Can We Play a Game Now the Intrinsic Benefits of TGfU

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Contents

Original Papers

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Can We Play a Game Now? The Intrinsic Benefits of TGfU mn

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What do We Know about the Profile and Characteristics of University

Physical Education Students? Findings from a Pilot Study `m

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The Effects of a Tobacco Smoking Prevention Programme for Secondary

School Students n_

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The Relationship between Healthy Eating Beliefs and Food Consumption

in Adolescents ^C

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Trends in Overweight and Obese Pre-School and School Children

in Liechtenstein, 2004–2008 uC

Editorial Papers

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Obesity Diffusion among Children and Adolescents: Trends, Methodological

Problems and Countermeasures at European Level un

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Health Dimension of School Education CB_

Information for the Paper Authors

CCC





ORIGINAL PAPERS European Journal of Physical & Heath Education, 2010, vol. 4(2), 57-63.

Can We Play a Game Now? The Intrinsic Benefits of TGfU

Ruan J.A. Jones

1

, Stephanie Marshall

2

, Derek M. Peters

3, 4

1 Institute of Sport & Exercise Science, University of Worcester, United Kingdom

2Nunnery Wood High School, Worcester, United Kingdom

3 Institute of Sport & Exercise Science, University of Worcester, United Kingdom

4 Universitetet i Agder, Kristiansand

4 (University of Agder, Faculty of Health & Sport, Norway)

Abstract As an instructional model Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) has been identified as impacting pre-dominantly upon the cognitive domain. The impact of exposure to a TGfU Physical Education (PE) instructionalmodel within the affective domain of learning, however, has been less well researched and calls have beenmade for further investigation. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of TGfU versus a traditionalskills-based approach on the intrinsic motivations of 11–14 year old children in PE.Ninety-nine boys and one hundred and three girls from three schools were assigned to one of the treatment

conditions dependent on their current PE class. The intervention lasted for six weeks during which half of thesample was taught an invasion games unit of work using a TGfU approach and the other half was taught usinga traditional skills-based approach. PE teachers were trained to deliver the appropriate approach and lessonsin the first two weeks were observed to ensure consistency. The Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) [Ryan,1982] – a six-subscale instrument that measures perceptions of interest/enjoyment, sport competence,effort/importance, choice, pressure/tension and value/usefulness – was administered pre- and post intervention.

A two way (group x gender) ANCOVA was used to adjust for the baseline subscale score. Significant group,gender and interaction effects were noted on all subscales.The results clearly illustrate the positive effects of a TGfU intervention, in terms of an intrinsically motivatingclimate, when compared to a skill-based approach; indeed these results have particular pertinence for a Na-tional Curriculum for PE recently revised to accentuate process, concepts and student creativity.Furthermore, longitudinal studies should investigate the efficacy of such approaches with respect to longer termphysical activity participation and engagement for young people.

Key words: Teaching Games for Understanding; affect; intrinsic motivation; creativity.

Introduction

Research has shown that as children grow

older their interest and participation in physical

education (PE) decreases [22]. More specifically,

The Health Education Authority (HEA) [13] has

indicated that the physical activity of young peo-

ple in the UK has shown a steady decline. Such

findings are extremely worrying given the contin-

ued concern expressed about increasing obesity

levels and sedentary lifestyles adopted by a sig-nificant number of children and adolescents [11].

However, prominent professional organisations [3]

still advocate the role of physical education pro-

grammes in promoting public health. Specifically,

one of the corporate objectives of AfPE is

to ‘raise awareness of physical education’s con-

tributions to public health and well-being’ (AfPE

online).

Since experts stress that lifestyle physical

activity habits need to be developed early in life

[29], there is little doubt that PE programmes

provide the appropriate setting for the promotion

of health-related learning and behaviours. Con-

sequently, early, positive, physical activity ex-

periences in an educational environment ought

to increase the likelihood of maintaining a physi-

cally active lifestyle [36]. Thus, as B.L. Alderman

et al. [1] espouse, ‘quality physical education

programmes and effective physical educators

play a vital role in providing youngsters with early

positive experiences of physical activity’ (p. 41). Allied to this positive environment is the need

to motivate individuals to initiate and maintain

a physically active lifestyle [1]. The belief that

motivation is a key component in active engage-

ment is well established and generally unques-

tioned [18, 32]. A primary goal, therefore, for all

physical education specialists is to ‘increase

youngster’s motivation to engage in, and enjoy,

regular physical activity’ [1, p. 44]. As J.R. White-

head and C.B. Corbin [38] explain:

throughout the development of school physical

education and youth sport, there has been

57



a universal and intuitive belief held by profes-

sionals that such programmes hold tremen-

dous potential for developing self-esteem and

motivation in children… learning sports skills

and success in sports can lead to self-esteem

and that self-esteem can lead to a desireto persist in sports (p. 192–193).

Indeed, J.R. Whitehead and C.B. Corbin’s

contention might appear increasingly salient

in England considering the advent of the revised

National Curriculum for PE (NCPE) in September

2008 at Key Stage 3 (11–14 years) that could be

viewed as less prescriptive and more student-

centred [26].

Previous research has suggested that phy-

sical activity environments that promote intrinsic

motivation, perceived physical competence and

mastery-orientated physical activity tasks are key

components in determining physical activity mo-

tivation [1, 20]. More specifically, studies have

also shown that the intention to be physically ac-

tive after the school years is positively predicted

by intrinsic motivation [23]. Therefore, the envi-

ronment in which physical educators deliver their

programmes of physical activity and by infer-

ence, games, is of great importance and conse-

quently there has been much debate regardingthe delivery and learning outcomes of games

experiences [14].

The introduction of the tactical Teaching

Games for Understanding (TGfU) approach [5]

was a key catalyst for discussions of pedagogical

and theoretical aspects of games teaching.

D.J. Bunker and R.D. Thorpe [5] developed TGfU

in response to the typical and more prevalent

method of games teaching that relies heavily

on highly structured lessons where the teaching

of technique is predominant (i.e. skills based

teaching). Indeed, the central aspect of the de-

bate focused on the relative merits of the TGfU

approach over traditional skills-based teaching.

Research that has been undertaken to elucidate

upon the relative strengths of the TGfU approach

has, however, tended to focus mainly on cogni-

tive and psychomotor learning outcomes [2, 35],

with limited consideration of the affective domain

of learning in published literature.

C.C. Pope (2005) explains that there is

a degree of, “perceived vagueness or ambiguity

about the meaning of the term [affect]” (p. 273)

and the inability to provide an exact definition

of ‘affect’ is illustrated throughout social psycho-

logical literature. B. Moore & A. Isen [21] make

reference to the generic and all encompassing

nature of affect – distinct from the intense, focus-

sed and disrupting nature of emotions (for exam-ple, disgust, anger, pleasure). J.A. Beane [4],

meanwhile, explains that affect is also founded

on a range of dimensions including beliefs, aspi-

rations, attitudes and appreciations – individually

and collectively.

Irrespective of the supposed indeterminate

nature of the affective domain, young people

consistently associate principal reasons for PE

and sport participation in terms of fun and enjoy-

ment [1, 30]. Therefore, the inference from these

and other studies is that fun and enjoyment are

defined as positive affective responses by young

people, and, more saliently, intrinsic determi-

nants of participation [25].

Most of the published research associated

with TGfU focuses on outcomes in terms of the

performance outcome; nevertheless as Werner

et al. (1996) have suggested, the primary pur-

poses of teaching any game should be not only

to ‘improve students’ game performance [but

also] to improve their enjoyment and participationin games, which might lead to a more healthy

lifestyle’ (p. 32). R.J.A. Jones et al. [16] qualify

this point, by advocating such approaches

(TGfU) within the National Curriculum for Physi-

cal Education (NCPE), because of the potential

for the enhancement of student self-perceptions

that are closely associated with intrinsic motiva-

tion.

Some studies [12] have suggested that af-

fective outcomes, such as fun and enjoyment,

may be enhanced through TGfU, and that pupils

may be more highly motivated to participate due

to its games-orientated approach. For example,

children, coaches and parents all acknowledged

that games and game-like situations were more

fun than technically orientated drills [34]; while

D.J. Bunker & R.D. Thorpe in their original 1982

text highlighted that pupils often perceived

the skill development phase of a lesson as bor-

ing and irrelevant resulting in the commonly

asked question: “when are we going to play

a game?”

58



Aim

The primary aim of this study was to inves-

tigate the impact of the employment of a TGfU

approach compared to the impact of a traditional

‘skills based’ approach on the intrinsic motiva-

tions of pupils in Key Stage three (11-14 year olds).

Materials and Methods

Participants

Two hundred and two Key Stage three (KS3)

pupils from three secondary schools in the West

Midlands, England, UK took part in the study

(School X n=85, 39 males, 46 females; School Y

n=48, 23 males, 25 females; School Z n=69,

37 males, 32 females). Participants were grouped

by their physical education classes in school and

taught by their physical education teacher. Two

teachers from each school participated in the stu-

dy, (one male and one female) and the male tea-

cher taught the male pupils and the female tea-

cher taught the female pupils. This was due

to the fact that within the selected schools

this was the standardised format for teaching

physical education.

Ethical Considerations

All three secondary schools were contactedprior to the commencement of the study, and fol-

lowing discussion and in accordance with the eth-

ics approval procedures of the University, the head

teacher and PE teachers involved gave written

informed consent.

Instrumentation

Intrinsic Motivation Measure

The Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) was

used to measure intrinsic motivation. The instru-

ment contains six subscales assessing partici-

pant’s levels of interest/enjoyment, perceived com-

petence, effort, value/usefulness, felt pressure

and tension, and perceived choice while perform-

ing a given activity. Responses are rated on a li-

kert-scale from 1, not at all true, to 7 very true.

The IMI items have often been modified

slightly to fit specific activities without effecting its

reliability or validity [28]. For the purpose of this

study it was slightly reworded so participants

were able to respond specifically to physical edu-

cation e.g. ‘this activity’ was replaced with ‘PE’

throughout.

Procedure

Before the beginning of the study one re-

searcher held several meetings with the two tea-

chers from each school to outline the underlying

principles and procedures of the study. The na-

ture of the two teaching models was explainedthoroughly, through both written and verbal com-

munication to ensure that all teachers understood

how to deliver their invasion games unit of work

to both groups of pupils. The two approaches

were then piloted by the teachers prior to the start

of the study and observed by the researchers

to ensure validity and consistency in teaching

approach. The IMI was also piloted with a sam-

ple to make sure that KS3 pupils understood

the terminology used within the questionnaire.

Teaching took place over a six week pe-

riod, known as a unit of work in which the teach-

ers taught an invasion game dependent on their

timetables. The IMI was completed by pupils

at the end of their previous unit of work, in order

to obtain baseline figures for motivation in physi-

cal education.

Each teacher then taught their two groups

of pupils using either a skills based or TGfU ap-

proach – selected at random – for the duration

of the unit of work. The IMI was again adminis-tered at the end of the unit of work.

Results

Table 1 presents the pre- and post- inter-

vention mean scores and standard deviations

for all of the subscales included on the IMI and

interpretation of the outcomes of 2 (teaching

approach) by 2 (gender) ANCOVA for each sub-

scale using the baseline subscale score as

the covariate.

Two way (group x gender) ANCOVA ad-

justed for the baseline subscale identified: signifi-

cant main effects for teaching approach for inter-

est & enjoyment (F(1,197)=241.74, p<0.001, eta

squared=.55), effort/importance (F(1,197)=197.39,

p<0.001, eta squared=.50) and perceived choice

(F(1,197)=154.17, p<0.001, eta squared=.44)

with the TGfU group significantly higher on each

subscale; significant main effects for both teach-

ing approach and gender for value/usefulness

[group F(1,197) = 304.49, p<0.001, eta

squared= .61; gender F(1,197)=9.83, p=.002; eta

squared=.05] with the TGfU students significantly

59



higher than the skill-based students and girls sig-

nificantly higher than boys in both conditions; and

significant interaction effects for perceived com-

petence (F(1,197)=5.99, p<.05, eta squared=.03)

with boys in the TGfU group responding signifi-

cantly more positively than girls and for pressure/

tension (F(1,197)=10.68, p<0.01, eta squared=.05)

with girls in the TGfU group responding signifi-

cantly more positively than the boys.

Table 1. Means (±SD) for subscales at pre- and post- intervention for the TGfU and skills-based groups

Pre Post

TGfU SB TGfU SB

Interest & enjoyment 4.65±1.04 4.89±1.00 5.98±.71 4.89±1.02a

Perceived competence 4.97±.82 4.94±.81 6.08±.68 5.07±.75c

Effort/importance 4.35±1.06 4.42±1.11 5.64±.72 4.50±.98a

Perceived choice 2.96±1.14 2.82±.96 3.79±1.00 2.88±.88a

Pressure/tension 3.44±1.00 3.26±.93 2.64±.94 3.31±.87c

Value/usefulness 3.84±.83 4.12±.92 5.48±.81 4.17±.87b

a/ Group main effect; b/ Group & gender main effects; c/ Group x gender interaction

Whilst statistically significant interaction

and gender effects were identified in relation

to the perceived competence and pressure ten-

sion subscales, the respective moderate to small

effect sizes [9] render these particular results

practically unimportant relative to the group ef-

fects. Consequently, these results will not form

part of the discussion.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to investi-

gate the impact of the employment of a TGfU

approach compared to the impact of a traditional

‘skills based’ approach on the intrinsic motiva-

tions of pupils in Key Stage three (11–14 years

old). The results presented in table 1 identify

significant enhancement of each of the IMI sub-

scales as a result of exposure to the TGfU teach-

ing approach.

Significant main effects were identified

for the interest and enjoyment, effort and impor-

tance and perceived choice subscales indicating

that both males and females in the TGfU groups

had reported enhanced levels of intrinsic motiva-

tion. Increased levels of intrinsic motivation are

clearly desirable since the intention to be physi-

cally active after the school years is positively

predicted by intrinsic motivation [23]. This finding

is supportive of previous assertions [12] that

affective outcomes, such as fun and enjoyment,may be enhanced through TGfU as pupils may

be more highly motivated to participate due to its

games-orientated approach.

The results of the choice subscale reflect

the notion that perceived choice, or in this re-

spect, an autonomous physical educational envi-

ronment has a positive impact on intrinsic moti-

vation [10], since both male and female TGfU

groups illustrated a significant increase in per-

ceived choice over the six week teaching period(p < 0.001).

It is worth noting that whilst the mean scores

for choice and autonomy are relatively low, they

are congruent with previous findings [23] where

students also reported low scores for perceived

choice and autonomy. N. Ntoumanis [23] argued

that such findings could be attributed to the fact

that: ‘PE teachers in Britain have to follow a very

prescriptive National Curriculum which often

does not provide chances for student initiative

and leadership roles’ (p. 236), thus reducing

feelings of perceived choice in games and physi-

cal education1.

1 Since this study was conducted the NCPE has undergonerevision: 6 Areas of Activity (Games, Athletics, Swimming,Dance, Gymnastics and Outdoor & Adventurous Activities)have been replaced by a Range and Content strand thatdoes not refer to specific activities directly. Instead this strandis founded upon underlying principles (e.g. “outwitting oppo-nents”, “identifying and solving problems”). The Qualifications

and Curriculum Authority (QCA) [26] emphasises a dramaticparadigmatic shift from product, teaching and content toprocess, personalised learning and transferable skills.

60



It is also possible, that PE teachers do not

feel comfortable experimenting with new teaching

models or styles, particularly ones that reduce

their control over the class and provide a greater

degree of student involvement. As J. Butler [6]

argues, ‘the rub is that change is not always com-fortable’ (p. 228) specifically referring to the gen-

eration of teachers who ‘teach the way they were

taught’ (p. 226). Moreover, the Skill Based ap-

proach to games teaching is still found to be

the prevailing teaching method used by PE prac-

titioners [8], despite the recommendation for criti-

cal oriented pedagogy in initial teacher educa-

tion [17].

Therefore, although the teachers in this stu-

dy carried out, what they interpreted as, a TGfU

unit of work with pupils, their understanding and

application of the TGfU process may not have

included a vast amount of choice. This is most

likely due to each teacher’s ‘value orientation’ [7];

furthermore, she contends that most teachers

carry a disciplinary mastery value orientation,

which is inherent in skills based teaching.

This would prevent teachers, at least immedi-

ately, from being able to reduce their control over

the class – control asserted possibly through

the use of closed or leading questions, and thusprovide fewer opportunities for choice and stu-

dent involvement.

The significant gender interaction on the val-

ue/usefulness subscale, indicated that girls per-

ceived TGfU related activities to fulfil individual

needs and provide satisfaction more than boys.

These findings support previous research

by J. Mandigo et al. [20] who found significant

gender variations in relation to TGfU lessons

taught in an autonomy supportive environment.

A. Lee [18] meanwhile, commenting on the work

of B.W. Pissanos and P.C. Allison [24] advises

that: “gender was more powerful than skill level,

academic achievement, participation level, physi-

cal size, creativity, timidity, popularity, verbal

ability, or impressionability in influencing how

students construct meaning of… physical educa-

tion (p. 143). She also maintains that the value

an individual affords a particular task is critical

in defining meaning, enjoyment and subsequent

engagement.

Typically, but not exclusively, activities that

are ego oriented in nature (competition, compari-

son) can have a general de-motivating effect [15]

others, however [28] reported girls, specifically,

valuing a task or mastery (autonomy supportive)

orientation. Interestingly, A. Williams and J. Bed-

ward [39] articulate, through relational analysis,

the desire of mid adolescent girls to participatein, and experience, traditional boys games in-

cluding football, rugby and cricket – denied them

in formal PE settings. Undoubtedly, with the revi-

sions – dare it be said improvements – made

to the NCPE and the dissolution of specific activ-

ity areas, there is a great opportunity for both

sexes to experience an array of games consid-

ered unfamiliar or novel in PE prior to 2008

(for example, Australian Rules football, Ultimate,

Floor ball, Kabaddi, etc).

Conclusions and Recommendations

The current findings lend support to previ-

ous studies [14], that affective experiences

(in this respect intrinsic motivation) can be sig-

nificantly enhanced through TGfU interventions

in PE. Furthermore, the apparent autonomy sup-

portive environment of such an approach [20]

has important practical implications for the teach-

ing of games within the NCPE. First, TGfU is

ideally suited to a PE Curriculum underpinnedby concepts and processes [26], and, hence,

the opportunity to explore the transferable na-

ture of a variety of game forms. Second, the re-

sults of this study advocate the implementation

of TGfU as meaningful and valued games peda-

gogy (especially for girls based on the results

of the current study) at a time when games

(typically team games) according to A. Smith

et al. [31] continue to predominate the NCPE

landscape. Notwithstanding this contention, cau-

tion must be urged considering the small sample

that participated in this study, and further investi-

gation of the mediating effects of gender on TGfU

interventions is warranted.

Limitations to this study include the fact that

participants were treated as a homogeneous sam-

ple, all pupils were from Key Stage 3 (11–14 years

of age) when subtle and dramatic variations have

been measured in the self-esteem of early to mid

adolescents [33]. Therefore future research should

look at the influence that TGfU has on pupils

from different age ranges and Key Stages and

examine developmental differences. Another sug-

61



gestion includes carrying out a similar study but

within alternative categories of games (e.g. net/

wall, striking & fielding), in common with J. Man-

digo et al. [20].

Students’ subjective experiences within PE

classes are often affected by their perceptionof the skill needed to successfully engage

in an activity – invasion games were reported

by J. Mandigo and N. Holt [19] to significantly

diminish levels of motivation in their participants

with an accompanying increase in negative com-

ments.

Despite the limitations, the results of this stu-

dy have important practical implications. It is evi-

dent that TGfU has positive effects on the affec-

tive experiences of children (albeit, with respect

to a small sample) in PE. Lastly, therefore, a lon-

gitudinal research design is merited to examine

the long-term effects of a TGfU teaching model

on the interest and participation in games andphysical activity. Games will always dominate

the teaching landscape in England (especially

traditional team games) as it is a cultural legacy

of the nation. Consequently, it is a priority that

they are taught in a meaningful way that en-

gages and motivates young people.

BIBLIOGRAPHY1. Alderman B.L., Beighle A., Pangrazi R.P. (2006). Enhancing Motivation in Physical Education. Journal

of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 77, 41–51.

2. Allison S., Thorpe R.D. (1997). A comparison of the effectiveness of two approaches to teaching gameswithin physical education: A skills approach versus a games for understanding approach. British Journalof Physical Education, 28, 17–21.

3. Association for Physical Education (AfPE). Retrieved: February 7, 2009, from http://www.afpe.org.uk/

4. Beane J.A. (1990). Affect in the curriculum: toward democracy, dignity and diversity. Columbia: TeachersCollege Press.

5. Bunker D.J., Thorpe R.D. (1982). A model for the teaching of games in secondary schools. Bulletin of Physi-cal Education, 18, 5–8.

6. Butler J. (2005). TGfU pet-agogy: old dogs, new tricks and puppy school. Physical Education and SportPedagogy, 10, 225–240.

7. Butler J. (2006). Curriculum constructions of ability: enhancing learning through Teaching Games for Under-standing (TGfU) as a curriculum model. Sport, Education and Society. 11, 243–258.

8. Capel S., Blair R. (2007). Making physical education relevant: Increasing the impact of initial teacher educa-tion. London Review of Education, 5, 15–34.

9. Cohen J.W. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences (2nd

Edition). Hillsdale, NJ: Law-rence Erlbaum Associates.

10. Deci E., Ryan R. (Eds.), (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester, NY: Universityof Rochester Press.

11. Green K., Hardman K. (2005). Physical Education Essential Issues. London: Sage.

12. Griffin L., Oslin J.L., Mitchell S.A. (1995). An analysis of two instructional approaches to teaching net games.Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 66, 65–66.

13. Health Education Authority (2003). Young People and Health: Health Behaviour in School Aged Children. A report of the 2002 findings.

14. Holt N.L., Strean W.B., Bengoechea E.G. (2002). Expanding the Teaching Games for Understanding Model:New Avenues for Future Research and Practice. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 21, 162–176.

15. John Wang C.K., Chatzisarantis N.L.D., Spray C.M., Biddle S.J.H. (2002). Achievement goal profiles in physi-cal education: differences in self-determination, sport ability beliefs, and physical activity. British Journalof Educational Psychology, 72, 433–445.

16. Jones R.J.A., Polman R.C.J., Peters D.M. (2009). Physical self-perceptions of adolescents in Years 8, 9 and10 in independent schools, state comprehensive schools and specialist sport colleges in England. PhysicalEducation & Sport Pedagogy, 14, 109–124.

17. Kirk D. (2009). A Critical Pedagogy for Teacher Education: Toward an Inquiry-Oriented Approach, in R. Bai-ley, D. Kirk (Eds.), The Routledge Physical Education Reader (pp. 207–224). London: Routledge.

18. Lee A. (2009). Contributions of research on student thinking in Physical Education. In: R. Bailey, D. Kirk(Eds.), The Routledge Physical Education Reader (135–150). London: Routledge.

19. Mandigo J., Holt N.L. (2006). Elementary Students’ accounts of Optimal Challenge. In: Physical Education.

The Physical Educator, 4, 170–183.20. Mandigo J., Holt N., Anderson A., Sheppard J. (2008). Children’s motivational experiences following auton-

omy-supportive games lessons. European Physical Education Review, 14, 407–425.

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21. Moore B., Isen A. (1990). Affect and social behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

22. Mowling C.M., Eiler K.K., Brock S.J., Rudisill M.E. (2004). Student Motivation in Physical Education.The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 75, 40–51.

23. Ntoumanis N. (2001). A self-determination approach to the understanding of motivation in physical education.British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 225–242.

24. Pissanos B.W., Allison P.C. (1993). Students’ constructs of elementary school physical education. Research

Quarterly for Exercise & Sport , 64, 425–435.25. Pope C.C. (2005). Once more with feeling: affect and playing with the TGfU model. Physical Education

and Sport Pedagogy, 10, 271–286.

26. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) (2009). PE and the National Curriculum aims. Retrievedon May, 12, 2009, from http://curriculum.qca.org.uk/key-stages-3-and-4/subjects/physical-education

27. Ryan R.M. (1982). Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere: An extension of cognitive evaluationtheory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 450–461.

28. Ryan R.M., Connell J.P., Plant R.W. (1990). Emotions in non-directed text learning. Learning and IndividualDifferences, 2, 1–17.

29. Sallis J.F., McKenzie T.L. (1991). Physical Education’s role in public health. Research Quarterly for Exerciseand Sport, 62, 124–137.

30. Smith A., Parr M. (2007). Young people’s views on the nature and purposes of physical education: a socio-logical analysis. Sport, Education and Society, 12, 37–58.

31. Smith A., Thurston M., Green K., Lamb K. (2007). Sports Participation and the ‘Obesity/health Crisis’: Reflec-tions on the Case of Young People in England. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 39, 457–464.

32. Solmon M.A. (2003). Student issues in physical education: Attitude, cognition, and motivation. In: S. J. Silver-man and D.D. Ennis (Eds.), Student Learning in Physical Education (147–163). Champaign, IL: Human Ki-netics.

33. Stiller J., Alfermann D. (2007). Promotion of a Healthy Self-Concept. In: J. Liukkonen, Y.V. Auweele, B. Ve-reijken, D. Alfermann, Y. Theodorakis (Eds.) Psychology for Physical Educators, 2

nd Ed., 123–140. Cham-

paign, IL: Human Kinetics.

34. Strean W.B., Holt N.L. (2000). Players’, coaches’ and parents’ perceptions of fun in youth sport. Avante,6, 84–98.

35. Turner A.P., Martinek T.J. (1999). An investigation into teaching games for understanding: Effects on skill,knowledge and game play. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70, 286–296.

36. Weiss M.R. (2000). Motivating kids in physical activity. The President’s Council on Physical Fitness andSports Research Digest, 3, 1–8.

37. Werner P., Thorpe R., Bunker D. (1996). Teaching Games for Understanding: Evolution of a Model. Journalof Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 67, 28–33.

38. Whitehead J.R., Corbin C.B. (1997). Self-esteem in children and youth: The role of sport and physical educa-tion. The Physical Self. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

39. Williams A., Bedward J. (2002). Understanding girls’ experiences of physical education: relational analysisand situated learning. In: D. Penney (Ed.), Gender and Physical Education, 146–160. London: Routledge.

Received: January 2010

Accepted: April 2010

Published: June 2010

Correspondence

Ruan J.A. JonesInstitute of Sport & Exercise Science, University of Worcester, UK

[email protected]

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http://curriculum.qca.org.uk/key-stages-3-and-4/subjects/physical-education




64




What do We Know about the Profile and Characteristicsof University Physical Education Students?

Findings from a Pilot Study

José M. Cancela Carral, Carlos Ayán Pérez

Universidade de Vigo(University of Vigo, Faculty of Education and Sport Sciences, Spain)

Abstract

The purpose of this pilot study was to compare and to analyze defining the profile of Spanish university stu-dents who register, study and complete either a Higher Degree in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences (PASS)or a Bachelor’s Degree in Specialized Physical Education Teaching (SPET). A 59-item survey was distributedamong 346 university students (246 from PASS and 100 from SPET). Results showed that a liking for sport wasthe fundamental reason why students choose a PE-related degree. SPET students were mainly oriented to-

wards teaching, while PASS students considered a wider range of orientations, although in both cases theirchoices depended greatly on current job opportunities available in their country. Men tended to opt for teachingand women for other sport-related aspects, such as training, while other options like management or sportsmarketing become clearly a minority choice. Although this study may contribute with some information about PEuniversity students’ profile, more and better research in this regard is needed.

Key words: physical education, university students, teachers.

Introduction

University degrees in Physical Education

(PE) have experienced a great deal of change

during the last years in such a way that qualifying

as a PE teacher is not their main objective any-more but also specializing in new domains like

health, training or recreation [16]. In recent years

various studies have examined the profile

and expectations of students from different coun-

tries registered in different health-related univer-

sity degrees such as medicine [8, 13], nursing [4, 5]

or physiotherapy [9, 19] but to the authors’ know-

ledge there is hardly any information about

the profile of those students who register in PE-

related university degrees and wish to specialize

in health.

Lately it has been commented that there

has been much criticism of how PE teachers are

prepared to teach [18] and indeed very little is

known about what forms of professional develop-

ment PE teachers have undertaken in their ca-

reers or about their views on their professional

learning requirements [1]. In this regard A.M. De-

war and H.A. Lawson [6] stated that understand-

ing the subjective warrants that people have

for the profession of physical education is crucialfor a complete understanding of recruitment into

the profession. Furthermore, H. Lawson [14]

suggested that if we had a better understanding

of who our recruits were and what their beliefs

about physical education are, we may be ableto better design a more robust teacher education

program.

Several studies have sought to identify rea-

sons why people wish to become physical educa-

tion teachers but these have all been primarily

concerned with the socialisation process [12, 16].

Because of that and bearing in mind the different

specializations that PE-related degrees are cur-

rently offering it seems that there is a need

for studies to clarify the issues that have influ-

enced students to choose a degree in PE and

it also seems necessary to analyze if the infor-

mation acquired during university training matches

the student’s initial expectations on the matter

which is an important aspect for the future devel-

opment of a career as a physical education

teacher [22].

In Spain university degrees in Physical Edu-

cation are organized into two categories: higher

degree (licenciatura) and bachelor’s degree (diplo-

matura). A Higher Degree in Physical Activity andSport Sciences (PASS) offers a possibility to spe-

65



cialize as a high school PE teacher (12–17 years)

and to obtain specific training in the fields

of health, recreation and high performance train-

ing as well as management and sports market-

ing. A Bachelor’s Degree in Specialized Physical

Education Teaching (SPET) offers mainly a pos-sibility to specialize as a primary school Physical

Education teacher (6–11 years) and to acquire

basic training in the fields of health and sports

recreation.

Recently it has been suggested that under-

standing the reasons given by the students that

affect their decision to choose physical education

and to consider their expectations and aspira-

tions will aid teachers in their assessment of what

is successful in attracting students and what

would be useful in marketing the subject [17].

However to the author’s knowledge there is a lack

of studies of this kind carried out with physical

education Spanish university students.

In the light of all this, this study aims at ana-

lyzing and defining the profile of Spanish univer-

sity students who register, study and complete

either PASS or SPET with the objective of de-

tecting possible changes in the curriculum in order

to match the degree’s contents with the student’s

initial expectations and improve their academictraining as much as possible.

Methods

The Faculty of Education and Sports Sci-

ences of University of Vigo was purposefully

chosen to conduct the research, since both de-

grees (PASS and SPET) can be studied there.

A 59-item survey was distributed among all

the students who were registered in the faculty

during the academic year 2003/2004 and who

were doing SPET (Group A) or PASS (Group B).

The items of the survey were selected based

on a literature review and consultations with physi-

cal education students and teachers who were

working in the university at the time.

The survey was divided into six sections

regarding Access Profile, Working Situation,

Sports History, Job Expectations, Opinion about

the plan of studies and Ideal Working Situation.

Each section was composed of a variable num-

ber of items which offered several possible an-

swers for the students to choose the one which

best reflected their reality. The survey was car-

ried out during the last part of the first four-month

term during teaching hours. In order to reduce

the number of statistical comparisons, the an-

swers were grouped according to the three main

working environments in which students of both

degrees may specialize: Teaching (TE), Sports-Recreation (SR) and Health (HE). A fourth group

was added under the name of “Others” including

minority options such as management or sports

marketing.

The data was analyzed using SPSS soft-

ware version 16.0 (SPSS Inc.). Given that this

study has an exploratory purpose, the obtained

results are presented in percentages, since

the analyzed variables are qualitative. The only

quantitative variable is age, which is presented

through the measurement of the central trend

(median and standard deviation).

Results

Out of 550 eligible students for the study

(400 registered in PASS and 150 in SPET),

346 questionnaires were obtained (246 from PASS

and 100 from SPET), which meant a response

rate of 62,9%. Survey respondents ranged in age

from 17 to 38 years, with an average age

of 20.73±3.16 years for SPET and of 21.64±2.87years for PASS. The majority of these respon-

dents were male (68% in SPET; 69,1% in PASS),

while 84% of SPET students and 62,6% of PASS

students entered university directly from high

school.

In general, it is apparent that the number

of male students is more than double the number

of female students and that between 64% and

73% live in cities – table 1.

Approximately 30% of men in Group B stud-

ied another university degree while in the case

of women this figure is slightly higher (35%) and

so is the percentage of completed studies

(53% women vs. 42% men). Around 33% of stu-

dents in Group A mentioned a liking for teaching

as the main reason for choosing their studies

although a liking for sport seems to be the key

factor, especially for men (48% vs. 39%).

This seems to be also the fundamental reason

stated in Group B especially by women (63% vs.

73%), while the liking for teaching shows lower

percentages (12%). Regarding the pupils’ sport

history, it can be observed that in every case

66



more than half of the students already practised

some kind of sport before entering university,

showing the males of the Group B the highest

percentage (82%).

Table 1. General characteristics of the sample

PE Bachelor’s Degree

(SPET)3 years

Sport Sciences High Degree

(PASS)4 years

Men Women Men Women

n=68,00 n=32,00 n=172,00 n=78,00

Entry age

Age (years) 21,05±3,52 20,03±2,10 21,82±3,01 21,31±2,46

Size of hometown population

Hometown population>20.001 hab 65,83% 64,60% 65,55% 72,90%

Previous academic training

University studies 8,40% (12,5%)* 4,43(0,0%)* 29,98(42,45%)* 35,20(53,03%)*

Reasons for registering

Easiness to find a job 18,40% 27,17% 24,63% 13,85%

Liking for sport 48,00% 39,10% 63,25% 73,90%

Liking for teaching 33,60% 33,73% 12,13% 12,25%

Pre-entry sport experience

Sport practice (associated or other) 62,22% 67,10% 82,60% 64,78%

No sport practice 37,78% 32,90% 17,40% 35,23%

Current sport practice

Practising(associated or other) 49,93% 56,17% 71,40% 58,58%

Not practising 50,08% 43,83% 28,60% 41,43%

Family sport experience

Practising(associated or other) 49,65% 68,07% 63,10% 67,75%Not practising 50,35% 31,93% 36,90% 32,25%

Family profession linked to sport

No 96,68% 72,825% 95,255% 94,30%

Studies and job

Percentage of working students 29,98% 31,10% 46,55% 35,15%

Preferred working category

Employee 46,30% 26,60% 9,85% 9,175%

Freelancer 22,70% 17,60% 44,05% 66,82%

Civil servant 31,00% 30,80% 46,10% 24,00%

* Percentage of pupils who have finished their studies.

However, the level of practice falls once they

start their studies. Also practically in every case,

more than 50% of students have sport antece-

dents in their families although, in general, they

are hardly ever linked to sport in a professional

way. The preferred working status varies accord-

ing to gender and education. Thus, in Group A,

the professional category of employee seems

to be the first option for men (46%) and the sec-ond option for women (26%), while the category

of civil servant is the first chosen by women (30%)

and the second chosen by men (31%). In Group

B, the option clearly chosen by women is free-

lancer (66%) while men seem to opt for being

civil servants in the first place (46%) or do free-

lance work (44%).

Figure 1 shows the different options

by groups and genders. In Group B teaching is

the first option followed by training, recreationand health. Men prefer to opt for teaching more

67



than women (54% vs. 40%), while women usu-

ally choose in a greater proportion the sport-

recreational field (33% vs. 46%) and that related

to health (8% vs. 12%). In Group A, a similar

trend can be observed. Teaching is the first op-

tion more chosen by men than by women

(56% vs. 46%), while the second option is still

the sport-recreational field, mainly preferred by

women (13,9% vs. 24%). The third option is still

the health field, which is chosen by 26% of men

and women.

54,41

33,8

8,82

2,94

12,5

0

56,4

13,95

2,91

24,36

40,63

46,88

26,74

46,16

26,92

2,56

0

10

20

30

40

50

Teaching Training and recreation Health Others

Men-PASS Women-PASS

Men-SPET Women-SPET

Figure 1. Different options for groups and genders

The evolution of working preferences along

the academic years is shown in table 2. In Group

A, the percentage of students who wish to work

in teaching increases progressively at the ex-

pense of a noticeable fall in the other options.

The same is true for working forecast, since

the preferred category is employee at first (47%)

and later civil service ends up being the predomi-

nant option. In group B teaching is still the pre-

ferred option, although this percentage falls

slightly along the academic years (47,9% vs.

44,1%), whereas the field of health is the only

one which increases despite being the third op-

tion (7,6% vs. 18%).

Table 2. Evolution of working preferences along the academic years

PE Bachelor’s Degree (SPET)

(3 years)

Sport Sciences High Degree (PASS)

(4 years)

n=100 n=250

Field you would preferto work in

1º 2º 3º 1º 2º 3º 4º

Teaching 48,20% 65,00% 79,00% 47,90% 45,70% 43,10% 44,10%

Sport-recreational 25,90% 19,50% 13,56% 37,90% 34,56% 35,10% 28,70%

Health 14,90% 10,10% 4,97% 7,60% 13,00% 16,00% 18,00%

Others 11,00% 5,40% 2,47% 6,60% 6,74% 5,80% 9,20%

Field you foreseeto be working in

1º 2º 3º 1º 2º 3º 4º

Teaching 56.00% 70,57% 82,50% 51,60% 43,70% 46,69% 49,51%

Sport-recreational 30,18% 17,96% 12,45% 40,90% 42,36% 33,90% 27,65%

Health 12,58% 10,67% 4,89% 7,20% 13,00% 17,43% 19,87%

Others 1,24% 0,80% 0,16% 0,30% 0,94% 1,98% 2,97%

Working category you wouldprefer to work in

1º 2º 3º 1º 2º 3º 4º

Employee 47,80% 43,12% 40,44% 12,15% 13,18% 14,70% 15,60%

Freelancer 9,20% 4,08% 3,22% 52,18% 43,70% 39,70% 40,22%

Civil servant 43,00% 52,80% 56,34% 35,67% 43,12% 45,60% 44,18%

68



Table 3 shows the way last year students

of both degrees perceive the academic training

they have received according to their chosen

specialization. Lack of theoretical basics of sport-

recreational aspects is pointed out by over 40%

of pupils in every case, and it is also mentioned

when they are asked about their practical training.

In Group A, 27% of pupils specialized in teaching

claim to have no psycho-social or pedagogical

fundamentals. In Group B, 26% of pupils special-

ized in health acknowledge that they have no

practical training in this field.

Table 3. Perceived academic level and training needs foreseen by last year PASS and SPET students

PE Bachelor’s Degree (SPET)

(3rd course)

Sport Sciences High Degree

(PASS)

(4th course)

Teaching Training Health Others Teaching Training Health Others

n=24 n=16 n=14 n=9 n=19 n=21 n=18 N=9

Sport- recreational 48,9% 43,6% 48,6% 41,7% 43,1% 41,89% 41,7% 43,0%

Psycho-pedagogicaland social

27,1% 22,9% 21,6% 22,6% 16,0% 19,3% 21,1% 19,8%

Biomedical 11,5% 10,3% 12,1% 10,1% 16,3% 17,01% 15,2% 16,1%

What kindof basictraining doyour stud-ies lack?

Methodological 12,5% 23,2% 17,7% 25,6% 24,6% 21,8% 22,0% 21,1%

Sport- recreational 45,1% 44,4% 48,6% 47,6% 43,3% 41,1% 41,4% 43,5%

Psycho-pedagogicaland social

16,5% 12,4% 12,3% 15,9% 18,1% 20,6% 17,1% 19,1%

Biomedical 24,9% 26,3% 23,2% 22,6% 17,6% 20,0% 26,9% 11,6%

What kindof basicprotocolsdo yourstudieslack? Methodological 13,5% 16,9% 15,9% 13,9% 21,0% 18,3% 14,6% 25,8%

Attending congressesand courses

34,5% 36,8% 33,2% 33,2% 35,4% 30,8% 29,3% 29,9%

Studying a seconddegree

24,7% 31,6% 26,1% 30,1% 15,4% 18,2% 25,9% 25,3%

In the work market 24,7% 22,3% 24,9% 25,6% 32,9% 35,1% 36,5% 34,2%

How do youthink thiscomple-mentarytraining canbe acquired

Personal training 16,1% 9,3% 15,8% 11,1% 16,3% 15,9% 8,3% 10,6%

In order to obtain complementary training,

attendance in congresses and courses seems

to be the most recurrent option in Group A, while

students in Group B expect to obtain it in their

working environment. 31% of Group A students

specialized in sport and recreation and almost

26% of Group B students specialized in health

propose studying a second university degree asa solution in this respect.

Discussion

The results of our study show that the num-

ber of male PE university students is more

than double the number of female students and

that a liking for sport is the main reason why

pupils of both sexes choose these degrees, es-

pecially PASS. The first aspect can be explained

on the grounds that in Spain boys practise sport

more frequently and intensely than girls, which is

specially true during pre-university years [20] and

therefore it seems logical to think that men feel

more attracted than women to choose a univer-

sity degree related to this field. On the other

hand, different studies explain the interest to study

a degree in PE based on a process of “socializa-

tion into and via sport” which implies that positive

experiences acquired during the sport practice

become an important factor to choose a particu-lar kind or university studies [6, 7, 10].

In fact over half of the students in this study

claim to have practised sport throughout their

lives. Thus it seems reasonable to think that

a liking for sport is the most important cause

of studying PE at university. In this respect, it is

interesting to note that although the level of sport

practice falls once the pupils start their studies,

which is a common finding [2, 3], this fall is not

too dramatic, which confirms the liking for sport

in this kind of students. It is also important to point

out the fact that SPET pupils mention a liking

69



for teaching as a second reason for studying

the degree more often than their PASS mates,

which can be explained on the grounds of the tea-

ching-oriented training that the SPET degree

offers.

P. Dodds et al. [7], showed a model for so-cialization into sport-related occupations which

suggested that early sports situations act concur-

rently with personal attributes (such as family

background) and the influence and expectations

of significant others (parents) could influence

young people to participate in sport and later

to make decisions about entering sport-related

occupations. In our study over half of the stu-

dents claim that practising sport is a habitual

activity in their family environment, although it is

usually not linked to work. This is probably due

to the scarce variety of sport-related jobs avail-

able when the students’ parents had to decide

about their working future.

As far as the preferred working category is

concerned, it has been pointed out that some

of the main attractors to develop a career in the PE

are job security and a good income [15, 18].

If this was so, most of the interviewees would

have chosen civil service as their working prefer-

ence, which is not reflected in our study.This could be explained on one hand by the fact

that in Spain the only option for pursuing a pro-

fessional career related to PE in the civil service

is becoming a PE teacher, which is rather difficult

due to the demanding entrance requirements and

the decreasing number of available positions

every year. All these factors may well have dis-

couraged students from considering civil service

as their main working category. On the other

hand, the percentage of people who wish to work

in the field of sport recreation is rather high,

which would mean a prevalence of the students’

professional interests over the supposedly ideal

working situation.

In several countries entry to university

courses in the physical activity field is highly com-

petitive [16] and Spain is not an exception. Ana-

lysing the students registered in PASS it can be

observed that over 30% have started other uni-

versity degrees and more than half of them have

actually finished those studies. A possible reason

for this is the fact that those people who do not

have access directly to the PASS degree start

doing SPET which is easier to enter and then

they gain access to PASS through a complemen-

tary course. It is also very frequent for those

students who cannot access PASS at the first

attempt to start some other studies while they

wait for a new opportunity. This determinationto end up registering in this degree agrees

with the findings of P. Dodds et al. [7], who proved

that PE students did not view entrance require-

ments of PE programs as a barrier for their aspi-

rations. The fact that high percentage of students

is currently living in cities agrees with the distribu-

tion of Spanish population which is basically cen-

tered there. Thus, 78% of the population is ur-

ban, mainly due to young people’s migration

to the cities [11].

Some of the interviewed students were

combining their studies with a job, although it

was not a sport-related position, since most

of them were working in the field of health care.

This is probably due to the fact that there is

an ever-increasing demand for sport instructors

in the field of fitness, physical activity for the eld-

erly and so on in places such as gyms, town

halls, recreational businesses or similar activi-

ties. Another topic of possible interest is beliefs

and perceptions about the skills and abilitiesrequired to obtain and develop a specific occu-

pation, which is known as the subjective war-

rant [10].

In university studies it is possible that

the students’ orientations and working expecta-

tions change as they successfully complete their

program of study [21]. Indeed in the field of physi-

cal activity it has been observed that a different

curriculum to that expected by students could

have impact on them in a significant way when

they already have preconceived ideas about what

is expected from the subject [17]. In our study,

it seems that the option of teaching PE prevails

along the academic years, which is a somewhat

contradictory finding, since some authors found

that some PE students are firmly committed

to teaching even 5 years or so after graduation [7],

while others are not [2].

Although there are plenty of stereotypes

regarding PE students’ academic ability, our

results detected that students themselves did not

see great weaknesses in their training, except

in those aspects regarding both practical and

70



theoretical sport-recreational contents, which

could be a consequence of an ill-structured plan

of studies and the fact that PE degrees have not

been available in Spain until recently. It is also

important to note the fact that although it has

been commented that many teaching recruitsbelieve they already know how to teach without

professional training [10], 27% of Group A – TE

students acknowledge a lack of training in psy-

chological, sociological and pedagogical con-

tents, therefore they seem to be aware of their

academic needs.

Lastly, it is worth mentioning that 31%

of Group A – SR students and 26% of Group B

– HE students consider it necessary to study an-

other degree to complete their training. This leads

us to think that it is necessary to analyze the plan

of studies and the curriculum of both specializa-

tions.

It must be noted that the ability to general-

ize the results and implications of our findings

to other settings is limited, since several weak

points have been detected. First, the data of the

study comes from those students who attend

their classes regularly; therefore it does not

comply adequately with the typical PE student

profile. On the other hand, there are other facul-ties which offer PE degrees in the north of Spain,

so possible differences between those students

and the interviewees could exist. Furthermore,

although this study was not approached through

the framework of socialization, some important

data, such as socio-economic family situation,

age at which PE studies were chosen or more

specific discrimination between career attractors

and facilitators is missing. Therefore, althoughthis study may contribute with some information

about PE university students’ profile, more and

better research in this regard is needed.

Finally it should be pointed out that the ex-

ploratory study reported here was conceived

as a previous phase for the later development

of a longitudinal piece of research with larger

samples. If possible, comparative work with col-

leagues at other universities will be initiated.

Conclusion

This study confirms that a liking for sport is

still the fundamental reason why students choose

a PE–related degree and that, while SPET stu-

dents are mainly oriented towards teaching,

PASS students consider a wider range of orien-

tations, although in both cases their choices de-

pend greatly on their current working situation.

On the other hand, it seems that men tend to opt

for teaching and women for other sport-related

aspects, such as training, recreational activitiesor health care. Thus, other options like manage-

ment or sports marketing become clearly a mi-

nority choice.

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30–40.

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6. Dewar A.M., Lawson H.A. (1984). The subjective warrant and recruitment into physical education. Quest.vol. 30, 15–25.

7. Dodds P., Placek J., Doolittle S., Pinkham M., Ratliffe T., Portman P. (1991). Teacher/coach recruits: back-ground profiles, occupational decision factors, and comparisons with recruits into other physical educationoccupations. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 11, 161–176.

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14. Lawson H. (1983). Toward a model of teacher socialization in physical education: the subject warrant,recruitment and teacher education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 2, 3–16.

15. Lortie D.C. (1975). School Teacher: a Sociological Study. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.

16. Macdonald D., Kirk D., Braiuka S. (1999). The social construction of physical activity field at the school/uni-versity interface. European Physical Education Review, 5, 31–51.

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18. O'Bryant C.P., O'Sullivan M., Raudensky J. (2000). Socialization of Prospective Physical Education Teachers:The Story of New Blood. Sport, Education and Society, 5, 177–193.

19. Richardson B., Lindquist I., Engardt M., Aitman C. (2002). Professional socialization: students’ expectationsof being physiotherapist. Medical Teacher, 24, 622–627.

20. Román B., Serra L., Ribas L., Roure E., Cabezas C., Plasencia C. (2007). Trends in physical status in Ca-talonia, Spain (1992–2003). Public Health Nutrition, 10, 1389–1395.

21. Senf J., Campos D., Kutob R. (2003). Factors related to the choice of family medicine: A reassessmentand literature review. Journal of the American Board of Family Practice, 16, 502–512.

22. Williamson K.M. (1993). A qualitative study on the socialization of beginning physical education teachereducators. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 64, 188–201.

Received: March 2010

Accepted: May 2010


Correspondence

José Mª Cancela Carral, Ph.DEmail: [email protected]

Tel. 00 34 986 801 799Web. webs.uvigo.es/chemacc/

Campus A Xunqueira s/nE-36005 Pontevedra

Spain

72

http://www.ine.es/inebmenu/mnu_cifraspob.htm


http://webs.uvigo.es/chemacc/


http://www.ine.es/inebmenu/mnu_cifraspob.htm

http://webs.uvigo.es/chemacc/



!"#$#%&' )&)*"+ European Journal of Physical & Heath Education, 2010, vol. 4(2), 73-80.

Effects of the Tobacco Smoking Prevention Programmefor Secondary School Students

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Abstract

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Introduction

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Aim

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Methodology

Participants

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H38:- 4B +-E4.:83A *:5E82/4.RD <=- -FC-3/K

1-.28, H345C E41C3/9-: PS 925:-.29 8.: 2=- E4.K

234, H345C Pc 925:-.29D %4.- 4B 2=- 925:-.29 =8:

C3-@/459,A 822-.:-: 8.A =-8,2= -:5E82/4. C34K

H3811-D

Measurements

0828 G-3- H82=-3-: IA 1-8.9 4B 8 9-,B

3-C432 V5-92/4..8/3- E4.9/92/.H 4B 2G4 C8329D#. 2=- B/392 C832 925:-.29 3-C432-: 2=-/3 :-14K

H38C=/E C34B/,- 8.: /. 2=- 9-E4.: C832 2=-A 3-K

9C4.:-: 24 V5-92/4.9 3-,82/.H 24 914>/.HD

+14>/.H ].4G,-:H-

<=/9 G89 899-99-: IA 1-8.9 4B TT V5-9K

2/4.9 3-H83:/.H >.4G,-:H- 4B 9-@-38, C832/E5,83

89C-E29 4B E/H83-22- 914>/.H6 -8E= 92832/.H

G/2= 2=- 92-1 gDid you know that …hD <=- 925:-.29

8.9G-3-: 4. 8 MKC4/.2 9E8,-^ “Yes (3) – I am not

so sure (2) – No (1)” D <=- 8@-38H- 4B 2=- TT 9E43-9

3-C3-9-.2-: -8E= 925:-.2\9 914>/.H >.4G,-:H-

9E43-D e34.I8E=\9 8,C=8 G89 DPc 8.: DPQ B43

2=- 2G4 1-8953-1-.29D

&22/25:- 24G83:9 914>/.H

<=/9 G89 899-99-: IA 1-8.9 4B P V5-9K

2/4.9 3-H83:/.H 822/25:- 24G83: 914>/.H6 95E= 89

gFor me, not smoking at all during the next three

months will be …hD <=- 925:-.29 8.9G-3-: 4.

8 NK C4/.2 I/C4,83 8:W-E2/@-9 9E8,- B341 N (Easy)

to 1 (Difficult) or from 7 (Healthy) to 1 (Unhealthy)D

<=- 8@-38H- 4B 2=- P 9E43-9 3-C3-9-.2-: -8E=

925:-.2\9 914>/.H 822/25:- 9E43-D e34.I8E=\9 8,K

C=8 G89 DST 8.: DSU B43 2=- 2G4 1-8953-1-.29D

+14>/.H /.2-.2/4.

<=/9 G89 899-99-: IA 1-8.9 4B T V5-9K

2/4.9 3-H83:/.H 822/25:- 24G83: 914>/.H6 95E= 89“I intend not to smoke in the next three months”.

<=- 925:-.29 8.9G-3-: 4. 8 NK C4/.2 '/>-32 9E8,-

B341 7 (Likely) 24 1 (Unlikely)D <=- 8@-38H- 4B 2=- T

9E43-9 3-C3-9-.2-: -8E= 925:-.2\9 914>/.H /.K

2-.2/4. 9E43-D e34.I8E=\9 8,C=8 G89 DPT 8.: DNN

B43 2=- 2G4 1-8953-1-.29D

)-3E-/@-: E4.234,

<=/9 G89 899-99-: IA 1-8.9 4B M V5-9K

2/4.9 3-H83:/.H 822/25:- 24G83: 914>/.H 95E= 89

“Not to smoke in the next three months depends

only on me”. <=- 925:-.29 8.9G-3-: 4. 8 NK C4/.2

'/>-32 9E8,- B341 7 (Yes) 24 1 (No)D <=- 8@-38H-

4B 2=- M 9E43-9 3-C3-9-.2-: -8E= 925:-.2\9

914>/.H C-3E-/@-: E4.234, 9E43-D e34.I8E=\9

8,C=8 G89 DPQ 8.: DNY B43 2=- 2G4 1-8953-K

1-.29D

+5IW-E2/@- .431

<=/9 G89 899-99-: IA 1-8.9 4B Q V5-9K

2/4.9 3-H83:/.H 822/25:- 24G83: 914>/.H6 95E= 89“If I smoke my friends would consider it as…”.

<=- 925:-.29 8.9G-3-: 4. 8 NKC4/.2 9E8,- B341 7

(Wrong choice) 24 1 (Right choice)D <=- 8@-38H-

4B 2=- Q 9E43-9 3-C3-9-.2-: -8E= 925:-.2\9 95IK

W-E2/@- .431 9E43-D e34.I8E=\9 8,C=8 G89 DSU

8.: DNN B43 2=- 2G4 1-8953-1-.29D

<=- V5-92/4..8/3- G89 8.4.A1459 8.:

2=- 3-9-83E=-39 89953-: 2=- 925:-.29 2=82 2=- 3-K

95,29 G45,: I- 59-: B43 3-9-83E= C53C49-9 4.,A

8.: .-@-3 E4115./E82-: 24 9E=44, B8E5,2A 43

C83-.29D

<=- /[email protected]/4. C34H3811-

<=- C34H3811- -F2-.:-: 4@-3 LU G-->9D

<=- /[email protected]/4. 244> C,8E- 4.E- 8 G--> :53/.H

)=A9/E8, *:5E82/4. E,899D #. 2=- B/392 1--2/.H

2=- 925:-.29 B/,,-: 2=- V5-92/4..8/3- 8.: G-3-

I3/-B-: 8I452 2=- C34H3811-D <=- 925:-.29 G-3-

8,94 H/@-. 8 ,-22-3 B43 2=-/3 C83-.296 :-9E3/I/.H

2=- C34H3811- 24 I- 822-.:-: IA 2=- 925:-.29D

<=- -/H=2 ,-994.9 2=82 B4,,4G-: E4.9/92-: 4B 2G4

C8329 -8E=D 053/.H 2=- B/392 C8326 G=/E= ,892-: LU

1/.52-96 2=- 925:-.29 3-E-/@-: /.B43182/4. 8I452

NY



2=- -BB-E29 4B 914>/.H 8.: -F-3E/9- 4. 2=- I4:A6

2=-A 98G 9=432 @/:-49 8.: 2=-A ,-83.-: 24 C-3K

E-/@- /.:/3-E2 8:@-32/9/.H 4B 24I8EE4 C34:5E296

2=-A G-3- 238/.-: 24 9-2 H48,96 8.: 24 B4315,82-

8 C,8. 24G83: /1C,-1-.282/4. 4B 2=- H48,9j 2=-A

G-3- -.E4538H-: 24 I-,/-@- 2=82 2=-A E8. 3-9/92914>/.H6 G=/,- 914>-39 G-3- -.E4538H-: 24 I-K

,/-@- 2=82 2=-A E8. V5/2j 8.: 2=-A G-3- 285H=2

IA -FC-3/-.2/8, 1-8.9 =4G 24 98A gNoh /B 4BB-3-:

E/H83-22-9D &2 2=- -.: 4B 2=49- /./2/8, C832 2=- 925K

:-.29 24H-2=-3 G/2= 2=- )=A9/E8, *:5E82/4.

2-8E=-3 E3-82-: 8 1-998H- 8H8/.92 914>/.H 8.:

4.- /. B8@453 4B -F-3E/9-D 053/.H 2=- 3-18/./.H

E,899 2/1- 2=- 925:-.29 G-3- 285H=2 14243 9>/,,9

89 C34@/:-: /. 2=- E533/E5,516 8.: /. 2=- ,892 2-.

1/.52-9 4B -8E= E,899 C,8A-: 8 H345C H81-

G=/E= E41I/.-: C=A9/E8, -F-3E/9- G/2= 8 1-9K

98H- 2=82 G89 82 2/1-9 4.- 8H8/.92 914>/.H 8.:

82 42=-3 2/1-9 /. B8@453 4B C=A9/E8, -F-3E/9-D 053K

/.H 2=- ,892 E,899 4B 2=- 9-3/-96 2=- 925:-.29 G-3-

89>-: 24 B/,, 4.E- 8H8/. 2=- 981- V5-92/4..8/3-9

89 82 2=- 92832 4B 2=- 9-3/-9D

+282/92/E8, &.8,A9/9

<=/9 /.E,5:-: :-9E3/C2/@- 9282/92/E8, 8.8,AK

9-9 B43 /./2/8, :828 E=-E>/.H O/.:-C-.:-.2 2K2-92R8.: 3-C-82-: 1-8953-9 8.8,A9/9 4B @83/8.E-D

Results

7-8.9 8.: 928.:83: :-@/82/4.9 4B 8,, @83/K

8I,-9 83- 3-C432-: /. 28I,- LD <K2-929 G-3- 8CK

C,/-: /. 43:-3 24 E=-E> G=-2=-3 2=-3- G-3- :/BB-3K

-.E-9 I-2G--. 2=- H345C9 I-B43- 2=- 8CC,/E82/4.

4B 2=- C34H381D <=- 3-95,29 :/: .42 9=4G 9282/92/K

E8,,A 9/H./B/E8.2 :/BB-3-.E-9 I-2G--. H345C9 3-K

H83:/.H 2=-/3 >.4G,-:H- 4B 914>/.H B8E29 O2OLMYR Z

DUTS6 CZDcNR6 2=-/3 822/25:-9 O2OLMYR Z KLDSQ6 CZDUPNR6

/.2-.2/4.9 O2OLMYR Z KDQP6 C ZDPQR 8.: C-3E-/@-: E4.K

234, 4@-3 2=- 914>/.H =8I/2 O2OLMYR Z KDcN6 C ZDMMRD

<8I,- LD 0-9E3/C2/@- +282/92/E9 B43 8,, @83/8I,-9 8E3499 H345C9

*FC-3/1-.28, H345C e4.234, H345C

)3- )492 +/F 14.2=9 ,82-3 )3- )492

M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD

+14>/.H >.4G,-:H- TDQS DTQ TDNY DTM TDNN DMc TDQS DTL TDYP DTN

&22/25:- 24G83:9 914>/.H YDNS LDYQ PDLY LDML PDTT LDTU PDTL LDTL PDTN LDTQ

#.2-.2/4. B43 914>/.H PDQU LDTY PDQc LDMT YDYP TDUQ PDYU LDML PDTM LDYc

+14>/.H C-3E-/@-: E4.234, PDQP DcN PDYN LDUT YDNS LDNU PDPL DcT PDPL LDUU

+5IW-E2/@- .431 PDMP LDUc PDQN LDUT PDQY DSY PDNQ DQS PDPc DPT

Smoking knowledge

& 3-C-82-: 1-8953-9 &%!k& G/2= 2=- H345C

89 2=- I-2G--. H345C9 B8E2436 8.: 914>/.H

>.4G,-:H- 9E43- 89 :-C-.:-: @83/8I,- G/2= 3-KC-82-: 1-8953-9 OC3-KC492R 9=4G-: 8 9/H./B/E8.2

-BB-E2 B43 H345C OX OL6LMYR Z NDSM6 C [ DUYR6 8 9/HK

./B/E8.2 -BB-E2 B43 914>/.H >.4G,-:H- OX OL6LMYR

Z YQDcc6 C [ DUULR 8.: 8 9/H./B/E8.2 $345C l

+14>/.H ].4G,-:H- /.2-38E2/4. OX OL6LMYR Z LPDLS6

C [ DUULRD )8/3-: E41C83/94.9 9=4G-: 8 9282/92/K

E8,,A 9/H./B/E8.2 /[email protected] OCZDULNR B43 2=- e4.K

234, $345C OTR 8.: 8. -@-. H3-82-3 /[email protected]

OC [ DUULR B43 2=- *FC-3/1-.28, $345C OLR i B/HK

53-TD

Attitude towards smoking

& 3-C-82-: 1-8953-9 &%!k& G/2= 2=- H345C

89 2=- I-2G--. H345C9 B8E2436 8.: 822/25:- 24K

G83:9 914>/.H 9E43- 89 :-C-.:-: @83/8I,-G/2= 3-C-82-: 1-8953-9 OC3-KC492R :/:.m2 9=4G

8 9/H./B/E8.2 -BB-E2 B43 H345C OC n DUYR .-/2=-3 8 9/HK

./B/E8.2 -BB-E2 B43 914>/.H 822/25:- OC n DUYR .43

8 9/H./B/E8.2 $345C l +14>/.H &22/25:- /.2-38EK

2/4. OC n DUYRD )8/3-: E41C83/94.9 9=4G-: 8 928K

2/92/E8,,A 9/H./B/E8.2 /[email protected] I-2G--. C3-

8.: C492 2-92 B43 2=- -FC-3/1-.28, H345C OLR

OX OL6 LMYR Z QDUP6 C [ DUYR I52 8 .42 9/H./B/E8.2

/[email protected] B43 2=- e4.234, $345C OTR OX OL6 LMYR

Z DUNY6 C n DUYR i B/H53- MD

NP



measurements

21

s m o k i n g

k n o w l e d g e s

2,80

2,70

2,60

2,50

2,00

1,00

group

2,80

2,70

2,60

2,50

1,00

2,00

group

S m o k i n g k n o w l e d g e s

1 2Measurements

X/H53- TD +14>/.H >.4G,-:H- 8E3499 1-8953-1-.29 8.: H345C9

measurements

21

A t t i t u d e s

t o w a r d s

s m o k

i n g

6,30

6,20

6,10

6,00

5,90

5,80

5,70

6,30

6,20

6,10

6,00

5,90

5,80

5,70

A t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s s m o k i n g

groupgroup

2,00

1,00 1,002,00

1 2Measurements

X/H53- MD &22/25:- 24G83:9 914>/.H 8E3499 1-8953-1-.29 8.: H345C9

Smoking intention perceived control

subjective norm

<=3-- 3-C-82-: 1-8953-9 &%!k&

G/2= H345C 89 2=- I-2G--. H345C9 B8E243 8.:

914>/.H /.2-.2/4.6 C-3E-/@-: E4.234, 8.: 95IW-EK

2/@- .431 89 :-C-.:-.2 @83/8I,-9 G/2= 3-C-82-:

1-8953-9 OC3-KC492R :/:.m2 9=4G 8 9/H./B/E8.2

-BB-E2 B43 H345C6 .43 B43 :-C-.:-.2 @83/8I,-9 .-/K

2=-3 8. /.2-38E2/4. -BB-E2D

Retention measures

<=- -FC-3/1-.28, H345C 5.:-3G-.2 8 3-2-.K

2/4. 1-8953- 9/F 14.2=9 ,82-3D & 3-C-82-: 1-89K

53- 4.-KG8A &%!k& 9=4G-: 2=82 2=- 925:-.29

NN



=8: 3-28/.-: 2=- >.4G,-:H- X OL6 PUR Z MMDLN6

C [ DUUL 8.: 2=- 822/25:-9 X OL6 PUR Z NQDQM6

C [ DUUL E4.E-3./.H 914>/.H6 G=/,- /.:/@/:58,

C8/3-: E41C83/94.9 /.:/E82-: 9282/92/E8,,A 9/H./B/K

E8.2 :/BB-3-.E-9 I-2G--. 2=- B/392 8.: 2=- 9-E4.:

1-8953- OC [ DUULR6 8.: 8,94 I-2G--. 2=- B/392

8.: 2=- 2=/3: 1-8953- OC [ DUULRD o- :/:.m2 .42-

9/H./B/E8.2 :/BB-3-.E-9 I-2G--. 2=- 9-E4.: 8.:

2=- 2=/3: 1-8953-96 .-/2=-3 E4.E-3./.H 2=- >.4G,K

-:H- 4B 914>/.H B8E29 .43 2=- 822/25:-9 24G83:

914>/.H i B/H53-9 Q6 YD

X/H53- QD "-2-.2/4. 1-8953- 4B 914>/.H >.4G,-:H- B43 2=- -FC-3/1-.28, H345C

X/H53- YD "-2-.2/4. 1-8953- 4B 822/25:-9 24G83:9 914>/.H B43 2=- -FC-3/1-.28, H345C

Discussion and Conclusions

<=- 8/1 4B 2=/9 925:A G89 24 -FC,43-

G=-2=-3 8 914>/.H [email protected]/4. C34H3811- 2=82

=89 I--. 9-2 5C 8B2-3 2=- C3/.E/C,-9 4B 2=- <=-43A

4B ),8..-: J-=8@/43 8.: )-39589/4. <=-43A /1K

C,-1-.2-: :53/.H C=A9/E8, -:5E82/4. E,8996 E45,:

4BB-3 -BB-E2/@- 914>/.H [email protected]/4. B43 925:-.29D

#2 G89 =AC42=-9/9-: 2=82 2=- C34H3811- G45,:

/.E3-89- 2=- 925:-.29\ >.4G,-:H- 4B 914>/.HB8E296 2=- 925:-.29\ 822/25:- 24G83:9 914>/.H6

2=- C-3E-/@-: E4.234, 4@-3 914>/.H6 /1C8E2 2=-/3

/.2-.2/4. 24G83:9 914>/.H 8.: 2=-/3 95IW-E2/@-

.431 B43 914>/.H I-=8@/453D <=- 3-95,29 9=4G-:

/[email protected] /. >.4G,-:H- 8.: /. 2=- 925:-.29\

822/25:-6 I52 .42 /. 914>/.H /.2-.2/4.6 C-3E-/@-:

E4.234, 4@-3 914>/.H 8.: 94E/8, .431 B43 914>/.HD

J89-: 4. 2=- 2=-43A 4B C,8..-: I-=8@/453 _L`6

8E2/4. :-C-.:9 4. /.2-.2/4. G=/E= /. 253. /9 B43K

15,82-: I89-: 4. 822/25:-6 4. C-3E-/@-: E4.234,8.: 4. 95IW-E2/@- .431D 0-9C/2- 2=- B8E2 2=82 822/K

Measurements32

6,5

6,0

5,5

5,0

4,5

1

Measurements321

S m o k i n g k n o w l e d g e

2,8

2,7

2,6

2,5

2,4

A t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s s m o k i n g

NS



25:- G89 /1C34@-:6 2=-3- 9--1-: 24 I- .4 E=8.H-

/. C-3E-/@-: E4.234, 8.: /. 95IW-E2/@- .431D

&9 8 3-95,2 G- G45,: .42 I- 8I,- 24 83H5- 2=82

2=- 925:-.29\ /.2-.2/4. =8: E=8.H-:D #2 9--1-:

2=82 2=- E41I/.82/4. 4B /.B43182/4. G/2= @83/459

1-998H-9 8H8/.92 914>/.H 8.: /. B8@4532=- -F-3E/9- G89 8I,- 24 /.B,5-.E- 2=- 822/25:-9

4B 925:-.29 I52 .42 2=- C-3E-/@-: I-=8@/4538,

E4.234, 4@-3 914>/.H .-/2=-3 2=- 925:-.29\

95IW-E2/@- .431 B43 914>/.HD

<=- 95EE-99 4B 2=- C34H3811- ,/-9 /. 2=-

B8E2 2=82 /2 G89 C499/I,- 24 E41I/.- )=A9/E8,

*:5E82/4. 2-8E=/.H G/2= 8 914>/.H [email protected]/4.

C34H3811-D <=- E533/E5,51 4B $3--> C5I,/E

9E=44,9 :4-9 .42 C34@/:- E,899 2/1- B43 a-8,2=

*:5E82/4. /. $38:-9 N 2=345H= c 4B +-E4.:83A

*:5E82/4.D <=-3-B43-6 C34H3811-9 4B 2=82 2AC-

83- /1C,-1-.2-: 4. 8 @4,5.2--3 I89/9 4529/:-

3-H5,83 E533/E5,51 2/1- IA 8.A .51I-3 4B 925:-.29

8.: 2-8E=-39 G/9=/.H 24 C832/E/C82-D <=82 9/2582/4.

:4-9.\2 4BB-3 C-3B-E2 E4.:/2/4.9 B43 -.=8.E-: C83K

2/E/C82/4. IA 8,, 925:-.29D #.E43C4382/.H 8 C34K

H3811- /. 2=- )=A9/E8, *:5E82/4. E533/E5,51

C34@/:-9 2=82 8,, 925:-.29 G/,, 822-.: 2=- C34K

H3811-D e4.9/:-3/.H 2=82 2=- C3/.E/C8, 8/1

4B )=A9/E8, *:5E82/4. E,899 /9 24 C34142- C=A9/K

E8, 8E2/@/2A6 /2 /9 143- ,/>-,A 2=82 )=A9/E8, *:5E8K2/4. E41I/.-: G/2= 8 914>/.H [email protected]/4. C34K

H3811- G/,, C34:5E- H3-82-3 C49/2/@- -BB-E29 89

3-C432-: IA "D )82- -2 8,D _LY` /. 8 C3-@/459 3-K

9-83E= 3-C432D

<=- C34H3811- 2=82 G89 /1C,-1-.2-:

B43 2=/9 3-9-83E= C34W-E2 E41I/.-: G-,, G/2= )=AK

9/E8, *:5E82/4. E,899 8.: G89 :-9/H.-: B43 2--.K

8H-39 G/2= 2=- H48, 4B 8E=/-@/.H 2=- I-92 C499/I,-

3-95,29 _LN`D )832/E/C82/.H 925:-.29 :/9C,8A-:

8 =/H= ,-@-, 4B /.2-3-92D <=- /.B43182/4. C3-K

9-.2-: 82 2=- 92832 4B -8E= E,899 59/.H @/:-4 C34K

W-E2/4. G89 I42= I3/-B 8.: 82238E2/@-D X4,,4G/.H

2=826 2=- E,899 8E2/@/2/-9 G-3- 9235E253-: 4. 2=- )=AK

9/E8, *:5E82/4. E533/E5,51 8.: G-3- -.=8.E-:

G/2= 1-998H-9 8H8/.92 914>/.H 8.: /. B8@453

4B C=A9/E8, -F-3E/9-D #. 8::/2/4. 24 2=- 1-998H-9

/. B8@453 4B C=A9/E8, -F-3E/9-6 2=- 925:-.29 G-3-/. B8E2 C=A9/E8,,A 8E2/@- 89 2=-A 822-.:-: 2=- C34K

H3811-6 8 9/2582/4. G=/E= E8. 4C-382-6 8,, IA /2K

9-,B6 89 8 [email protected]/@- B8E243 B43 914>/.H 8::/E2/4.6

89 :-14.92382-: /. C3-@/459 3-9-83E= _N6 c`D

<=- B8E2 2=82 .4 /[email protected] 8CC-83-:

/. C-3E-/@-: E4.234, 8.: /. 95IW-E2/@- .431 -FK

C,8/.9 G=A 2=-3- 8,94 8CC-83-: .4 9282/92/E8,,A

9/H./B/E8.2 :/BB-3-.E-9 E4.E-3./.H 2=- /.2-.2/4.

24 914>- 43 .42 24 914>-D #. 43:-3 24 I- 8I,-

24 B532=-3 -FC,43- 2=- 1822-3 4B C-3E-/@-: E4.234,6

G- 3-E411-.: 2=82 B5253- 8CC,/E82/4. 4B 2=/9 C34K

H3811- /.E43C4382- E-328/. -,-1-.29 8/1/.H

24 -@-. B532=-3 -.=8.E- 2=- 9-,BK-BB/E8EA 4B C83K

2/E/C82/.H 925:-.29 /. 43:-3 24 8,94 /.E3-89- 2=-/3

C-3E-/@-: E4.234,D ;-2 G- 8,94 .--: 24 8E>.4G,K

-:H- 2=82 2--.8H-39 @/-G 2=-19-,@-9 C3/183/,A

89 1-1I-39 4B 94E/8, H345C9 8.: 2=59 2-.:

24 4C-382- 8I/:/.H IA 2=- H345C9\ .4319 _Y`D

X43 2=82 3-894. 2=- C34H3811-9 45H=2 24 B4E59

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

LD &Wp-. #D6 &,I8338E/. 0D6 a43./> "D OTUUNRD )3-:/E2/4. 8.: e=8.H- 4B a-8,2= J-=8@/436 &CC,A/.H 2=- "-894.-: &E2/4. &CC348E=6 '8G3-.E- *3,I851 &994E/82-96 '4.:4.D

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QD J82-9 eD6 d83@/9 7D6 e4..4,,A $D OLcccRD <4I8EE4 &::/E2/@-9^ e/H83-22- *.H/.--3/.H 8.: %/E42/.- &::/E2/4.D=22Crr^ .4K914>/.HD43H O"-23/-@-:^ 4. 78A6 TULURD

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SD *5349282 ;-83I44> OTUUTRD %-G9 3-,-89-D %4D PTrTUUTKTN 78A TUUTD =22C^rr-534C8D-5D/.2rE411r-5349282r O"-23/-@-:^ 4. 78A6 TULURD

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LUD d4=.94. eD&D6 e-. +D6 $8,,8=-3 )D6 )8,1-3 )DaD6 l/84 'D6 "/22K!,94. &D6 -2 8,D OTUUNRD o=A 914>/.H [email protected]/4. C34H3819 941-2/1-9 B8/,D 04-9 -BB/E8EA :-C-.: 4. 94E/4E5,2538, E4.2-F 8.: /.:/@/:58, E=838E2-3/92/E9fe8.E-3 *C/:-1/4, J/4183>-39 )[email protected]/4.6 LP6 LUQMiLUQcD

LLD ]8EpA.9>/ %D&D6 78.9>- +D"D6 78.-,, "DeD6 $3-G8, ]D OTUUSRD +14>/.H 8.: C=A9/E8, 8E2/@/2A^ & 9A92-182/E3-@/-GD &1-3/E8. d453.8, 4B a-8,2= J-=8@/436 MT6 cMiLLUD

LTD ]491/:45 *D OTUUNRD +14>/.H 8.: -F-3E/9-^ -BB-E2/@- 1-998H-9 B43 822/25:- E=8.H- /. =-8,2= -:5E82/4. C34KH3819 2=82 83- 8::3-99-: /. 9-E4.:83A 8.: 5./@-39/2A 925:-.29D O?.C5I,/9=-: :4E2438, :/99-3282/4.RD ?./@-3K9/2A 4B <=-998,A6 $3--E-D

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LQD )8C8/48..45 &D6 ]838924H/8../:45 eD6 <=-4:438>/9 ;D OTUUQRD +C432 /.@4,@-1-.26 9C432 @/4,-.E- 8.: =-8,2=I-=8@/4539 4B $3--> 8:4,-9E-.29D *534C-8. d453.8, 4B )5I,/E a-8,2=6 LQ6 LPSiLNTD

LYD )82- "D"D6 <3492 +D$D6 '-@/. +D6 04G:8 7D OTUUURD +C4329 C832/E/C82/4. 8.: =-8,2= 3-,82-: I-=8@/439 814.H?+ A452=D &3E=/@-9 4B )-:/823/E9 q &:4,-9E-.2 7-:/E/.-6 LYQ6 cUQicLLD

LPD )-22A "D*D6 e8E/4CC4 dD< OLcSPRD <=- -,8I4382/4. ,/>-,/=44: 14:-, 4B C-39589/4.D &:@8.E-9 /. *FC-3/1-.28,+4E/8, )9AE=4,4HA6 Lc6 LTMiTUYD

LND +=-318. *DdD6 )3/18E> JD&D OTUUcRD o=82 G43>9 24 [email protected] 8:4,-9E-.2 914>/.Hf & 9A92-182/E 3-@/-G4B 2=- %82/4.8, e8.E-3 #.92/252-\9 "-9-83E=K<-92-: #[email protected]/4. )34H3819D d453.8, 4B +E=44, a-8,2=6 Nc6McLiMccD

Received^ &C3/, TULU

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http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/


http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/





The Relationship between Healthy Eating Beliefsand Food Consumption in Adolescents

Jordi Pich1,2 , Lluís Ballester 3, Mònica Thomàs4, Ramon Canals4, Josep A. Tur 1,5

1 Research Group for Community Nutrition and Oxidative Stress (Palma de Mallorca, Spain)

2 Universitat de les Illes Balears

1 (University of the Balearic Islands, Department of Psychology, Spain)


1 (University of the Balearic Islands, Department of Education, Spain)

4 Universitat de Girona

1 (University of Girona, Department of Psychology, Spain)


1 (University of the Balearic Islands, Department of Fundamental Biology & Health Sciences, Spain)

Abstract

Purpose: This paper investigates the nutritional information of adolescents and their attitude towards everydayfoods. These beliefs are contrasted with the declared frequency of consumption of these foods.Methods: Adolescents’ opinions about healthy eating were studied in a school survey. A sample of 1663 sub-

jects ranging from 11 to 18 years of age expressed their opinions about suitable eating habits and ratedthe quality of their own diet; they later classified 43 everyday foods as bad or good from a nutritional pointof view and declared the frequency with which they consumed them.Results: Results demonstrated an adequate understanding of current dietary recommendations. Eating a rangeof foods was the most frequently mentioned principle of a healthy diet, which should be low in fats and sugarsand include large amounts of vegetables, fruits and fish. In fact, attitudes towards the healthiest foods were allpositive, while typical fast foods, sweets and alcoholic drinks received negative ratings. High calorie foods wererated lower by girls. However, consumption seemed to be barely affected by these attitudes.Conclusions: The influence of psychological mechanisms, such as adolescents' concern for health and for fu-ture or comparative optimism in these results is discussed, as is the use of these aspects in promotingthe healthiest eating habits in this population.

Key words: nutritional beliefs; food attitudes; adolescents’ nutrition.

Introduction A study of the adolescent diet in Spain in-

dicated the need to reduce the level of saturated

fats and sugars, moderate the consumption of red

meat and encourage the consumption of fish

and vegetables [22].

To correct these habits, first we must as-

certain whether or not adolescents have enoughinformation on current dietary recommendations

and whether this information translates into op-

erational knowledge to identify the healthiest nutri-

tional options.

Their motivation in applying this knowledge

to their own diets must also be determined,

i.e., if taking care of one’s diet for health reasons

is a concern shared by adolescents. Nowadays,

education in Spanish schools includes informa-

tion on an inadequate diet and indicates the spe-

cific foods consumption of which should be in-creased or decreased. This knowledge should

reinforce recommendations customarily provided

by parents at home.

A satisfactory degree of assimilation

of this informational pressure has been con-

firmed in a number of different countries [2, 21].

In a study carried out in four European countries

with children ranging from 8 to 15 years of age,81% of the subjects believed that diet is directly

related to health [10]. Moreover, several proto-

typical fast food items were considered “bad

for me” as follows: soft drinks (59%), chips (47%),

ketchup (46%) and beef hamburgers (46%). Fur-

thermore, negative attitudes towards high-calorie

foods also appear to consolidate during adoles-

cence, especially in girls, whereas the concepts

of health and weight seem to merge. Thus, higher

calorie foods are considered worse for health:

girls between the ages of 11 and 16 consideredthese foods to be less healthy than boys did,

81



and considered low calorie items healthier [28,

29].

Unhappily, these studies noted how little

these beliefs and attitudes affected actual con-

sumption, while other studies underscore the nega-

tive correlation between preferences and atti-tudes [2, 11, 21].

Present study analyses the relationship

between nutritional beliefs and habits in a sam-

ple of Mediterranean adolescents. Specifically,

their nutritional attitudes are explored and re-

lated to the declared frequency of consumption

of the most customary foods in this region.

Methods

A survey on food was applied to 2,000

schoolchildren in Balearic Islands between No-

vember 2003 and March 2004. The survey was

administered during a one-hour class period

under the direction of a survey administrator.

Two hundred subjects retook the survey two

months later to validate the stability of the re-

sponses. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient

between the two applications was significant,

while the range of coefficients obtained in the re-

sponses in the first application oscillated between

r=0.897 (P=0.000) and r=0.658 (P=0.000). Reli-ability was determined by means of Cronbach’s

alpha and the Guttman coefficient, both values

indicating high internal consistency (Cronbach’s

alpha=0.9771; Lambda=0.9444). The final num-

ber of valid subjects in the sample was 1,663

with a confidence level of 2 sigmas (95.45%)

and a margin of error of ± 2.5%.

The questionnaire included an open-ended

question: “What advice do you think a nutrition

specialist could give you to help you achieve

a healthy diet?” The respondents also indicated

whether or not they would be interested in ac-

quiring more information if offered by an expert.

Satisfaction with their diets was determined

with the statement: “I believe my diet is very

good for my health.” Subjects were asked to indi-

cate their degree of agreement by marking a cross

on a 9-cm line, the end of which on the left read

“Very much” and the end on the right read “Not

at all.” The marks closest to “Strongly agree”

(0 to 4.5 cm.) were classified as “Satisfied” and

those closest to “Strongly disagree” (4.6 to 9 cm.)

were classified as “Unsatisfied”.

Subjects also classified 43 foods on a list

as “Good for me” or “Bad for me” (annex 1).

The survey administrator had previously told

the subjects not to consider their real consump-tion or preference for a food, and so “good” would

mean that a food could be eaten in large amounts,

whereas “bad” meant that consumption of the item

in question should be kept to a minimum.

They were later requested to note the frequency

with which they consumed each food by selecting

one option: "Daily", "Three or more times a week",

"Two or few times a week", "Never or not very

often each month". The responses to the first two

options were classified as "Frequent Consump-

tion" and the latter two options were classified

as "Infrequent Consumption".

Results

Table 1 shows the practices that the sub-

jects selected as the basis of a healthy diet.

No differences were found between boys and

girls. The most frequently mentioned principle

was a varied diet and the need to eat “a little bit

of everything”, whereas the concept of “nutritional

balance” was mentioned by 7.4% of the subjects(data not shown). Both statements were grouped

for subsequent analysis. Students also pointed

out the need for large amounts of vegetables

as well as the regular consumption of fish, fruit

and meat. Not skipping meals was a concern

that appeared more often in the oldest group.

Interest in receiving more information on diet

grows with age (30% at 11–12 years compared

to 54% to 17-18; Chi square=43.475; d.f.=6;

p<0.001). Moreover, the percentage of girls who

were interested doubled the percentage of boys

(45% compared to 26%; Chi square=64.193;

d.f.=2; p<0.001).

75% of the subjects declared that they were

satisfied with their diets without any differences

with age being noted. The percentage of boys

who were satisfied was slightly higher than girls

(78% compared to 72%; Chi square=6.827; d.f=2;

p<0.05).

82



Table 1. Principles mentioned in order to carry out a healthy nourishing. Total percentages and percent-ages inside each age group

PRINCIPLE Total 11-12 13-14 15-16 17-18 Z test

Varied food, balanced diet 30.1 26.3 24.8 44.5 59.2 *

To include vegetables 27.8 32.9 29.2 22.9 17.3 *

To include fish 13.0 14.4 14.6 10.9 8.9 *

To include fruit 12.9 12.2 14.0 14.0 10.1 NS

To include meat 10.6 12.7 11.8 8.9 4.5 *

Not to skip foods 5.0 2.0 2.4 8.7 14.0 *

To avoid fats, cholesterol 4.8 4.8 3.4 5.3 7.3 NS

To include milk 4.0 5.4 5.3 1.5 1.1 *

To avoid excesses 4.0 3.2 3.4 5.1 6.1 NS

To Include pulses 3.4 4.2 2.4 3.3 3.4 NS

To drink much water 3.0 2.3 3.7 3.3 2.8 NS

Doesn't know, doesn't answer 30.4 39.8 32.0 20.9 15.1 *

* Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.05

Table 2 shows the percentage of subjects

who defined the different foods in the as "Good

for me". The highest opinion by category corre-

sponds to fruit, cereals (except bread), pulses,

fresh vegetables and dairy products. Meat and

fish were positively evaluated by 60% of all sub-

jects. On the other hand, prototypical fast food

(hamburger, chips and pizza) and continentalbreakfast (jam and butter) only obtained between

33% and 43% positive ratings. However, the worst

opinion corresponded to sweets, soft and alco-

holic drinks (beer and wine), which were posi-

tively rated by 20% or fewer. The breakdown

by age group records the increase in nutritional

value attributed to healthy foods (vegetables,

pulses and fish) and wine, as well as the decrease

in sweets and fast food. Moreover, girl’s lower

opinion of higher calorie foods such as bread,

nuts, sweets, fast food and alcohol is reflectedin table 3.

Table 4 show that the food consumed most

frequently is bread. More than 70% also con-

sume healthy products such as cereals, fruits,

dairy products, salad and eggs almost on a daily

basis, although the same percentage also con-

sume less recommendable foods such as chips

and soft drinks with the same frequency. Half

of adolescents consume pulses and dried fruits

almost every day. Less enthusiasm was voiced

for boiled vegetables, which were frequently

consumed by 40% of the sample, whereas

the regular consumption of fish fell to 23%.

34% also declared that they consumed foods

rich in fat and/or sugar such as butter, jam, ice-cream or chocolate on a daily or almost daily

basis. Finally 8% of those over 15 years of age

consume wine and/or beer three or more times

a week.

Although this pattern of consumption re-

mains very stable throughout the entire age pe-

riod contemplated, the consumption of sweets,

fish and vegetables tends to decline.

Finally, table 5 shows that girls consumed

the most protein-rich foods (meat, fish) and

higher calorie foods such as nuts, pastries, but-ter, jam, pizza and soft drinks with a lower

weekly frequency. Nevertheless, the most nota-

ble difference can be seen in alcoholic bever-

ages, which are consumed several times

a week by 12% of all boys, as opposed to 4%

of all girls.

83



Table 2. Attitudes to food items. “Good for me” answers: Total percentages and percentages by age group

Age groupCATEGORY Food item Total

11 to 14 15 to 18Z test

CEREALS Hot soup 89,97 87,63 92,31 *

Bread 69,43 69,11 69,76 No sig

Corn flakes 84,29 80,29 88,29 **

Boiled rice 85,33 81,67 88,99 **

Pasta 75,34 73,05 77,62 *

Mean 80,87 78,35 83,39 **

FRUITS Fruit juices 88,81 84,78 92,83 **

Red fruits 89,78 85,15 94,41 **

Whole year fruits 90,39 87,08 93,71 **

Mean 89,66 85,67 93,65 **

VEGETABLES Green salad 84,98 78,19 91,78 **

Spinaches 79,20 71,86 86,54 **

Cauliflower or cabbage 75,46 67,00 83,92 **

Boiled chards 74,75 68,56 80,94 **

Mean 78,60 71,40 85,80 **

PULSES AND NUTS Nuts 53,38 53,62 53,15 No sigPulses 80,42 73,60 87,24 **

Mean 66,90 63,61 70,19 **

DAIRY PRODUCTS Milk 74,64 74,98 74,30 No sig

Cheese 76,49 77,45 75,52 No sig

Yogurt 80,21 83,50 76,92 **

Mean 77,11 78,64 75,58 No sig

MEAT AND EGGS Chicken 69,09 69,48 68,71 No sig

Pork loin 64,46 63,89 65,03 No sig

Sausages 42,25 46,75 37,76 **

Viscera 41,98 36,94 47,03 **

Croquettes 57,21 60,22 54,20 **

Eggs 70,91 68,93 72,90 *

Rabbit 63,84 59,67 68,01 **

Lamb 58,27 53,25 63,29 **

Mean 58,50 57,39 59,62 No sig

FISH Sole 69,96 61,78 78,15 **

Hake 60,63 55,00 66,26 **

Shellfish 72,99 69,94 76,05 **

Salted anchovies 52,57 50,78 54,37 **

Smoked salmon 58,56 52,61 64,51 **

Canned tuna fish 55,87 51,60 60,14 **

Mean 61,77 56,95 66,58 **

SWEETS Sweet cake 15,35 19,16 11,54 **

Ice cream 21,29 26,67 15,91 **

Chocolate 17,70 22,64 12,76 **Pastry 17,63 23,37 11,89 **

Marmalades 43,90 46,01 41,78 **

Butter or margarine 42,67 49,50 35,84 **

Mean 26,42 31,23 21,62 **

FAST FOOD Beef hamburguer 33,96 35,93 31,99 **

Pizza 35,87 41,15 30,59 **

Soft drinks 19,91 25,48 14,34 **

Chips 43,35 50,50 36,19 **

Mean 33,27 38,27 28,28 **

ALCOHOLIC DRINKS Wine 17,46 12,37 22,55 **

Beer 12,75 10,82 14,69 **

Mean 11,59 18,62 *** Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.05** Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.01

84



Table 3. Attitudes to food items. “Good for me” answers: Total percentages and percentages by sex group

CATEGORY Food item Total Boys Girls Z test

CEREALS Hot soup 89,21 87,99 90,44 No sig

Bread 69,46 76,35 62,57 *

Corn flakes 83,07 84,80 81,35 No sig

Boiled rice 84,20 84,80 83,59 No sig

Pasta 74,67 76,96 72,37 *

Mean 80,12 82,18 78,06 *

FRUITS Fruit juices 87,54 87,13 87,96 No sig

Red fruits 88,31 87,25 89,37 No sig

Whole year fruits 89,32 87,13 91,50 *

Mean 88,39 87,17 89,61 No sig

VEGETABLES Green salad 82,82 80,39 85,24 *

Spinach 76,91 77,08 76,74 No sig


Boiled chards 72,79 71,20 74,38 No sig

Mean 76,32 74,69 77,95 No sig

PULSES AND NUTS Nuts 53,62 62,25 44,98 **

Pulses 78,25 76,23 80,28 *Mean 65,94 69,24 62,63 **


Cheese 80,52 80,76 80,28 No sig

Yogurt 85,99 86,03 85,95 No sig

Mean 80,89 80,56 81,23 No sig

MEAT AND EGGS Chicken 69,25 71,20 67,30 *

Pork loin 64,34 67,28 61,39 **

Sausages 43,79 50,74 36,84 **

Viscera 40,48 44,12 36,84 **

Croquettes 58,24 63,11 53,36 **

Eggs 70,32 71,45 69,19 No sig

Rabbit 62,61 66,42 58,80 **Lamb 56,77 60,42 53,13 **

Mean 58,22 61,84 54,6 **

FISH Sole 67,41 67,65 67,18 No sig

Hake 58,91 60,91 56,91 **

Shellfish 72,06 73,41 70,72 No sig


Smoked salmon 56,77 60,05 53,48 **

Canned tuna fish 54,62 59,07 50,18 **

Mean 60,31 62,77 57,85 **


Ice cream 23,05 27,57 18,54 **


Marmalade 44,68 50,98 38,37 **


Mean 28,01 32,95 23,08 **

FAST FOOD Beef hamburger 34,66 39,09 30,22 **

Pizza 37,65 44,49 30,81 **

Soft drinks 21,73 26,35 17,12 **

Chips 45,67 50,61 40,73 **

Mean 34,93 40,13 29,72 **


Beer 12,23 16,67 7,79 **

Mean 14,10 19,06 9,15 **

* Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.05** Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.01

85



Table 4. Consume frequency of food items. “Eat frequently” answers: Total percentages and percentages by age group

CATEGORY Food item Total 11 to 14 15 to 18

CEREALS Hot soup 71,43 74,15 68,71 **

Bread 88,78 85,43 92,13 **

Corn flakes 69,63 70,21 69,06 No sig

Boiled rice 62,17 63,15 61,19 No sigPasta 77,75 75,44 80,07 *

Mean 73,95 73,68 74,23 No sig

FRUITS Fruit juices 77,59 74,24 80,94 **


Whole year fruits 78,45 77,36 79,55 No sig

Mean 75,72 73,82 77,62 *

VEGETABLES Green salad 68,28 62,60 73,95 **

Spinach 26,77 29,42 24,13 **


Boiled chards 40,25 45,00 35,49 **

Mean 39,14 39,94 38,33 No sig

PULSES AND NUTS Nuts 53,20 55,00 51,40 **Pulses 54,32 54,63 54,02 No sig

Mean 53,76 54,81 52,71 No sig


Cheese 72,18 68,84 75,52 **

Yogurt 76,00 75,07 76,92 No sig

Mean 74,45 73,33 75,58 No sig

MEAT AND EGGS Chicken 41,72 44,27 39,16 **

Pork loin 56,04 53,16 58,92 **

Sausages 63,44 61,14 65,73 **

Viscera 13,97 17,97 9,97 **

Croquettes 46,58 50,69 42,48 **

Eggs 69,22 67,46 70,98 *

Rabbit 19,57 20,26 18,88 **

Lamb 17,07 19,98 14,16 **

Mean 40,95 41,87 40,03 No sig

FISH Sole 22,37 26,21 18,53 **

Hake 26,05 28,14 23,95 **

Shellfish 24,60 29,97 19,23 **


Smoked salmon 15,82 18,88 12,76 **

Canned tuna fish 32,22 30,71 33,74 **

Mean 23,23 26,15 20,31 **

SWEETS Sweet cake 22,25 22,64 21,85 No sig

Ice cream 33,95 39,05 28,85 **

Chocolate 39,70 41,98 37,41 **Pastry 45,61 46,47 44,76 No sig

Marmalade 29,92 33,09 26,75 **


Mean 34,4 37,05 31,76 **


Pizza 47,98 50,50 45,45 **

Soft drinks 68,36 68,19 68,53 No sig

Chips 73,52 72,04 75,00 No sig

Mean 56,45 57,03 55,86 No sig


Beer 8,54 6,42 10,66 **

Mean 8,05 6,83 9,27 *** Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.05** Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.01

86



Table 5. Consume frequency of food items. “Eat frequently” answers: Total percentages and percentagesby sex group

CATEGORY Food item Total Boys Girls Z test

CEREALS Hot soup 72,2 69,61 74,85 **

Bread 87,7 87,01 88,43 No sig

Corn flakes 69,9 73,9 65,88 **

Boiled rice 62,5 65,2 59,86 **

Pasta 77,0 77,82 76,27 No sig

Mean 73,9 74,71 73,06 No sig

FRUITS Fruit juices 76,5 76,23 76,86 No sig


Whole year fruits 78,1 76,59 79,57 No sig

Mean 75,1 74,35 75,88 No sig

VEGETABLES Green salad 66,5 65,32 67,65 No sig

Spinach 27,6 29,41 25,86 **


Boiled chards 41,8 44,98 38,61 **

Mean 39,4 40,75 38,08 **

PULSES AND NUTS Nuts 53,9 59,56 48,17 **Pulses 54,4 55,51 53,36 No sig

Mean 54,2 57,54 50,77 **


Cheese 71,1 69,49 72,73 No sig

Yogurt 75,7 76,35 75,09 No sig

Mean 74,1 73,61 74,58 No sig

MEAT AND EGGS Chicken 42,6 46,08 39,08 **

Pork loin 55,2 55,88 54,43 No sig

Sausages 62,7 63,97 61,51 No sig

Viscera 15,3 19,85 10,74 **

Croquettes 47,9 50,98 44,86 **

Eggs 68,7 69,36 68,00 No sig

Rabbit 19,9 27,94 11,92 **

Lamb 18,1 25,86 10,39 **

Mean 41,3 44,99 37,62 **

FISH Sole 23,6 27,33 19,95 **

Hake 26,8 30,15 23,38 **

Shellfish 26,4 30,39 22,31 **


Smoked salmon 16,9 21,57 12,16 **

Canned tuna fish 31,8 36,89 26,80 **

Mean 24,2 28,51 19,93 **


Ice cream 35,6 39,83 31,40 **


Marmalade 31,0 34,80 27,15 **


Mean 35,3 39,03 31,56 **


Pizza 48,8 51,47 46,16 **

Soft drinks 68,4 72,55 64,23 **

Chips 73,1 74,75 71,43 No sig

Mean 56,7 60,39 53,01 **


Beer 8,0 12,50 3,42 **

Mean 7,7 11,64 3,84 *** Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.05** Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.01

87



Discussion and conclusions

Dietary information provided by schools and

families is well assimilated by Balearic adoles-

cents. At the age of 15, they are familiar with cur-

rent nutritional recommendations, while at the age

of 11 they know how to classify healthy foodsas "Good for me" and less recommendable foods

as "Bad for me". The assimilation of these atti-

tudes seems to begin at an early age [16] and sub-

sists during adulthood when they are increased

with additional nutritional knowledge [12].

Furthermore, the negative ratings given to fast

foods items and positive ratings given to some

traditional Mediterranean foods despite their repu-

tation as fattening (bread or pulses) surely indi-

cates certain permeability to periodic campaigns

in favour of recovering the Mediterranean diet.

Yet, as remarkable as the solidity of adoles-

cents’ beliefs is the low impact on consumption

they have. And if true that our data on declared

consumption frequency must be evaluated with

the necessary prudence, they coincide with quan-

titative effective consumption studies conducted

on the Balearic adolescent population [24].

Thus, it can be asserted that child and ado-

lescent habits depend essentially on their prefer-

ences towards the sweetest and the fattiestfoods [18, 23]. Certainly the most frequently

consumed foods are those that adolescents de-

clare most appealing and the most highly rated

foods are the least appreciated and consumed

with the lowest frequency [20]. In fact we know

that depriving oneself of the pleasure of food is

not recommendable and eating other foods that

do not appeal to us solely for their nutritional vir-

tues is not an easy undertaking at any age.

However, other factors different from pref-

erences may affect the dissonance observed be-

tween attitudes and consumption. Thus, the ado-

lescent will to reaffirm personal identity may be

expressed in a rejection of adult directives that

contradict their preferences. Moreover, as adoles-

cents know that their peers share these ideas,

the “right” to eat junk food would also assuage

the fear of seeming different from their friends [3].

But the discrepancy may also indicate a lack

of conviction in the recommendations themselves,

that is, that consuming appetising food poses

an effective risk health or that consuming vege-

tables or fish is truly beneficial for their bodies.

A recent study of subjects between 9 and 13 years

of age reflects the conviction that their actions

today will have no influence on future health [4],

which diminishes or even annuls the motivation

to follow any preventative-oriented recommenda-

tion in the field of health. Furthermore, adoles-cents’ subjective perception of time may lead many

to think that they will worry about eating better

when they are older... within one hundred years!

On the other hand, we observe that although

declared consumption habits openly contradict

the subject’s own beliefs, 75% of them defined

their diet as good or very good, a surprising find-

ing not altered by age or sex. We can interpret

this data as a mechanism of cognitive reactance

whose goal would be to cushion the dissonance

produced by the awareness of the contradiction

between conduct and attitude. Complementarily,

we may consider it an expression of the compara-

tive optimism phenomena [5] which would induce

adolescents to underestimate the risks involved

in their poor diets.

Consequently, we should not neglect cog-

nitive and emotional work with adolescents

on the advisability of following the diet we advise

not assuming that this factor is implicit in the nutri-

tional messages provided. A. Bandura’s cognitivesocial theory [1] has also suggested the prior

need to promote subjects’ perception of self-

effectiveness to convince them of their capacity

to introduce positive changes in their diet.

At present, the fear of gaining weight seems

to be the only motivation that may spontane-

ously introduce certain self-control in choosing

foods. This is an important motivation among

adolescents [17], particularly girls [6], to the point

in which dieting is considered a normal phase

in female development [7].

Girls’ greater motivation and interest in health

around the end of adolescence has also been

indicated [27]. Other studies have in fact noted

girls’ greater consumption of vegetables [25],

concluding that the desire to be slim channels

food selection towards healthy eating [13, 17].

Yet, in ours the higher rating given to lower calo-

rie foods was not accompanied by an increase

in the regularity of vegetable or fish consumption,

although it does seem to contribute to reducing

girls’ consumption of the highest calorie and

least recommendable foods (including alcohol).

88



This signals the need to distinguish between

promoting consumption of the least appetising

foods and focusing on initial efforts to achieve

a restriction in the consumption of pleasing, yet

not recommendable foods [8].

Undoubtedly school is the natural placeto provide nutritional information but also to investi-

gate the most effective strategies to instil good

eating habits. As B.C. Petrini states [19], “Nutri-

tional formation offered in school is too often bas-

ed on transmitting nutritional tables and videos

on foods that “are good for you” or “bad for you”.

And what “is bad for you” are always the prod-

ucts they like most because they are rich in fla-

vour enhancers: saying they are prejudicial and

imposing bans does not teach adolescents any-

thing.... It is not enough just to offer undoubtedly

correct nutritional rules and explain them. Teach-

ing students where raw material comes from and

letting them touch, handle and consume products

directly is the most effective way of educating

them in food and pleasure” (pp. 168–169).

Finally, scholar learning processes must con-

jugate efforts with family. In fact numerous studiesagree that parents’ diet and the family menu predict

the variety of a child’s diet and his or her consump-

tion of vegetables and dairy products [9, 14, 26].

But unfortunately adolescents themselves note that

the contents of their family's diet does not always

model the healthy way of eating we advocate [15].

Thus we must keep in mind that family should

always be an on-going example of a healthy and

pleasurable diet. And although setting a good ex-

ample is not enough at times, it is always indis-

pensable in modelling the proper eating habits

we all hope to instil in young people.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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2. Bellisle F., Rolland-Cachera M.F. (2000). Three consecutive (1993, 1995, 1997) surveys on food intake,nutritional attitudes and knowledge, and lifestyle in 1000 French children, aged 9–11 years. J Hum Nutr Diet;13: 101–111.

3. Brown K., McIlveen H., Strugnell C. (2000). Nutritional awareness and food preferences of young consum-ers. Nutr Food Sc; 30: 230–235.

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5. Chappé J., Verlhiac J.F., Meyer T. (2007). Comparative optimism and pessimism following exposures to sev-eral threatening messages. Rev Eur Psychol Appl; 57 (1): 23–35.

6. Contento I., Michela J., Williams S. (1995). Adolescent Food Choice Criteria: Role of Weight and DietingStatus. Appetite; 25, 51–76.

7. Cooper P.J., Goodyer I. (1997). Prevalence and significance of weight and shape concerns in girls aged11–16 years. Brit J Psychiatry; 171: 542–544.

8. De Bourdeauhuij I. (1997). Family rules and healthy eating in adolescents. J Health Psychol; 2: 45–56.

9. De Bourdeauhuij I., van Oost P. (2000). Personal and family determinant of dietary behaviour in adolescentsand their parents. Psychol and Health; 15: 751–770.

10. European Food Information Council. (1995). Children’s view on food and nutrition: A pan-European survey.London.

11. Gibson E., Wardle J., Watts J. (1998). Fruit and vegetable consumption, nutritional knowledge and beliefsin mother and children. Appetite; 31: 205–228.

12. Glanz K., Basil M., Maibach E., et al. (1998). Why Americans eat what they do: taste, nutrition, cost, conven-ience and weight control concerns as influences on food consumption. J Am Diet Assoc; 98:1118–1126.

13. Lattimore P.J., Halford C.G. (2003). Adolescence and the diet-dieting disparity: healthy food choice or riskyhealth behaviour. Brit J Health Psychol; 8: 451–463.

14. Neumark-Sztainer D., Hannan P.J., Story M., et al. (2003). Family meal patterns: Associations with sociode-mographic characteristics and improved dietary intake among adolescents. J Am Diet Assoc; 103: 317–322.

15. Neumark-Sztainer D., Story M., Perry C., et al. (1999). Factors influencing food choice of adolescents: find-ings from focus-group discussion with adolescents. J Am Diet Assoc; 99: 929–937.

16. Nguyen S.P. (2007). An apple a day keeps the doctor away: Children’s evaluative categories of food. Appe-tite; 48: 114–118.

17. Nowak M. (1998). The weight-conscious adolescent: body image, food intake and weight-related behaviour.

J Adolesc Health; 23: 389–398.18. Pérez-Rodrigo C., Ribas L., Serra-Majem L.l., et al. (2003). Food preferences of Spanish children and young

people: the Enkid study. Eur J Clin Nutr; 57 (1 Suppl): S45–S48.

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19. Petrini C. Bueno, limpio y justo. (2007). Principios de una nueva gastronomía. Madrid: Ediciones Polifemo.

20. Pich J., Ballester L.l., Canals R., et al. (2006). Evolución de las preferencias alimentarias: un estudio en lapoblación escolarizada de Mallorca de 11 a 18 años. Rev Esp Nutr Comun; 12 (3): 114–155.

21. Rolls B.J. (1998). Food beliefs and food choices in adolescents. Med J Aust; 148: S9–S13.

22. Serra-Majem L.l., Ribas L., Pérez-Rodrigo C., et al. (2006). Nutrient adequacy in Spanish children and ado-lescents. Brit J Nutr; 96 (1 Suppl): S49–S57.

23. Skinner J.D., Carruth B.R., Bounds W., et al. (2003). Children’s food preferences: a longitudinal analysis.J Am Diet Assoc; 102: 1638–1647.

24. Tur J.A., Puig M.S., Benito E., et al. (2004). Associations between sociodemographic and lifestyle factorsand dietary quality among adolescents in Palma de Mallorca. Nutrition; 20 (6): 502–508.

25. Vereecken C., Ojala K., Delgrande J. (2004). Eating habits. In: Currie C, Roberts C, Morgan A., et al, eds.Young people’s health in context: Health Behaviour in school-aged children (HBSC) study: International re-port from the 2001/2002 survey. Health policy for children and adolescents No. 4. Copenhagen, Den: WHORegional Office for Europe: 110–119.

26. Videon T.M., Manning C.K. (2003). Influences on adolescent eating patterns: the importance of family meals.J Adoles Health; 32: 365–373.

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29. Williams H.M., Woodward D.R., Ball P.J., et al. (1993). Food perceptions and food consumption amongTasmanian high school children. Aust J Nutr Diet; 50 (4): 156–163.

ANNEX 1. LIST OF FOODS1. Sweet cake2. Hot soup3. Bread4. Green salad5. Ice cream6. Chicken7. Corn flakes8. Boiled rice9. Pork loin10. Beef hamburger

11. Sole12. Chocolate13. Milk14. Cheese15. Pizza16. Yogurt17. Hake18. Soft drinks19. Fruit juices20. Spinach21. Cauliflower or cabbage22. Nuts (almonds, hazelnuts...)

23. Boiled chards with potatoes24. Pasta dishes (spaghetti, macaroni…)25. Pulses (lentils, chickpeas…)26. Sausages27. Pastry (bread rolls, donuts...)28. Viscera (liver, kidneys…)29. Croquettes30. Eggs (fried, omelette)31. Chips32. Jam

33. Butter or margarine34. Wine35. Beer36. Rabbit37. Lamb38. Shellfish (shrimps, mussels...)39. Salted anchovies40. Smoked salmon41. Canned tuna fish42. Red fruits (cherries, watermelon...)43. Fruit of the whole year (apple, pear...)

Received: April 2010

Accepted: May 2010Published: June 2010

Correspondence

Jordi PichDepartment of Psychology

University of the Balearic IslandsCarretera de Valldemossa, Km. 7,5

07122 Palma de Mallorca, SpainPhone: 00 34 971 173000;

E-mail: [email protected]

90






Trends in Overweight and Obese Pre-School

and School Children in Liechtenstein, 2004–2008

Jürgen Kühnis1,2, Esther Walser 31 Pädagogische Hochschule Zentralschweiz

(University of Teacher Education of Central Switzerland, Switzerland)2 Private Universität im Fürstentum Liechtenstein

(Private University, Liechtenstein)3 Amt für Gesundheit Liechtenstein

(Public Health Department, Liechtenstein)

Abstract

Background: Overweight and obesity among children and adolescents became a major concern in health policyin the 21st century. This resulted primarily from tracking studies from childhood into adulthood and associated

health consequences. It is therefore essential to continue monitoring these developments accurately.Objective: The aim of this paper was to document the current prevalence and trends in overweight and obesityin 5, 10 and 14 year-old school children in Liechtenstein as based on national data measured over the five yearperiod from 2004 to 2008.Methods: A total of 2205 children were measured in three cross-sectional screening examinations. Basedon the anthropometric data collected, overweight and obesity were determined according to sex- and age-specific percentiles of the body mass index (BMI) using international as well as German cut-off criteria.Results: Overall the prevalence of overweight (obesity) was 17.1% (3.6%) following the IOTF standardsand 12.6% (4.7%) following the German standards, respectively. Conclusions: In comparison with other surveys no increase or significant changes of prevalence could be estab-lished over the five year trend of this study.

Key words: school children, overweight and obesity, monitoring, Liechtenstein.

Introduction During the last decades a dramatic increase

in the prevalence and incidence of overweight

and obese children and adolescents has been

monitored worldwide and seems to have reached

pandemic levels [5, 12, 13, 24, 25]. This alarming

development is primarily the result of lifestyle

changes as well as changes within the home

environment and socio-ecological context. Today

many children grow up in so-called “obesogenic

environments” [4, 10, 26], which constitute a driv-

ing force in their attitudes and behavioural pat-

terns.

The origin of overweight and obesity lies

in multifactorial determinants and includes genetic

dispositions, behavioural factors as well as the in-

fluence of the socio-cultural environment [2, 20,

22]. Specifically, daily eating and physical activity

habits seem to play a key roles in the long-term

positive energy balance and excessive weight

gain [5, 6, 14, 16]. Thus, exercise and nutrition are

regarded as central fields for action in the contextof health education and prevention strategies [9].

Overweight and obesity in childhood and

adolescence are associated with many adverse

effects on health (e.g. cardiovascular disease, or-

thopaedic complications and psycho-social barri-

ers) and a high risk of becoming an overweight

adult [3, 6, 11, 19, 20]. These various comorbid-

ities not only influence the psycho-physical health

and life expectancy of the people concerned but

also impact the national economy, i.e. the addi-

tional costs to our health care system [23].

For example in Switzerland, the total (obesity-link)

disease costs of overweight and obesity have more

than doubled from CHF Mio 2’648 (cost basis

2001) to CHF Mio 5’755 (cost basis 2006) in re-

cent years [17]. In view of the future of public health

and the multi-causality and complexity of the prob-

lem, this development is a cause for concern.

Today’s children are the parents of tomorrow and

there is a consequent risk of severe health prob-

lems if the current trend cannot be stopped.

With this background acting as focal point itis important to detect and counteract the problem

91



already in early childhood. If initiated in childhood

the development of a healthy lifestyle is carried

through to later periods of life. Therefore the pre-

valence of overweight growing children needs

to be monitored systematically. From a health

policy perspective, continuously recorded andanalysed trend data represent a crucial basis

for clarifying the current situation and the rele-

vance for initiating possible measures of preven-

tion or intervention.

Methods

The data were taken from a current BMI-

monitoring project undertaken by the Liechten-

stein national public health department. Since

2004 this ongoing cross-sectional survey has

been conducted at two year intervals as part

of national screening examinations. For these pe-

diatric investigations all children aged 5, 10 and

14 years old resident in Liechtenstein were in-

vited to take part; participation was voluntary.

The current non-selected sample includes 2205

children from three surveys 2004, 2006 and

2008 – table 1. The age groups studied repre-

sented typical levels of education: kindergarten

(5 year-olds), primary school (10 year-olds) and

secondary school (14 year-olds). The meanof participation rate (defined as the proportion

of all children invited) was 61.1%.

Anthropometric data of body weight and

height were obtained by doctors using standard-

ised procedures. Anonymity and confidentiality

were ensured. Standing height was measured

without shoes, using a stadiometer with an accura-

cy of + 0.2 cm. Weight was determined in under-

wear, using a calibrated scale exactly to + 0.2 kg.

The BMI was calculated as weight divided by the

height squared (kg/m2). The classification andanalyses of overweight and obesity were based

on age- and sex-specific BMI cut-off points as

recommended by the International Obesity Task

Force (IOTF) [1] as well as per German refer-

ence values [7]. The IOTF criteria are used most

frequently for international comparison. These

reference data are based on six national but

ethnically very different populations (Brazil, Great

Britain, Hong Kong, the Netherlands, Singapore

and the USA). Therefore the German cut-off val-

ues were also used, these had been determined

from 17 studies made in different regions of Ger-

many. In this reference system children are de-

fined as overweight or obese, respectively when

their BMI-value is above 90th or 97th age- and sex-

specific percentile. In addition to the German

working group for adiposity in childhood and ado-lescence (AGA) also the Austrian society for child

and youth medicine (ÖGKJ) refers to this refer-

ence standard.

Statistical analyses were performed using

SPSS (Version 15). Differences between anthro-

pometric parameters (weight, height, BMI) we-

re analysed by using Mann-Whitney-U-test and

Kruskal-Wallis-test; trends in overweight and obe-

sity prevalence among observation periods, gen-

der and age groups by using Chi-square and Chi-

square-test for trend, drawn at significant level

of p < .05.

Results

This study included anthropometric data

of 2205 children aged 5, 10 and 14 years.

The gender ratio is nearly equal with a participa-

tion of 50.8% girls and 49.2% boys. Table 1 de-

scribes mean weights, heights and BMI of chil-

dren, stratified by gender and age groups, within

the periods of investigation.The current prevalence and time trends

of overweight and obesity according to gender

and age are summarised in table 2, figures 1

and 2. Using the IOTF references 17.1% were

overweight, thereof 3.6% obese. The German

references categorised 12.6% of all the children

observed as being overweight, thereof 4.7% as

being obese. In summary, the comparison be-

tween these two standards showed similar preva-

lence of obesity but major differences in over

weight with a partial deviation of up to 9%. Re-gardless of the references used, the proportion

of the combined prevalence of overweight and

obesity increases from 5-year-olds (9.0% and

12.6%, respectively) up to primary and secon-

dary school children (12.6% and 17.1%, respec-

tively). Significant differences between the three

school levels (represented by age groups) were

observed between 5 and 10 year-olds (both ref-

erences, p < .01) and between 5 and 14 year-olds

(both references, p < .001). No statistical differ

92



Table 1. Descriptive characteristics of the national sample (n=2205). Mean + SD

Boys (n=1084) Girls (n=1121) Parameter

a

2004(n=357)

2006(n=411)

2008(n=316)

2004(n=376)

2006(n=423)

2008(n=322)

5 y (n=722)

weight (kg) 20.1 + 2.7* 20.3 + 3.2 20.2 + 2.9 19.3 + 2.8 19.9 + 2.8 20.0 + 2.7

height (cm) 113.0 + 4.6* 113.2 + 4.4 113.3 + 4.2 111.5 + 5.7 112.5 + 4.7 112.1 + 4.6

BMI (kg/m2) 15.6 + 1.3 15.7 + 1.8 15.7 + 1.8 15.5 + 1.8 15.6 + 1.5 15.9 + 1.7

10 y (n=850)

weight (kg) 36.9 + 8.1* 35.5 + 8.0 35.8 + 7.2 35.1 + 6.5 35.6 + 7.1 35.5 + 6.9

height (cm) 141.8 + 6.3 141.8 + 6.5 141.8 + 5.8 141.5 + 6.6 141.4 + 6.3 142.1 + 6.1

BMI (kg/m2) 18.2 + 3.1* 17.6 + 3.3 17.8 + 3.1 17.5 + 2.5 17.7 + 2.8 17.5 + 2.8

14 y (n=633)

weight (kg) 59.4 + 12.1** 57.2 + 12.2 58.6 + 12.8** 55.5 + 11.4 55.5 + 9.4 54.1 + 8.7

height (cm) 168.1 + 9.3

***

166.6 + 7.9

***

168.1 + 7.5

***

161.5 + 6.5 162.8 + 8.2 162.4 + 7.1BMI (kg/m2) 20.9 + 3.3 20.5 + 3.5 20.6 + 3.8 21.2 + 3.6 21.0 + 3.6 20.5 + 2.8

a The standard errors (SE) for weight, height and BMI range from 0.1 to 1.3. SD (standard deviation)Significant gender differences (Mann-Whitney-U-test): * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001No significant differences between the observation periods within age groups (Kruskal-Wallis-test, p > .05)

ence could be detected between boys and girls

(p > .05). During the three study periods the preva-

lence of overweight and obesity remained at a con-

sistent level. The annual trend comparisons within

the different age groups and stratified by gender

did not reach significance level (p > .05). How-

ever the proportion of obesity among 5 year-olds

between 2004 and 2008 had doubled. Otherwise

the proportion of obesity among 14 year-olds

between 2004 and 2008 primarily by girls tends

to be in decline.

Table 2. Time trends in overweight and obesity prevalences (%) in Liechtensteinian children by age and gender,using German and IOTF reference criteria

German referencesa

overweight / obesityc

IOTF referencesb

overweight / obesitycAge

d

2004 2006 2008 total 2004 2006 2008 total

5y 4.8 / 2.4 6.1 / 3.7 4.6 / 5.1 5.3 / 3.7 6.7 / 2.4 10.1 / 3.7 9.2 / 5.1 8.9 / 3.7

Boys 2.0 / 3.0 7.2 / 3.3 5.1 / 4.2 5.1 / 3.5 3.0 / 3.0 9.2 / 3.3 7.6 / 4.2 7.0 / 3.5

Girls 7.3 / 1.8 4.9 / 4.2 4.0 / 6.1 5.4 / 4.0 10.0 / 1.8 11.1 / 4.2 11.1 / 6.1 10.8 / 4.0

10y 11.0 / 3.7 6.1 / 5.2 9.2 / 5.8 8.7 / 4.8 16.3 / 3.0 10.6 / 4.2 16.7 / 3.8 14.4 / 3.6Boys 12.7 / 4.7 7.0 / 4.5 7.6 / 6.7 9.2 / 5.1 20.0 / 4.0 10.2 / 3.2 16.2 / 4.8 15.3 / 3.9

Girls 9.3 / 2.7 5.2 / 5.9 10.4 / 5.2 8.2 / 4.6 12.7 / 2.0 11.1 / 5.2 17.0 / 3.0 13.5 / 3.4

14y 9.8 / 7.6 9.6 / 4.4 9.9 / 4.4 9.8 / 5.5 20.5 / 4.5 15.4 / 3.1 16.6 / 2.8 17.5 / 3.5

Boys 10.2 / 5.6 6.9 / 4.9 11.8 / 5.4 9.6 / 5.3 22.2 / 3.7 14.7 / 3.9 19.4 / 4.3 18.8 / 4.0

Girls 9.5 / 9.5 11.9 / 4.0 8.0 / 3.4 10.0 / 5.8 19.0 / 5.2 15.9 / 2.4 13.6 / 1.1 16.4 / 3.0

All 8.9 / 4.5 7.1 / 4.4 7.8 / 5.2 7.9 / 4.7 14.9 / 3.3 11.8 / 3.7 14.1 / 3.9 13.5 / 3.6

Boys 9.0 / 4.5 7.1 / 4.1 7.9 / 5.4 7.9 / 4.7 16.0 / 3.6 10.9 / 3.4 13.9 / 4.4 13.5 / 3.8

Girls 8.8 / 4.5 7.1 / 4.7 7.8 / 5.0 7.9 / 4.6 13.8 / 2.9 12.5 / 4.0 14.3 / 3.4 13.5 / 3.5a overweight (> P90-P97); obesity (P > 97), [7]b

cut-off points, extrapolated from a BMI of 25 kg/m2

(overweight) and 30 kg/m2

(obesity) at age 18 [1]c chi-square-trend-test: No significant differences between the observation periods within age groups and gender (p > .05)d kindergarten (5y); primary school (10y); secondary school (14y)

93



26

24

22

20

18

1614

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

P e r c e n t

overweight obesity

2004 2006 200 8 2004 2006 2008 2004 200 6 2008 2004 2006 2008

Kinder gate n Pri mary school Se cond ary s chool (5y) (10 y) ( 14y)

All le velsof educ atio n

Figure 1. Time trends and proportion of overweight and obesity in the different schoollevels, using German references

2004 200 6 200 8 2004 2 006 2008 200 4 2006 2008 2004 2006 200 8

Ki ndergaten Pri mary school Secondary school All levels (5y) (10y) (14y) o f education

overweight o besity26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

P e r c e n

t

Figure 2. Time trends and proportion of overweight and obesity in the different schoollevels, using IOTF references

Discussion

The present findings highlight the following

important issues. Overall this national survey

showed a combined prevalence of overweight

and obesity of 17.1% using international IOTF

references and 12.6% using German references,

respectively. Comparing the two standards used,the IOTF criteria produced a higher prevalence

in overweight but a similar prevalence in obesity

than the German references because the inter-

national recommendations are less strict in their

definition of overweight.

The distribution of overweight detected

in this study is comparable with the prevalenceof 10%–20% in states of Northern Europe [12].

94



In Germany, each 6–7th child/youth (15.0%) be-

tween 3–17 years is deemed to be overweight [8];

projected this corresponds to 1.9 Mio overweight

(thereof 800’000 obese) children and young

people in Germany. In Switzerland between

1960/1965 and 2007 the combined prevalenceof overweight and obesity (using the CDC BMI

reference criteria [15]) among 6–12 year olds

rose from 5.4% to 16.8% in boys and from 5.8%

to 13.1% in girls [18]. According to forecast pro-

jections (based on a non-linear regression mo-

del) the proportion of overweight and obese chil-

dren in Switzerland may increase to 16.8% in boys

and 22.7% in girls [18]. Within Europe the high-

est levels of childhood overweight (30%–36%)

can be found in Mediterranean countries and are

predicted to increase up to 41% by 2010 [12, 24].

Focussing on the neighbouring regions

across the borders from Liechtenstein in Switzer-

land and Austria the corresponding data groups

can be compared as follows: In the federal state

of Vorarlberg (Austria) the current 15 year com-

parison within the 7–15 year-olds shows an aver-

age prevalence of 10.6% (www.aks.or.at); the val-

ues of 2006 and 2008 with 13.0% and 13.5%,

respectively are just as highly as in Liechtenstein.

In the canton Graubünden (Switzerland) per

the baseline examination 2007/08, each 7th child/

youth (14.0%) between 3–17 years is classified

as overweight [21]; in the canton St. Gallen (Swit-

zerland) no data is available so far but a monitor-

ing project is in planning.

As the principal finding and in contrastto other studies our trend analysis showed no

increase of overweight prevalence from 2004

to 2008 but remained at a stable level. This find-

ing must not be regarded as an all-clear signal

but the development has to continue to be ob-

served carefully. A five year period is probably

a limiting timeframe. As a result of the continuing

monitoring project, more precise estimates will

become available in the next few years. A major

strength of this study is the large national sample

and the high participation rates, even though par-

ticipation was voluntary. How far the 39% of those

children who did not participate influence the ge-

neralizability of our findings cannot be answered

precisely because no drop-out analysis is possi-

ble. It is possible that some of the parents of over-

weight or obese children tended not to permit

participation of their children. No causal analysis

or interpretation is possible because of the cross-

sectional design of this study.

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Received: February 2010

Accepted: March 2010


Correspondence

Prof. Dr. Jürgen KühnisUniversity of Teacher Education of Central Switzerland

PHZ Schwyz, Switzerland [email protected]

96



!"#$%&#'( *'*!&+ European Journal of Physical & Heath Education, 2010, vol. 4(2), 97-102.

Obesity Diffusion among Children and Adolescents:Trends, Methodological Problems and Countermeasures

at European Level

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European Union Founded Research

Actions in the 5th and 6th Framework

Programme

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

\K '1.9-5 QK0KA Q5,IF5? nKA (37/, cK&K >OMMgDK *3;/5-8/1 .F39/-?U B58544349 G/-2 5;;/1-/., 5,; -835-C3,-831.CC3,;5-/.,9K h587 &37 *9?12/5-8?KA Q58f'B8m \^>ODU gMfX^K &37/3GK

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$%&'()&*+ ,*,$)- European Journal of Physical & Heath Education, 2010, vol. 4(2), 103-109.

Health Dimension of School Education

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human’s health potential

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Formation of pupils’ personal health

resources in school education

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^the degree in which a particular person has a do-

minating, permanent but dynamic feeling of con-

fidence that stimuli coming in the course of life

from internal and external environment are

of structured, foreseeable and explainable char-

acter ? that there are hoards which help meeting

the requirements arising from those stimuli and

such requirements are seen by such a person as

challenges worth effort and involvement _ [f\K

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The school’s participation in shaping

of health conducing environmental

factors

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