Camus, Man, and Education BY THOMAS OLIVER

In Escape From Freedom, Erich Fromm states that:

Life has ceased to be lived in a closed world the center of which was man; the world has become limitless and at the same time threatening. By losing his fixed place in a closed world man loses the answer to the meaning o f his life; the result is that doubt has befallen him concerning himself and the aim of life.

This doubl by man concerning himself and the aim of life can be clearly seen in his involvement in sensitivity training, his submergence of himself in group identity and action, his adherence to slogans, his oftentimes unthinking acceptance of others’ ideas as his. Yet for all his activities, he still does not seem to have found an answer which satisfies him. And when aware of his dissatisfaction, he does not seem to be able to find constructive alternatives or even guides as t o who it is he should become. He is, in short, an individual jn need of as well as in search of a meaningful and continuing personal identity.

Philosophy and psychology recognizing this dilemma have proposed resolutions to it which have considerable implications for the educative process and which, in several cases, have already been utilized in the development of curricula arid teaching methodology. In addition to the fields of psychology and philosophy; there is another field which has provided alternatives to and resolutions concerning man’s dilemma and which has major implications for the educative process. The field is literature. In particular, the work of the philosophical novelist Albert Camus and specifically his symbolic novel, Tlze Plague, in which is presented a conception of the modern and the educated man. This article presents Camus’ resolution to the issue of man‘s need and search for a meaningful and continuing personal identity as well as implications for the educative process.

1. The Impact of Society on the Populace and Individual

Camus poses his various models of modern man in i7ze Plague against the backdrop of the plague which is both a literal and symbolic one. The literal meaning is the bubonic

Thoma> S. O[iwr is an Associate Professor of Education and Community Education at the Federal City College in Washington, D.C.

E. Fromm, Escape From Freedom (NWV York: Avon Books, 1‘)65), pp. 80-81

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CAMUS, MAN, AND EDUCATION 225

plague, a virulent killing disease. The symbolic meaning derives from the literal one through the idea of plague as an act that kills and takes on the meaning of actual physical killing and psychological killing of people b y people. Through the use of the plague in both its meanings, Camus indicates society’s negative impact upon the individual in terms of four major characteristics.

First, ignorance. The people lack a realistic view of what could happen: They feel that “It’s too stupid; it can’t last long.” Further, they also lack the imagination t o see the potential possibilities of the plague. And, a t the same time, they are so self-centered that they fail t o see the plague coming or striking.

Second, acts of killing-physical and psychological. Physically, people often n o longer care if they live or die. Psychologically, they are already dead. That is, they are not concerned with the fact that others are dying and will die of the plague. Moreover, they are responsible for the death of others by approving of or allowing acts and principles which will lead to the deaths of others.

Third. boredom. People are bored with themselves, with others, with life. As a result, they consciously cultivate habits which protect them from thinking or reflecting-in short, from anxiety.

Fourth, ideology. The people lack concern for the rights of the individual and for each other. In addition, they believe that freedom is a God-given right which does not have to be maintained or guarded. By their attitude on the rights o f t h e individual and on freedom, they negate the position taken b y Camus in The Rebel concerning the individual and what he is striving for: A world which

Shakespeare, Cervantcs, Moliere, and Tolstoy knew how t o create: a world always ready t o satisfy the hunger for freedom and dignity which every man carries in his heart. Beauty, no doubt, does not make revolutions. But a day will come when revolutions will have need of beauty. The procedure of beauty, which is to contest reality while endowing it with unity, is also the procedure of rebellion. Is it possible eternally t o reject injustice without ceasing t o acclaim the nature of man and the beauty of the world? Our answer is yes. This ethic, a t once unsubmissive and loyal, is in any event the only one thal lights the way t o a truly realistic revolution. In upholding beauty, we prepare the way for the day of generation when civilization will give first place-far ahead of the formal principles and degraded values of history-to this living virtue on which is founded the common dignity of man and the world he lives in, and which we must now define in the face of a world that insults it.’

In summary. the four characteristics can be presented schematically, as follows:

Ignorance

Acts of Killing

Boredom

T I Ideology

For Camus, ignorance is the central and most important characteristic resulting from

‘A. Camus, The Rebel (New York: Vintage Books, 1956). pp. 276-277.

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the impact of society on the i n d i ~ i d u a l . ~ From ignorance, the other three develop and, in turn, reinforce each other. The result of society’s impact and in turn the development of the four characteristics is the creation of an individual who has lost any positive purpose or focus in life. He amounts to a being without self-identity.

2. Kinds of Modern Man

Using the plague as background, Camus presents six types of modern man-from the individual who represents the culmination of the impact of society on the individual to the individual who is the antithesis and who represents the most positive concept of modern man. These six types present a continuum or progression.

The first level of modern man. represented by Cottard, has acquired all four characteristics. He has completely lost any constructive purpose in life, feels despair, and is isolated from others-as evidenced b y his writing on his door, “Come in, I’ve hanged myself” and then attempting to d o so. After the plague strikes. he does not want it t o end: “The plague suits me quite well and I see n o reason why I should bother about trying to stop it.” And, he becomes a plague carrier, for “his only real crime is that of having in his heart approved of something that killed off men. women and ~ h i l d r e n . ” ~

The next level up in the continuum is depicted iri the populace in general. Whereas Cottard has acquired all four characterislics. the populace has acquired only three,-ignorance and derivatives of it-inertia,’ boredom, and ideology; although the fourth, acts of killing, is beginning to manifest itself. The people have the attitude that “it can’t happen here,” and lack the imaginalion necessary to see that the plague can happen. They refuse to sec the reality of what is happening, t o take tlie required precaution. And, as a result, they inevitably become plague victims.

The third type of modern man, characterized by Rambert and Paneloux, is in the process of overcoming his ignorance, its derivative-inertia, and boredom, and now apprehends the symbolic level of the plague and some of its implications. Apprehension as used here means a glimpse of the nature, meaning, or significance of one’s self, the plague, and one’s role in combatting it. However, he has not yet fully understood the meaning of the acts of killing and ideology, fo r he is still in a state of self-analysis, i.e., searching for answers to what has happened to him and why he feels detached from what is going on around hitti. He is beginning the process that may ultimately lead t o self-understanding. He is becoming aware that the plague is carried within self and others; however, he has not yet internalized what he has seen happening t o others.6

The evil that is in the world always comcs ofignorance, and good intentions may do as much harm as malevolence, if they lack understanding. On the whole. men are more good than had; that, however, isn’t the real point. But they are more or less ignorant, and it is this that we will call vice or virtuc; the incorrigi- ble vice being that of an ignorance that fancies it knows everything and therefore claims for itself the right to ki l l . See A. Camus, 7he Plague (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962), pp. 120 121. Cf. For the psycho- logical-psychoanalytic viewpoint of society’s impact on modern man which is similar in’ many ways to Camus’, see B. Bettelheim, The Informed Heart (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1960), pp. 77-79; Fromm, Escape From Freedotn. pp. 279-280: R. May, Man’sSParrhJor Himself ( N e h York: W. W. Norton, 1953).

‘For Erich Promm the stage reached by Cottard represents the masochist. See Escupe From Freedom, p. 176. For Erik Erikson. in Chi ldhoodandSocie t~(New York: W. W. Norton, 1963), the stagc reached by Cottard is equivalent to despair or thc culniination of the eight negative ages of man.

“ee, Bettelheim, The Informed H e m , p. 261: for his concept of inertia which relates to Camus’ concept of ignorance and inertia.

6The stage a t which this individual is i s similar to the third stage of consciousness of Rollo May, Man’s Search For HimselS, p. 139.

p. 15.

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The fourth type of modern man, represented by Grand, can be classified as the intuitive individual. He senses whal must be done and the way one should act when confronted by the plague, but lie cannot understand its complexities, its long-range and continuing implications, nor can he develop a personal strategy for dealing with it. And while his instinctive commitment to what is right leads him to involve himself with others, he does not achieve a conscious understanding of commitment and all it entails on the part of the individual. He does not have the four characteristics, but at the same time, he will never consciously know what they are, what their effects are, and how to overcome them.

The fifth type of man, depicted in Tarrou, can be defined as the comprehending individual. He has achieved comprehension of himself and of the plague and its implications, and has overcome the four characteristics of ignorance, boredom, acts of killing, and i d e ~ l o g y . ~ Comprehension as used here means the attempt to achieve as complete an understanding as possible of the nature, meaning, significance of one’s self. the plague, and one’s role in combatting it. However, this individual, while understanding what others are going through, does not necessarily involve himself with or in helping others. Rather, he hopes to attain a serenity within himself and to remove himself from the arena in which man operates. He is willing to help individual men but in a dispassionate and disinterested manner. He wishes to remain a participating observer. That is, he will help others on his terms but will remain basically aloof from and outside o f t h e course of events, watching what takes place.’

The final type of modern man proposed within The Plague and symbolized by Rieux is the consciously engaged individual. He has, like the comprehending individual, overcome and resolved the four characteristics and fully understands himself. the meaning and significance of the plague, and one’s role in combatting it. In addition, rather than remaining outside the arena of man and watching dispassionately as does the comprehending individual, the consciously engaged individual fully commits himself to fighting for humanity even though he knows he will be defeated. Because of his realization of ultimate defeat (death), he knows that he can never achieve peace for himself. He must suffer because of his understanding of what has, is, and will happen to humanity until it fully understands and consciously combats the plague in whatever form it may appear, and because of his total commitment to serving humanity even though i t may not understand what he is doing or even wish him to.’ Nevertheless, the individual

I know positively that each of us has thc plaguc within him; no one on earth is tree from it. And I know, too, that we must keep endless watch on ourselves lest in a careless moment we breathe in somebody’s face and fasten the infection on him. What’s natural is the microbe. All the rest-health, integrity, purity (if you like)-is a product of the human will, of a vigilance that must never falter. See Camus, The Plague. p. 229.

‘The position represented by Tarrou is similar to the concept of the active and creative individual proposed by Fromm (p. 289), and the concept of generativity proposed by Erikson. (p. 267) .

g’rhe language he used was that of a man w,ho was sick and tired of the world he lived in-though he had much liking for his fellow man-and had resolved, for his part, to have no truck with injustice and compromise with the truth. See Camus, The Phgur, pp. 11-12.

Tarrou nodded. “Yes. But your victoriei will never be lasting; that’s all.” Rieux’s face darkened. “Yes, I know that. But it’s no reaqon for giving up the struggle.” “ N o reaqon, 1 agree. Only, I now can picture what this plague must mean to you.” “Yes. A never ending defeat.” “Who taught you all this, doctor?” The reply came promptly: “Suffering.” Ihid., p. 118.

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who attains to conscious engagement has achieved total integration of self: awareness of position and purpose; individual sensitivity and emotion; self-insight; and individual self-identity. Furthermore, although the individual is ultimately to be defeated b y death, he achieves for a brief time-his life time ~a victory over the plague and society’s impact.‘ ’

Based on the analysis of the attributes of the last two types of modern man contrasted with the four negative characteristics of society’s impact, six positive qualities of the conscious modern man can be identified:

1 .

2.

3.

4.

5.

6. In

Conscious recognition of the acts that kill within self and others and refusal t o accept these acts; Conscious self-insight and individual self-identity, and arising from these self-direction and -control; Conscious recognition of the worth of each individual which leads to involvement with specific individuals and hence t o humanity itself; Conscious pursual of beliefs in personal courses of action although it may exile one from others; Conscious recognition of beauty as a prime dynamic for reachieving a world of freedom and dignity without the acts that kill; __ .

Conscious recognition of himself as a prime dynamic in achieving beauty. considering the above six qualities in relationship to the four characteristics oE

ignorance, boredom, acts of killing, and ideology, the first quality is the antithesis of the acts of killing; the second and third, of ignorance; the fourth, of boredom; and the fifth and sixth qualities, of ideology.

3. Concept o f the Modern Educaled Man and implications for the Educative Process

From the above six qualities, a conception of the modern educated man, an individual with a meaningful and continuing personal identity, as inferred from Camus, with support from several psychological-psychoanalytic writers, can be stated, as follows:

Thc educated man is one who is consciously aware of and seeks to achieve autonomy. Autonomy is defined as.

man’s inner ability t o govern himself, . . . (his) conscientious search for meaning, . . . and (his) quiet acting out of inner conviction, not out of convenience or resentment, o r because of external persuasion or controls.’

Autonomy is accomplished by the individual through self-integration in accepting one’s self mentally, emotionally, and physically. Through conscious examination. understand- ing, and evaluation o f the internal and external pressures operant within and upon him (e.g., people, events, values, emotions), the individual achieves self-insight, self-identity, and self-direction as t o his own worth, which, in turn, leads to autonomy. As a result of having achieved self-integration, he becomes aware of the worth of all humanity. As a member of humanity, he recognized his obligation to help nian even though he knows he may risk being exiled from others in so doing. That is. because of his self-integration. he is

‘OThe concept or manhood as represented by the consciously engaged individual is in accord with Fromni’s concept of the active and creative individual, (p. 2x9) o f Rettelheim’s concept or autonomy (p. 72), and Erikson’s concept of ego integrity. (p. 268).

l 1 Bettelheirn, The Informed Heart, p. 72.

CAMUS. MAN, AND EDUCATION 229

ready to defend his autonomy, which, in essence, constitutes the way he lives his life style as well as the autonomy of others. Further,

. . . [His] work must be permeated by his personality. Just as his choice of work must not be due to mere convenience, chance, or expediency, but should directly reflect how he reaches for self-realization in this world of ours: so the results of his work, besides bcing objectively purposeful, should also reflect his own purpose in life.'

And, finally, he recognizes beauty as a prime dynamic for reachieving a world of freedom and dignity with himself as the major agent for achieving this beauty.

Based on the above conception as well as the last three levels o f modern man, the end goal for which the educational process would be striving would be Lhe development of individuals who are in the process of becoming either the intuitive individual, the comprehending individual, or the consciously engaged individual. And, already present within the Educational Delivery System-governance, programs, and personnel-is the avowed concept that the System exists for the purpose of educating the individual so that he may develop and master processes, attitudes, knowledges, and emotional self-under- standing which will enable him to function productively within society. t o change it, and to withstand its negative impact. But a notable discrepancy exists between this concept as stated and its translation into practice. All too often, the System, however inadvertently, serves-and even employs-the negative aspects of society. The System herds the individual through it at its convenience along a well-trod path rather than nurturing his search for autonomy and the strength it requires by assisting him to follow his own path.

There must be a reaffirmation of the entire System to the concept that i t exists to serve its clients and to prepare them as well as it can to understand, deal with, and withstand lhe society they are confronted with. This reaffirmation requires a full implementation in terms of the actual operation of the System-its governance, its programs, and its personnel-at all levels. In particular, teachety must he developed who have achieved one of the last three levels of the modern man, and preferably t.he last two. They would stand as models t o the students, but not for them to copy. Rather, the teachers would assist the students in testing their ideas, values, goals, understanding as they move through the educational process enroute to achieving the goal of becoming individuals with meaningful and continuing personal identities.

l 2 ibid. , p. 4.