British Columbia, which will address the role of glacier variations as regards climate change impacts on hydrology.

Recent Work on Glacier Variations

The NGCOS supports glacier mass balance studies at the Andrei, Helm, Place, Peyto and Ram River Glaciers in the Coast Range and Rocky Mountains

of the Cordillera, the Brintnell-Bologna Icefield in the Mackenzie Mountains (Ragged Range), and at the Agassiz, Devon, Meighen and Melville Ice Caps, the Baby and White Glaciers, and at Grise Fjord, Penny Ice Cap and Grinnell Ice Cap in the Arctic. Almost all sites, the Devon for example (Mair et al., 2005), show negative cumulative balances, except the Meighen Ice Cap where local cooling feedback is possible (Koerner, 2005). Individual glacier response to climate change depends on glacier size, situation, hypsometry, and local climate; thus, the rate of glacier retreat with future warming temperatures will vary between glaciers. Overwhelmingly, however, glacier variations in Canada amount to shrinkage of land ice cover, with hydrological impacts such as streamflow reduction in the Saskatchewan River basin (Pietroniro et al., 2006) during periods when low flows would otherwise be augmented by glacier melt. This transition to more negative glacier mass balances has generally been associated with reductions in winter balance or nourishment.

Weather and Climate Connections

Glacier variations are sensitive to changes in precipitation and temperature regimes. The sensitivity of variations in accumulation of ice and snow on Mt. Logan is linked to circulation changes over the Pacific Ocean (Moore et al., 2002), to the extent that ENSO events can be detected at higher elevations (Moore et al., 2003). Pacific influences are evident as far inland as the Peyto Glacier (Demuth and Keller, 2006) where a mid-1970s shift from the cold to warm phase of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation appears to mark a transition to more negative glacier mass balances. In this region, glacier distribution is largely controlled by average March-April-May precipitation (Shea et al., 2004), while 500 kPa flow indices effectively describe Peyto Glacier mass balance variations (Shea and Marshall, 2007).

Winter Snow Cover

Temporal Variability of Snow Accumulation

Knowledge of the winter snow cover tends to be limited to a single annual observation at the time of

Boon, Flowers and Munro 197


the year when winter mass balance measurements are made. Yet, as we see from Shea et al. (2004), timing of precipitation within the accumulation season may be important to understanding glacier distribution in particular regions. Prospects for continuous measurement of snow cover evolution are improving as acoustic sounders and precipitation gauges are added to the array of instruments that constitute automatic weather stations, but several years of measurement are needed before the results can be assessed. In a recent assessment of precipitation data from 39 northern research basins, four of which were glacierized, Young et al. (2006) noted glacier basin sensitivity to summer snowfall and low winter storage. They also noted a wide variety of precipitation estimation procedures, signifying a need for calibration.

Spatial Variability of the Winter Snowpack

Spatial variability of snow cover and thickness is largely taken from winter mass balance measurements, where spatial resolution is poor, but there is a clear relationship between accumulation and elevation (e.g., Demuth and Keller, 2006). However, it is well-known that the evolution of the winter snow pack does not depend on precipitation alone (Colbeck, 1975). Thus, the winter mass balance gradient (with elevation) does not directly reflect the precipitation gradient, the quantity needed by modellers. Again, automatic weather stations located at higher elevations may help resolve this problem, particularly with respect to determining temperature thresholds for snow events.

Ice and Snow Melt

Point Studies of Surface Melt

Researchers are increasingly realizing the limitations of extrapolating the results of point micrometeorological investigations to a spatial grid. Nevertheless, such studies provide crucial insights into the processes that distributed models attempt to address, such as time variation of surface albedo (Cutler, 2006), suitable approaches to dealing with turbulent transfer through the glacier boundary-layer (Munro, 2006) and

roughness length transition for a ripening snow pack (Brock et al., 2006). Spatially distributed modelling often requires parameterization, so a key function of the point study is to test different parameterizations, as in a recent test of a boundary-layer heat transfer parameterization scheme for Peyto Glacier (Munro, 2004).

Spatially Distributed Melt

Melt modelling in the Canadian Rockies by Shea and Marshall (2007) showed that runoff was driven largely by supraglacial melt, and could be modelled using the accumulation area ratio and average measures of glacier surface albedo. Furthermore, Boon et al. (2003) determined that major summer melt events can be driven by shifts in large-scale synoptic circulation, signifying a need to build these types of events into basin-scale melt models. Researchers are incorporating advanced remote sensing into calculations of glacier melt, notably through the use of scatterometer images to determine the extent and duration of melt. This was done on Arctic ice caps from 2000-2004, and related to July 500 hPa geopotential heights over the Queen Elizabeth Islands (Wang et al., 2005). Melt modelling in general is complicated by variability in the surface temperature lapse rate (Marshall et al., 2007), which results in inversions or steeper/shallower lapse rates than the commonly assumed moist adiabatic lapse rate (MALR). It is often difficult to determine accurate lapse rates given the absence of high-elevation meteorological data; thus, attempts are under way to determine lapse rates from synoptic maps and improve melt model output.

Meltwater Hydrology

A fresh look has been taken at the way water moves through a glacier. This has spawned empirical and theoretical advances in our understanding of discharge modulation (e.g., Flowers et al., 2003; Fleming, 2005), glacier dynamics (e.g., Boon and Sharp, 2003; Kavanaugh and Clarke, 2006) and climate change impacts on discharge (e.g., Flowers et al., 2005; Stahl and Moore, 2006).



Supraglacial Hydrology

The importance of surface meltwater in the dynamics of temperate glaciers has been known for decades, but recent studies documenting the acceleration of cold thick ice in response to changes in surface water input (e.g., Das et al., 2008) have raised the question of whether climate can rapidly affect large ice masses like the Greenland ice sheet. Field observations of short bursts of enhanced glacier flow on a polythermal glacier support the idea of a rapid dynamic response to climate (Bingham et al., 2006), while field observations of surface meltwater reaching the bed of the same glacier (Boon and Sharp, 2003) confirm the occurrence of this process.

Englacial Hydrology

Flowers and Clarke (2002a; 2002b) treat the glacier as a fractured medium in their numerical model of glacier hydrology designed to simulate water flow through the polythermal Trapridge Glacier, allowing surface meltwater to reach the glacier bed through crevasses and moulins, but causing water conducted laterally within the glacier to move through a system of interconnected fractures. Citing evidence that water-filled crevasses may propagate all the way through ice shelves, Arnold and Sharp (2002) route surface water to the ice-sheet bed in their numerical model—the first of its kind to explicitly consider surface meltwater as a source to the basal drainage system. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) work on Bylot Island in Canada’s Arctic has shown that the thermal structure of polythermal glaciers is closely linked to hydrology, and that complex interactions exist between these polythermal glaciers and their frozen surroundings (Irvine-Fynn et al., 2006). Related work by Moorman (2005) demonstrated the interconnectivity of Stagnation Glacier with adjacent ice-cored moraines, documented englacial drainage through both moulins and fractures, and mapped an evolving esker from the proglacial area upstream to at least 100 m distance under the present glacier terminus. These studies illustrate the ongoing difficulty of conceptualizing and modelling englacial water flow.

The Subglacial System

Sharp (2005) identifies the role of subglacial drainage in modulating runoff from glaciers, chemical weathering, glaciological hazards and ice dynamics as reasons for the ongoing interest in its study. All of these are linked to important basal processes (e.g., Clarke, 2005), such as the tight coupling between diurnal meltwater input and diurnal fluctuations in measured glacier velocity (Nienow et al., 2005). Mair et al. (2002), using empirical orthogonal function analysis to analyze the spatial and temporal patterns of glacier surface velocity, showed that the sensitivity of surface velocity to meltwater input was a function of drainage system maturity. Advances in the application of satellite radar interferometry have allowed investigation into short-term rapid meltwater delivery to the bed of John Evans Glacier, Ellesmere Island, as well as documentation of the seasonal relationships between glacier hydrology and velocity (Copland et al., 2003a; 2003b). Speckle tracking has also been used to document velocity increases on Ellesmere Island glaciers as a function of increased water delivery to the bed (Short and Gray, 2005), while others have applied satellite radar interferometry to assess possible sub-glacial hydraulic influences on surface velocity and elevation changes on the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (Gray et al., 2005).

The hydrology and dynamics of polythermal glaciers appear to be linked by seasonal drainage system evolution similar to that of temperate glaciers (e.g., Mair et al., 2002), insofar as sufficiently high and sustained meltwater fluxes lead to the development of efficient subglacial drainage systems (e.g., Bingham et al., 2005). The dynamic response of the glacier depends on the evolution of the drainage system, with horizontal velocities lowest in winter and highest during “spring events” that have been observed to last two to four days on John Evans Glacier (Bingham et al., 2006).

Seasonal transitions, including spring events, have been documented on other polythermal glaciers where direct and simultaneous measurements of basal hydraulic and mechanical conditions furnish a detailed picture of event propagation (Kavanaugh and Clarke, 2001). Flowers and Clarke (2002b) have attempted to model these events in the drainage system of Trapridge Glacier, using a multicomponent finite-difference model comprising supraglacial, englacial, subglacial and groundwater drainage systems.



Noting the role of meltwater in the dynamics of land-based polythermal glaciers on a variety of timescales, a major International Polar Year project has been initiated on the Belcher Glacier, a tidewater outlet of the Devon Ice Cap, to determine the role of meltwater in the glacier’s dynamic response to climate change.

Outflow and Climate Change

As policymakers become more aware of the impacts of climate change, they are particularly interested in determining impacts on our water resources—of which glaciers are the aspect most visible to the general public (Irvine-Fynn et al., 2005). Research is under way to quantify climate change effects on water resources in glacierized areas, with one promising approach being the statistical analysis of glacierized basin response to both historic and current climate conditions. Fleming and Clarke (2003) found a correspondence between historical warming and the respective increase and decrease in the volumes of glacial and nival rivers in the Yukon/British Columbia (BC) border region. This cautions against regional generalizations of the response of glacierized basins to warming. Additional analyses of the same dataset found that glaciers appear to attenuate hydroclimatic variability on a two to three year timescale (Fleming and Clarke, 2005), suggesting that glacierized basins moderate short rather than long-term fluctuations in streamflow.

Further to the point of long-term runoff and climate change, Stahl and Moore (2006) analyzed discharge from glacierized and non-glacierized basins throughout British Columbia to determine that most glacierized watersheds in the province have now passed the initial phase of increased runoff caused by climate warming, adding to results from previous studies of mountain runoff in Alberta (Demuth and Pietroniro, 2002). Streamflow can thus be expected to decline with further warming, although this decline may be offset by changes in precipitation or cloud cover. While Stahl and Moore (2006) temper this conclusion with a call for more detailed modelling of glacier contributions to streamflow, this is a significant finding in a region where glacier-fed rivers are an important contributor to the hydrologic cycle.

Statistical methods have also assisted in elucidating relationships between glaciers, streamflow and large-

scale circulation indices. Wavelet analysis revealed particularly strong diurnal variations in glacier-derived runoff into Bow Lake, Alberta in 1998 that were attributed to early loss of the seasonal snow cover and relatively high temperatures associated with El Niño (Lafrenière and Sharp, 2003).

Differential responses of glacial and nival streamflow to the Arctic Oscillation (AO) have been documented near the Yukon/BC border (Fleming et al., 2006). Glacier cover produced a teleconnection between discharge and the AO in the study area—a relationship which was absent in nival rivers. Additional studies of this type would assist in characterizing hydrologic response to natural low frequency variability in the climate system.

While much effort has been directed toward understanding the mechanistic relationships between glacier outflow and climate, useful future projections hinge on our ability to realistically model the role of glaciers in watershed hydrology. Of the major operational runoff models currently in use, few include a representation of glacier melt (e.g., HBV (Bergström, 1976); UBC Watershed Model (Quick and Pipes, 1977); WATFLOOD (Kouwen, 1988)). Hydrologists are increasingly attempting to adapt runoff models to accommodate glacier melt processes (e.g., Rees and Collins, 2006). However, a gap remains between traditional methods of incorporating static land cover classes (e.g., glacier) into watershed models versus the need to capture dynamic changes in glacier extent and properties that affect the downstream delivery of water (Hock et al., 2005).

Future Outlook

Environment Canada (2004) identified areas in Canadian cryospheric research that require further study. Based on their recommendations, Canadian glaciologists appear to be addressing these concerns better than ever before, now that the promise of discoveries from IP3 and WC2N can be added to what continues to be learned from the NGCOS, as well as from the individual research efforts initiated at institutions and universities throughout Canada. Attempts to improve downscaling of regional and global climate models, and improvement of hydrologic models to incorporate better ice-cover characterisation and change, are all being conducted by Canadian



researchers (e.g., Hopkinson and Demuth, 2006). Researchers are also maintaining—and enhancing—field collection of glacier mass balance data, automatic meteorological station data, and stream gauge data. None of this is possible, of course, without continuing support from funding agencies, notably the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Studies, Environment Canada, Natural Resources Canada, the Canadian Space Agency, and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.

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Young, K. L., W. R. Bolton, A. Killingtveit, and D. Yang. 2006. Assessment of precipitation and snowcover in northern research basins. Nordic Hydrology 37 (4/5): 377-391.

Documents

Canadian Glacier Hydrology, 2003-2007